How stress appears in a speech stream depends to a large extent on the language. In some languages, stressed syllables have a higher or lower tone than unstressed ones - this is the so-called tone, or musical stress. In other languages, they may be pronounced higher or lower than the surrounding syllables (tone deviation), depending on the type of sentence. There is also dynamic (noisy, forceful) stress, qualitative (qualitative) stress (lack of vowel reduction) and quantitative stress (quantitative - increase in sound length, known in musical theory as agogics). An accent can have several of these characteristics at the same time. In addition, stress can be realized to varying degrees on different words in the same sentence; in some cases, the difference between the acoustic signals of stressed and unstressed syllables may be minimal.

The reverse process is also observed, when some historical changes affect the place of stress. So, for example, in the Russian language over the past hundred years, there has been a process of transferring stress to the root or to the beginning of a word, as its most significant parts that carry the main semantic load. For example, roll, call, salt and other verbs -it in all forms except the 1st person singular present and future tense ( roll, rolls, roll, roll; roll, ride etc.). Linguists explain this trend by the fact that over the past hundred years the pace of our lives has accelerated significantly and entailed an acceleration of speech, so such changes in stress allow us to more effectively capture the meaning of what we hear.

stress levels

Some languages ​​distinguish between primary and secondary stress. English is traditionally considered to have two levels of stress, as in cóunterfòil [ˈkaʊntɚˌfɔɪl] and còunterintélligence [ˌkaʊntɚ.ɪnˈtɛlɪdʒəns], for example, and some studies have even said that it has four levels of stress, but these studies often contradict each other.

The evolution of stress rules in Russian

• Each morpheme (prefix, root, suffix, ending) can be self-stressed (or type a), right-impact (or type b) and unstressed (or type c).
• The unit of stress is a word with prepositions, conjunctions, particles. At the same time, auxiliary words before the word are always unstressed, after the word they are always self-stressed.
• Old Russian also had reduced vowels (they are usually denoted by letters b and b). They were strong and weak; the latter is always weak. If there is another reduced before the weak reduced, it will be strong. The weak reduced have now disappeared, the strong have turned into about and e (horse → the end, end → end).
• We find the first shock morpheme. If it is self-stressed, the stress is on it, if it is right-stressed, it is a syllable to the right.
• But if the emphasis falls on a weak reduced one, we shift it to the left.
• If all morphemes are unstressed, the stress is on the first non-weak syllable.

For example, root hand- unstressed, ending -a self-percussion, ending -y and preposition on the unstressed, in and out hand, hand, in hand, on hand.

Modern stress is shifting to other, more complex rules, with some words working according to the old rules, others according to the new ones. Phrases on hand and on the hand mean completely different things. Unconditionally stressed morphemes appeared - for example, the suffix -iv-(th) (happy). Stress has taken over the function of distinguishing cases - wives broke up into wives(r.p. units) and wives(s.p. pl.). In words to -er/-er the accent makes it clear whether it is a mechanism or a person: rope starter, starter with flag.

7. Stress moving and fixed

Miscellaneous stress of the Russian language in some categories of words happens motionless, i.e., in the formation of grammatical forms, the word always remains in the same place, in others - mobile and when forming various grammatical forms, it is transferred from one syllable to another, from one part of the word to another. In this last case, the mobility of stress is used to form and distinguish grammatical forms. At the same time, it should be borne in mind that stress in Russian is usually an additional, auxiliary grammatical tool that only accompanies the main means of forming grammatical forms of the Russian language - affixation. Thus, different forms of the same word, differing from each other in the place of stress, at the same time usually differ in different affixes (mostly different endings).

For example, word stress tova-risch, it hurts, I see is not used as a grammatical device because it is immovable - it remains in the same place in all forms of each of these words. Wed I'm looking for something, I'm looking for something, I'm looking for something, then-comrades, comrades etc.; it hurts, painbut mu, sick m, sick e, sick x, sick mi etc.; you see, you see, you see, you see, you see, you see, you see etc.

On the contrary, if the stress is mobile, then it serves as one of the means of distinguishing the grammatical forms of the word. For example, for many nouns, the distinction between singular and plural is achieved not only by the system of case endings, but also by the place of stress. Yes, the words city, hundred faces, voice, coast, sail, island,teacher, nose, cart, debt, stack, steam, ball, penny, trains, belt, horn, gift, tea, cellar, eye, garden, forest, floor, son-in-law, husband, umbrella, ball, bass, swarm, row, pood, bargaining, word, right, deed, body, bless, field, sea and many others, the emphasis in the singular falls on the stem, and in the plural on the ending. Wed of the city, of the city, of the city, in the city, but go-kind, city in, city m, city mi, city x; or: word, word, word etc., but words, words m, words mi etc.

In other nouns, on the contrary, in the singular the stress falls on the ending, and in the plural on the stem. Such are, for example, nouns spot, saddle, window, oar, wing, grain, glass, wheel, core, log, village, feather, bough-no, wine, bucket, spear, gun, nest, face, thigh, sieve, wheel, chisel. Wed: spot, spot-on, spot, spot m, spot, but spots, spots, spots, spots, spots, spots.

For a number of nouns in the singular and in the nominative plural, the stress falls on the stem, and in other plural forms, on the ending, for example stone, root, guest, wolf, beast, sable, swan, dove, but hot, claw, door, horse, mother, death and others. Cf. ka me, ka I remember, ka m-it, in to me, to me, but stone th, stone m, stone-nya mi, in stone x; at the door ri, to the door ri, oh the door ri, two riu, door ri(them. pad. pl.), but door th, door m, door mi, o door x.

A number of nouns that in general have an accent on the basis in the singular form a special form of the local case with the stress transferred to the ending, for example coast, side, stack, eye, nose, forest, floor, snow, row, post, door, steppe, blood, bone, night, shadow. Wed on the shore, in the side, haystack, eye, but-su, forest, on the floor, in the snow, in a row, at the post; on the door, in the steppe, in the blood, in the bones, in the night, in those, but about the shore, at a hundred, about the nose, about the snow, atdoors, about the steppe, about blood etc.

Many feminine nouns in -a unlike other forms of the singular, which have an accent on the ending, they form the form of the accusative case with the transfer of stress to the stem (if the stem is complex, then to its first syllable). These are, for example, the words foot, water, hand, hut, cheek, mountain, board, back, winter, soul, wall, earth. Wed leg, leg, leg, leg th, but but gu; water, hand, and zbu, shche-ku, mountain, to sku, back, winter, soul, wall, earth.

Mobile stress is also present in many verbs. If the stress of the verb in the 1st person singular falls on the stem, then in the personal forms of this verb the stress is fixed (for example, mo yu, crying, building). If the stress of the verb in the 1st person singular falls on the ending, then two types are distinguished in Russian - with a fixed stress on personal forms (carry, carry ... carry t; salt, salt sh ... salt t) and with movable stress: in the latter case, the stress falls in the 1st person singular on the ending, in other personal forms - on the stem. Such, for example, are many verbs of both the 2nd and 1st conjugations: I crumble, I mow, I serve, I judge, I teach, I love, I buy, I catch, I save, I cook, I appreciate; I prick, I flog, I grind, I shake, I doze, I write, I dance, I jump, I search, I splash, I lay and others. Compare: ask -pro - sish ...about syat, prick -to lesh ... to lyut.

For verbs of the 2nd conjugation with mobile stress in personal forms, the form of the second person plural of the present-future tense differs from the corresponding form of the imperative mood only by stress. Wed about the sieveask te ho dithose -go, buy, buy etc. In verbs with a fixed stress at the end, these forms coincide: the forms those salts, call those, sit those,fly those, lead those, be silent and others are forms of the 2nd person plural of both the present tense and the imperative mood.

A certain category of verbs in the past tense, having an accent on the basis, forms a feminine form with the stress transferred to the ending. These are the verbs was, poured, drank, pitched, weaved, lied, lied, took, tore, waited, tore, called and others. Compare: took, took lo, took, but took; was, would lo, would, but was ; lil, li lo, li, but lila etc.

A similar phenomenon is observed in the passive past participles: about given, about given, about given, but sold; accepted, accepted, accepted, but accepted; pro-lives, about zhito, about zhito, but lived.

Short adjectives can also have mobile stress: with stress on the ending in the feminine form and with stress on the stem in other forms. For example: weak, weak, weak, but weak; stupid, stupid, stupid, but stupid; right, right, right, you but rights ; full, sy that, sy you, but full; mo lod, mo lodo, young lody, but young; as well as deaf hee - deaf, tu py - dumb, quiet hee -quiet, proud -proud, pure -clean, empty -empty, vely -weight-la, cheap -cheap etc.

From two-syllable adjectives with an accent on the root, a comparative degree with a suffix -her(s) is formed by simultaneous transfer of stress to the first syllable of the suffix. Wed new - newer, white - whiter, stupid - stupider, cute -sweeter, brave -bolder, yellow -yellow e, kind -kinder, smart - not smart, precise - more precisely, boring - boringmore, scary - scarier, late - late etc.

The mobility of stress as a means of distinguishing grammatical forms must be distinguished from those cases where the transfer of stress is due to certain external causes. So, for example, if one of the forms of a word that has a constant stress on the ending is formed without an ending, then, naturally, in this form the stress falls on the stem. Here the shift of stress is, so to speak, forced. For example: shelf, shelf, shelf m, but regiment: bull, bull, bull m, but bull; words, words m, words mi, but words(genus pad. pl.); places, places-ta m, places mi, but places; carried, carried, carried. but carried; could, could, could, but could.

The difference in the place of stress in such cases has no grammatical meaning, since it is forced, due to the absence of an ending in one of the forms of the word. Therefore, the stress in such, for example, a word as table, table, table, tables, table in and others from a grammatical point of view should be regarded as immovable, constant.

Naturally, in languages ​​with a fixed place of stress, the latter cannot serve as a means of distinguishing grammatical forms.

8. Stress and sound quality of word phonemes

By virtue of the qualities of Russian stress described above, in particular its heterogeneity and mobility, stress in Russian is not only a sign of a word, but is an individual sign of a word. This means that stress, along with a set of phonemes, forms a word. For example, in the plural and singular forms arms(im. pad.) and arms(genus pad.) the semantic difference depends only on the place of stress. At the same time, there is no doubt that in both cases the root morpheme (hand-) identical, equal to itself. This means that in both cases this morpheme consists of the same consecutive series of phonemes ( R + at + to), to which, in the first case, the impact of the root is added -u-, while in the second case, the stress is added to the vowel inflection -and. Thus, stress is not a phoneme or a sign of a phoneme, but characterizes the word as a whole. Stress emphasizes, highlights one of the syllables of the word and through this one morpheme, which is opposed to other morphemes of the same word. Stress is a very important semantic distinguishing feature of a word in Russian, which is added to the composition of word phonemes, which are the main means of distinguishing words by meaning. This means that, for example, the word arms does not consist of elements R + at + to + and , and from the elements R + at + to + and + accent on at, i.e. stressed base with unstressed flexion; exactly the same word arms does not consist of elements R + at + to + and , and from the elements R + at + to + and + accent on and , i.e., the stress of flexion with the unstressed base.

The system of Russian stress, i.e. its place in relation to the morphological composition of the word, is very complex and requires more careful study.

Thus, stress in Russian is a kind of superstructure over the composition of the phonemes of a word. It is especially important to note that this superstructure largely determines, so to speak, the sound model of the word in relation to its vocalism. It is the place of stress that primarily determines the realization of the vowel phonemes of a given phonetic word in one or another of its varieties. For example, in the same root morpheme house phoneme about can act in its main form (if the stress falls on the root vowel of the word), then in its version a (if the stress falls on inflection and the root vowel is in the 1st pre-stressed syllable), or the variant b (if the stress falls on the previous morpheme and the root vowel is in the stressed syllable, and also if the stress falls on the following morpheme, but in such a way that the root vowel is in the 2nd pre-stressed syllable): d about m, d about m "ik; d a ma, d a mo f; under b mu; d b wt "e t.

This applies not only to root morphemes, but also to all others. Compare, for example, the different vocal arrangement of inflection -ohm depending on the place of stress (this inflection sounds like -ohm or - um: cf. became m and to mm), inflections -am, sounding like -am or -um(p-d "ela m and pa-s "o lm), suffix -ov, sounding like -ov or -bv(sano wy and b "er" o zvyy) etc.

9. Unstressed and weakly stressed words

Most of the service words and particles, as already noted, do not have an accent on themselves. Some of them (prepositions and conjunctions) are proclitics, i.e. pre-stressed words (for example, on the road), others, a smaller part, - enclitics, i.e. post-stressed words (for example, I know).

Proclitics are usually monosyllabic prepositions and conjunctions that are adjacent to the following independent word. For example: on the grief, on the side, from brother, at yard, to to me , co me th, in to me , under wood; neither I , neither brother; and I , and sister ; then rain, then snow; Did you say what sister came.

Monosyllabic particles are en-clitics. For example: tell - ka, who - then, I same say they after all I will come, I will come whether they.

Some monosyllabic prepositions often take the stress on themselves, and then the independent word following it turns out to be unstressed, so that in this case the preposition together with the independent word have one stress. This usually happens when the noun has a moving accent. Most often in the literary language, pre-logs take on the stress on, under, by, for, from, without: on the water, behind water, on water(cf. water– in du), under mountain, on the mountain(cf. mountain -go ru), on forest, from forest(cf. le sa, le su - forests, forest c), on the sea, behind sea, on sea(cf. sea ​​- seas); on the winter(cf. winter– zi mu), on the side(cf. side -one hundred ro-well), without lead(cf. news - news th), without quarter(cf. four quarters - fourth th), on the two, on the three, on two, on three, behind five, behind ten, on the fourty, under fourty.

Disyllabic and trisyllabic conjunctions are usually used with stress, but it is weaker than that of independent words. Such an accent is called weak, or side, and the corresponding words are weakly impacted. For example: if maybe find out; when find out, tell me; Did you say be it will come; caressed layer in-but child; I'm leaving because promise l.

Two-syllable prepositions are different in terms of the presence or absence of side stress in them. Some of them are always unbeatable. These are complex prepositions because of, from under (For example, due to forests, from under table); runaway prepositions about-(For example, under, it is necessary, from; trisyllabic before ): under me th, necessary me th, both to me , both all x, iso all x, before many(pronounced: pdamno j; damn j; abamn "e; abafs" e x; isafs "e x; p" r "damno j). Others may have collateral stress, but may also be unstressed. For example: before departure(pronounced p "pr" datkho dm or p "e r" t atho dm), between cities(pronounced interdugrad m "and or I'm waiting for a city m "and), across the road(pronounced h "rr" zdaro gu or h "e r" z daro gu). Some two-syllable prepositions always have a collateral stress: such, for example, is the preposition Besides (none , Besides you ), as well as two-syllable and three-syllable prepositions derived from adverbs. For example: I will say after uro ka, run around m do ma, e hali mi mo tree down, gathered near to ma, crowded around g teachers, stop against huts, became across to roads.

These words, as prepositions, have an accent that, in its fullness, is close to the usual stress of independent words. However, in this capacity, they are not usually carriers of clock or phrase stress. On the contrary, the same words in adverbial use can be carriers of such stress. Wed I will say after, passed mi mo, lives near (i.e. close), looked around around m, lives against, became across.

One-syllable preposition through has a collateral stress when it comes before the unstressed syllable of the next word, e.g. the moon is shining through clouds (squaw with "ablaka"). Being in front of the stressed syllable of the next word, this preposition may not have stress, but nevertheless the vowel about the preposition is not subject to changes characteristic of the vowels of the pre-stressed syllable: the combination through the cloud pronounced squaw with "-o blk or squaw" oh blah.

Union to as opposed to a combination with a pronoun what would has no accent, always being a proclitic: combination said, to came pronounced - said, shtby pr "ishl" and; compare: I will give you whatever you ask(pronounced what would-ty-n "i-pras" and l). Unstressed is also a one-syllable union what as opposed to pronoun what. At the same time, it should be noted that the union what in the first pre-stressed syllable, as in other pre-stressed ones, it is pronounced with a vowel b (in book pronunciation it is possible about ), but never with a vowel a, which normally replaces about in the first prestressed syllable: I didn't know my brother was coming(pronounced: sht brother or what brother) Wed with pronoun what: I didn't know what to say to them(pronounced what to them).

One-syllable conjunctions then - then and but usually do not carry stress, but nevertheless, both in the first and in other pre-stressed syllables, they are pronounced with a sound about (but not a or b): then rain, then snow; then comes, then leaves - usually pronounced: then to sh", then with "n" e to; then pr "iho d" it, then ear d "it; but you knew about it; but it would be light; but it would be light(pronounced: notes ; noby l; but already ).

Some categories of pronouns always have the usual stress of an independent word. For example, interrogative pronouns (who, what, which, which, whose) and negative pronouns not who, not what. Other pronouns are often used with secondary stress. For example: at the railway station me met comrades; at his sisters many books; my th sister ten years old; that I didn't know the person; all m whether the student was informed of the grades; did not take Togo end ; side stress can have relative words: drove up to the house, which standing at the edge of the tree. Some pronouns in live speech can also be unstressed (usually enclitics): who This did (who - be s "d" e ll), we know we you (knowing them- we va c), where you run (where to you b "zhy t" b).

A ligament can be weakly impacted be: the evening was dry and warm, it was frosty in the morning. Word It was in certain usage is unstressed (enclitic): came yesterday, he came yesterday(pronounced: pr "isho l was f "h" ra, o n was pr "isho l f" h "ra).

Word used to in a certain usage, due to its large volume, it is not devoid of stress, but has a side stress, weaker than the usual verbal stress, cf. will come used to be lo to me and say Unstressed is often a word brother, used as an address, cf. you, brother, do not speak my teeth(pronounced you brut).

Thus, in addition to words that have the usual stress and unstressed words, a third category is distinguished - words that are weakly stressed or can be weakly stressed. Independent words have the usual stress, service words can be unstressed. Weakly impacted are - if we leave aside those service words that have secondary stress due to their large volume, polysyllabicity - words that form, as it were, an intermediate group between the categories of independent words and service words. These are prepositions, adverbs, place-properties, a bunch. Weakly impacted are often also numerals in a certain use.

10. Side stress of a word

It was stated above that each independent word has one stress. However, there are words (usually multi-complex, large in volume) that have or at least can have two stresses - along with the main, ordinary verbal stress, the second is secondary. This includes most often complex words formed by adding two bases. Wed, for example, and doloponnik, sacrifice, blackcurrant etc. However, the same words can usually be pronounced with one stress - without a side one. This question has not been studied at all, therefore, below we will limit ourselves to only a few preliminary remarks.

If there are two stresses in the word, the secondary is the first (closer to the beginning of the word), and the main is the second (closer to the end of the word). The more novel or unusual, the more bookish in character or of a specialized language, the addition is, the more two-stresses can be expected - along with the main side-accent. Wed, for example, perjury, electroplating, radio reception m-nick. In the same way, the more sensible the first part of the addition is in terms of meaning, the more reason to expect a second collateral stress. Wed possible pronunciation: bark fading, horseshoe-shaped, dark green. Therefore, in cases where the addition of stems in general in a word is little felt, or when the first part of the addition is not distinguished in a semantic sense, or it is distinguished weakly, side stress is usually not observed. Wed obsequious, independent, weekly, complacent, trustworthy and so on. Finally, the farther the main stress is from the place of a possible side stress, the more we can expect two stresses in a word. Wed, for example, lnovo d(with one accent) and flax teasing earth-de lets(with one accent) and ze mlevla-de lets(with a possible second, collateral stress), pastime, sugar brewing, cotton gin. In many cases, the presence of a secondary accent next to the main one is facilitated not by one of the indicated conditions, but by two or all: cf. karto felekopa lka - the word refers to a special dictionary of agricultural machinery, both bases are clearly distinguished, the main stress is separated from the place of secondary stress by three syllables.

The presence of side stress in some cases, usually outside the specified conditions, characterizes the colloquial style of speech: cf. pronunciation go hala to Sta lingra d, lived in Le ningra de, in about bshchezhi ti.

Side stress is also observed in many complex abbreviated words, which are the addition of part of the first word with the full second word: promotion, pro fbillet(but usually the trade union), pa rtbile t, partuche ba, agi tbriga yes, agi tcollecti v.

11. Fluctuations in stress

The complex system of Russian stress has its historical roots going back to ancient times. The history of stress was not the same in different Russian dialects. Meanwhile, it is known that the composition of the literary language includes elements that go back to different Russian dialects. Therefore, it is natural to have some fluctuations in stress, duality. For example, in a certain category of feminine nouns in -a with an accent on inflections in the Northern Great Russian dialects, the transfer of stress to the stem in wines is characteristic. pad. units hours (cf. hand– ru ku, but ha -but gu, side - side, water -in the du etc.). On the contrary, in typical South Great Russian dialects, the corresponding words are in vin. pad. units hours have an emphasis on inflection: hand, no-gu, side, water etc. The literary language in this category of cases is generally characterized by Northern Great Russian stress (cf. the above examples).

However, in some cases there is a hesitation or even a South Great Russian accent has been adopted. Compare, for example, stresses allowed in the literary language frying pan at soon, spring and spring cf. also literary accents sheep, goat, pine with dialect o wtsu, ko zu, sleep etc. Fluctuations in stress also appear when borrowing words from other languages. They depend, among other things, on where the borrowing comes from and in what ways. So, for example, irregular accents document, tool, carpenter are explained by Polish through the assimilation of these words (as is known, the Polish language is characterized by a fixed stress on the penultimate syllable of a word).

Literary language tends to avoid hesitation. In the presence of them, it is not rare that one of the options is sanctioned as corresponding to the norm, the other is expelled as incorrect. If both options are preserved, then they gradually differentiate in their meanings - they acquire different stylistic coloring (see examples above), different grammatical meanings (for example, few and few ) or a different lexical meaning (cf., for example, the widespread, although not recognized as correct, differentiation qua rotal - in time and quart l - in space).

In those cases when, for one reason or another, the fluctuation in stress persists, and there is no semantic differentiation, what appears is what can be called the neutralization of stress as a means of semantic difference: cf. cottage cheese and tvoro g, and nache and ina che, about beat and try l, and long ago and long time ago, bro and armor etc.

12. Stress and teaching Russian

Stress in teaching the Russian language is very important. As you know, one of the most important divisions of spelling is associated with stress, namely: the spelling of unstressed vowels. Teaching literary stress is of great importance in the development of speech, in improving the culture of the Russian language. An important place is occupied by the emphasis in the struggle of the teacher with the remnants of dialect or vernacular pronunciation. Wed accents like before bull vm. doby cha, oh partly vm. partly, means vm. facilities,voluntary societies, voluntary societies vm. o societies, o societies, put vm. put l,unity vm. unity, agreement vm. contract,when speaking vm. sentence, youth vm. youth, and rmelon vm. arbu s, tsy gan vm. Gypsy; cf. frequent use of passive past participles of the type allowed, prohibited, restricted in women's and cf. childbirth units h and in many number with stress on the penultimate syllable, etc. An even greater place is occupied by the issues of stress in the work of the teacher, aimed at the assimilation by students of words of foreign language origin (cf. such incorrect stresses as document, tool, quarter. score,percent, portfolio, cinema, kilometer, novel, technique m, presidium, hectare, porcelain instead of document, tool, quarter, shop, percentage, briefcase, cinema, kilometer, novel, technical nikum, presidium, hectare, porcelain).

Of particular importance are the issues of stress when teaching the Russian language to non-Russians. The diversity of Russian stress and its possible mobility in the formation of grammatical forms, combined with the lack of stress designation in print, make it extremely difficult for non-Russian students if the teacher does not conduct systematic and systematic work on the practical development of Russian by students accents.

When working on stress, it is necessary to constantly refer to dictionaries and grammars. Unfortunately, in the grammars of the Russian language, usually insufficient attention is paid to stress. Great help in the work of the teacher here will be provided by the Explanatory Dictionary of the Russian Language, ed. D. N. Ushakov, where systematic indications are given not only of the stress of each word in its original form, but also of the movement of the stress during the formation of its various forms. However, we need special works on the description of the system of Russian stress in its current state and history, on stress in the language of the best Russian writers and poets. Both the science of the Russian language and, to an even greater extent, our Soviet school are interested in this.

There are different understandings of what a collateral stress is. According to the first of them, the first stress is considered as such in compound words consisting of two measures ( red and white, city council etc.) Such an accent practically does not differ from the "main" - it sets the same reduction scheme within the first phonetic word, which sets the "main" within the second. This stress is phonetically expressed less clearly than the "main" one, but this phenomenon is observed in any sequence of two stresses: other things being equal, the second stress in Russian is always more pronounced than the first.

According to another understanding, side stress is a purely phonetic (not dictionary) emphasis on the first vowel in long words in which the stress falls on the 5th syllable from the beginning onwards. In this case, the reduction scheme does not change, and the additionally strengthened vowel remains reduced (for example, cr[b´ ]sno spaná Russian)

Finally, sometimes the term "collateral stress" describes the strengthening of an unstressed vowel associated with the implementation of a part of a complex phrasal accent on it (for example, Z[b] swordá seriously!), while the reduction scheme is usually not changed either.

Structural types of stress

§ 110. With regard to the syllabic structure of the word, it is customary to distinguish between free stress that can fall on any syllable of a word (as, for example, in Russian) and stress associated(which falls on any particular syllable of the word).

Associated stress, in turn, is subdivided into fixed– it always marks the same syllable in a word (first in Czech, penultimate in Polish, etc.) and limited, the place of realization of which depends on some additional reasons. So, in Arabic, the last heavy syllable of a word is stressed; if there are no heavy syllables, the stress falls on the first syllable of the word - the stress seems to be looking for heavy syllables for its realization, starting from the end of the word; if it could not be found, it stops at the last syllable from the end.

In relation to the morphological structure, words are distinguished motionless stress (its place does not change with inflection) and stress mobile, which can move from stem to inflection in different forms of the same word. Mobile stress is characteristic of a large number of words in the modern Russian language.

The stress distribution scheme in the word forms of one word is called accent curve. Words characterized by the same accent curves are combined into accent paradigms. In modern Russian, it is customary to distinguish three main accent paradigms: accent paradigm a make up names with a fixed (column) stress based on ( crow); accent paradigm b - names with a fixed accent at the end ( shroud); accent paradigm with - names with movable stress ( beardsá -bó kind) – see Table 14.

Table 14. The main accent paradigms of the names of the Russian language.

In the history of a language, structural and phonetic types of stress may undergo changes. So, in the Russian language, musical stress was replaced by a qualitative-quantitative one; in the history of the Czech language, free stress was replaced by bound stress.

LITERATURE.

Avanesov R.I. Russian literary and dialectal phonetics. M., 1974.

Vinogradov V.A.. Stress // Linguistic Encyclopedic Dictionary. M., 1990.

Zlatoustova L.V.. Phonetic realization of Russian word stress. L., 1953.

Kodzasov S.V., Krivnova O.F.. General phonetics. M., 2001.

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Kodzasov, Sandro V. English // Harry van der Hulst (Ed.). Word Prosodic Systems in the Languages ​​of Europe. Berlin, New York. Mouton de Gruyter. 1999. 852-868.

clitics

Some words in speech are not stressed. They are adjacent to other words, making up one phonetic word with them. An unstressed word that precedes the stressed word to which it adjoins is called a proclitic. Proclitics are usually monosyllabic prepositions, conjunctions, and some particles: on the mountain; to me; sister and brother; said, | to come; Don't know. An unstressed word after the stressed one to which it adjoins is called en k l y t i k o y. Enclitics are usually monosyllabic particles: tell me if he's coming. Some monosyllabic prepositions and particles can take on stress, and then the independent word following them turns out to be an enclitic: on the back, under the arms, from the forest, without a trace, there was none.

Absolute proclitics and enclitics, adjoining the main word, merge with it into one phonetic word, where vowels and consonants are pronounced as in one lexical word: to the garden(cf. annoyance), to force(cf. by force), at will(cf. free); watering can(cf. watering can), also(cf. also), got stronger(cf. got stronger).

Relative proclitics and enclitics, not having their own stress and adjoining the stressed word, do not completely lose some phonetic features of an independent word, which consist in the peculiarities of the pronunciation of certain sounds. For example, an unstressed union but preserves the sound [o] in pronunciation: frost but sunshine[no-soitso] (cf. in the sun[pa-sonzo]). Some unstressed pronouns have vowels that are not characteristic of unstressed syllables: those woods[t "e-l" isa] (cf. bodies[t "il" isa]); he is a clerk[d "^k-op] (cf. deacon[d^aken]), etc.

Weak stress

Some words may have a weaker accent than the usual stress in independent words. Such an accent is called weak, indicated by the sign ["], in contrast to the main accent, indicated by the sign [" |.

Some two-syllable and three-syllable prepositions and conjunctions can be weakly stressed: before leaving, near the house, if you can, because it's cold. Weak stress can have relative words: forest, where did we come from, letter, which was sent" simple numerals combined with nouns: two hours, ten rubles, some pronouns: they were looking for you, he came, his sister, bundles be, become: the morning was frosty, he became a teacher; words with modal meanings: know yourself praises; I was about to leave, "he would come, it happened, and was silent.

Collateral stress

In some words in speech, along with the main stress, an additional stress may occur, which is closer to the beginning of the word. Such an accent is called side. It is usually found in polysyllabic words. Side stress can highlight parts of complex and compound words: Old Russian, Pedagogical Institute, building materials, prefixes: anti-corrosion, pre-perestroika, afternoon, pro-American.

Collateral stress appears mainly in words that are rarely used, special, bookish, with clearly distinguished parts: fur farm, waterproof, Old Church Slavonic(cf. commonly used words St. John's wort, plumbing, old-fashioned).

With three or four stems in a word, three stresses are possible (the first two or three are secondary, and the last is the main one): aerial photography, Mdsdblfinodepartment or Mdsdblfinotdel.

Phrasal, syntagmic stress and emphasis

If a phonetic syntagma or phrase includes several phonetic words, then one word carries a stronger stress. Such a selection of one of the words of a phonetic syntagma or phrase can be carried out with the help of syntagmic and phrasal stresses. For example: Lizaveta Ivanovna was sitting in her office, still in her ball gown, immersed in deep thought.(P.); The Countess didn't answer.(P.; syntagmic and phrasal stresses are marked with ["].

Syntagmic and phrasal stresses are not related to the meaning: the word highlighted by such stress is not more important in terms of meaning. The function of syntagmic and phrasal stress is the phonetic combination of several words into a phonetic syntagma or phrase; these stresses divide the text into syntagmas and phrases. Syntagmic and phrasal stresses stand on the last word of the syntagma and phrase and indicate their boundary - the end of the syntagma and phrase. According to their physical characteristics, phrasal and syntagmic stresses coincide. Therefore, they are usually combined under one name - phrasal stress.

Emphasizing a word in a syntagma with a stronger stress to emphasize its special meaning is called accent emphasis. It is usually stronger than phrasal and falls on any word of the phrase (syntagma). Emphasis can be associated with:

• 1) with an explicit or implied opposition: I will go to the cinema, not you; I will go to the cinema(no matter what); I will go to the cinema(not elsewhere) He came not before, but after dinner;
• 2) with a subjective assessment of the word by the speaker: They can answer any question
• 3) with the highlighting of the rheme (new message): The edges are gone.

In some categories of words, the uneven stress of the Russian language is fixed, that is, when forming grammatical forms of the word, it remains in the same place, and in others it is mobile, that is, when forming different grammatical forms of a given word, it is transferred from one syllable to another. For example, stupidity and head: stupidity, stupidity, stupidity, stupidity, stupidity, stupidity and head, head, head, head[Avanesov 1956, 72].

In Russian, most of the words have a fixed stress. Such an accent can stand on the basis (on the prefix: suburb, wash; at the root: map, red; on suffix: cub, oak) or at the end ( articleI, young, carry) [Lekant 2007, 102].

Stress mobility is an additional, auxiliary grammatical tool in Russian that accompanies the main means of forming grammatical forms - affixation. Thus, different forms of a word, differing from each other in different affixes (mostly inflections), can at the same time also differ in the place of stress: for example, the accusative case from the noun head is formed by inflection -y with the simultaneous transfer of stress from the ending to the base: head[Avanesov 1956, 72]. So, for example, for some nouns in the singular, the stress falls on the stem, and in the plural, on the ending: city, city, city, city, city, but cityA, cityOv, cityAm, cityAmi, in cities. For other nouns in the singular, the stress falls on the ending, and in the plural, on the stem. For example, spot: spot, spot, spot, spot, spot, but spot, spot, spot, spot, spot. For a number of nouns in the singular and in the nominative plural, the stress falls on the stem, and in other plural forms, on the ending. For example, stone, stone, stone, stone, about stone and stones, but stones, stones, stones, about stones.

Many verbs also have mobile stress. If in the 1st person singular the stress falls on the stem, then the personal forms of this verb have a fixed stress. For example, wash, wash, wash, wash, wash, wash. If in the 1st person singular the stress falls on the ending, then two types are distinguished by the presence or absence of the stress movement in personal forms - verbs with a fixed stress on the ending and verbs with a mobile stress. Verbs have fixed stress carry, lead, weave: weave, weave, weave, weave, weave, weave. In the presence of mobile stress, the latter falls in the 1st person singular on the ending, and in other personal forms on the stem. Mobile stress in personal forms has verbs of both the 1st and 2nd conjugations [Avanesov 1956, 75].

For verbs of the 2nd conjugation with mobile stress in the personal forms of the verb, the form of the 2nd person plural differs from the corresponding form of the imperative only by stress. For example, ask - ask, buy - buy. For verbs with a fixed stress on the personal ending, these forms coincide: salt, call, sit, be silent.

Some verbs have fluctuating stress - mobile and fixed at the end, for example: excite, excite, excite, excite, excite and excite, excite, excite, excite, excite, excite.

In the form of the past tense, three groups of verbs are distinguished according to the place of stress - verbs with fixed stress based on: read, read, read, read; verbs with a fixed accent on the ending (of course, except for the singular masculine form, where there is no ending): led, led, led, led; brought, brought, brought, brought; verbs with an accent on the stem in all forms except the feminine singular and with a transfer of stress to the ending in this last form: took, took, took, took; sold, sold, sold, sold[Avanesov 1956, 76].

Prefixed verbs (except for verbs with the prefix you-) mostly have a mobile stress with its transfer to the ending in the singular feminine form. Let's compare took, took, took, took and collected, collected, collected, collected.

The prefix you- usually pulls the stress over itself, so verbs with this prefix have a fixed stress. For example, Chose, paid, kicked out, poured out.

Past tense verbs with the reflexive particle -sya (-с) in many cases have the same stress as the corresponding verbs without the reflexive particle. For example, called, called, called, called and called, called, called Axis, called. But in a number of verbs in the spoken language, the stress can be transferred to the particle -sya in the masculine singular and to vowel endings before the particle -s in other forms.

Short adjectives in which the suffix is ​​based (except for the suffixes -n-, -l-, -k-, -ok-) usually have a fixed stress; For example: silver, silver, silver, silver. Other short adjectives (without suffixes in the stem or with suffixes: -n-, -l-, -k-, -ok-) usually have a mobile stress - on the first syllable of the stem in all forms except the feminine singular, and on the ending in the feminine; For example: proud, proud, proud, proud.

In some cases, in the middle gender, a double stress is possible: white and white, full and full. Double stress is also possible in the plural: white and white, full and full.

Collateral stress

In some words in speech, along with the main stress, an additional stress may occur. Such an accent is called side. This stress is usually found in polysyllabic words. For example, aircraft construction, flax spinning.

If there are two stresses in the stem, the secondary is usually the first (closer to the beginning of the word), and the main is the second (closer to the end of the word).

In many cases the collateral stress is optional, present in more distinct pronunciations and absent in more fluent ones.

If there are three stems in a compound word, three stresses are possible in it - two secondary and the last main. For example, electric machine.

In addition to compound words, many compound words, which are the addition of part of the first word with the full second word, have side stress. For example, PROMOTION, PARTS CONGRESS, TRADE ORGANIZATION. If a compound word is the addition of parts of two words with a third full word, then it can have three stresses - two secondary and the third main. For example, agricultural association, VolgodOnstroy.

Unstressed and weakly stressed words

Some words in speech are not stressed. They are adjacent to other words, making up one phonetic word with them. An unstressed word that precedes the stressed word to which it adjoins is called a proclitic. Proclitics are usually monosyllabic prepositions, conjunctions, and some particles: on the mountain; to me; sister | and brother; said, | to come; Don't know. An unstressed word after the stressed word to which it adjoins is called an enclitic. Enclitics are usually monosyllabic particles: tell me, He is, will it come[Lekant 2007, 102-103].

Some monosyllabic prepositions with a definite noun often take on stress, and then the independent word following them turns out to be unstressed, so that in this case the preposition, together with the independent word following it, has one stress. Most often, the stress is taken by the prepositions on, for, under, by, as well as from, without. The most common examples:

On the: on the water, on the mountain, on the leg, on the arm, on the back, on the winter, on the soul, on the wall, on the head, on the side;

Behind: for water, for a leg, for a head, for hair, for a hand, for a back, for a winter, for a soul;

Under: Under the feet, under the arms, under the mountain, under the nose, under forty, under the evening;

By: By sea, by field, by forest, by floor, by nose, by ear;

From: Out of the forest, Out of the house, Out of the nose, Out of sight;

Without: without a trace, without a quarter, without a year a week;

From: hour from hour, year from year[Avanesov 1956, 81].

Disyllabic and trisyllabic conjunctions are usually used with stress, but it is weaker in them than in independent words. Such stress is called weak, or secondary, and the corresponding words are called weakly stressed. Two-syllable prepositions are different in terms of the presence or absence of a side stress. One of them is always unbeatable. These are complex prepositions because of, from under) and prepositions with a fluent o, along with the last disyllabic ( under, it is necessary, both, from, from) or trisyllabic ( before). The collateral stress usually has a preposition through.

Union to, in contrast to the combination of the pronoun what with particle would(what would), has no stress, always being a proclitic. Unstressed is also a one-syllable union what, as opposed to the pronoun what.

Weakly accented are often simple numerals in combination with nouns: five rubles, five minutes to five, two weeks.

Weakly impacted is also a bunch be and verb become in connected use.

Thus, in addition to words with normal verbal stress and unstressed words, a third category of words is singled out - weakly stressed or capable of being weakly stressed in a phrase [Avanesov 1956, 84].