Poetic syntax in the works of poets. Poetic Syntax

The figures of poetic syntax are called various methods of combining words into sentences, the task of which is to enhance the effect of what was said.

Consider the most common figures of poetic syntax with examples:

Inversion (or permutation) is a change in the usual order of words in an expression. In Russian, word order is considered arbitrary, but there are still generally accepted constructions, deviation from which entails a partial change in meaning. No one will argue that the expressions "I said this", "I said this" and "I said this" have different shades of meaning.

Repeat. In general, repetition is a fundamental feature of poetic speech. Repetitions at the level of phonetics and orthoepy form the rhythmic structure of poems. Repetitions at the level of morphemics (the endings of the final lines of words) form a rhyme. Repetition at the syntax level can also play a big role. Syntactic repetitions include anadiplosis (or junction), anaphora and epiphora. Anadiplosis is a text construction in which the end of one phrase is repeated at the beginning of the next phrase. The technique helps to achieve greater coherence and smoothness of the text. An example is the poem by K. Balmont “I was catching a dream”, where “leaving shadows”, “steps trembled”, etc. are repeated. Anaphora is the repetition of the initial word or group of words in each new line of the poem. An example is the poem by M. Tsvetaeva “The rich fell in love with the poor”, where the words “love” and “do not love” are repeated. Epiphora is the opposite of anaphora. In this case, the words that end lines or phrases are repeated. An example is the song from the movie "The Hussar Ballad", each verse of which ends with the words "a long time ago."

Gradation is a consistent strengthening or weakening of the semantic coloring of words included in a group of homogeneous members. This technique helps to present the phenomenon in its development. For example, N. Zabolotsky in the poem “Road Makers” depicts an explosion with the following sequence of words: “howled, sang, took off ...”

Rhetorical question, rhetorical exclamation, rhetorical appeal - these expressions, unlike ordinary questions, exclamations and appeals, do not refer to anyone specific, they do not require an answer or response. The author uses them to give his text greater emotionality and dynamism. For example, the poem "Sail" by M. Lermontov begins with rhetorical questions, and ends with a rhetorical exclamation.

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Lecture 19

STYLISTICS. POETIC SYNTAX

Let us now turn to questions of poetic syntax, which concludes the section on stylistics.

First of all, the use of parts of speech belongs to the group of syntactic issues. In inflectional languages belonging to the Indo-European group, we distinguish between a noun, an adjective, a verb, an adverb, and a whole group of formal and semi-formal words, which include pronouns, prepositions, conjunctions, etc.

The noun basically means things, the adjective means quality, the verb means action. In languages of our type, this significance of one or another category of part of speech is given by its design. The adjective as a grammatical category means quality, but the quality "white" can be expressed not only in the form of an adjective. The presence of grammatically formed parts of speech allows, for example, what is a quality (“white”) in content to be expressed both as an object (“whiteness”) and as an action (“whitens”). We can think of an action (“fly”) as a quality (“flying”), an action can be thought of as an object (“flying” is a verbal noun). Consequently, a well-known contradiction between the form and content of the word is possible. This must be taken into account for a number of issues directly related to style.

Expressing this or that concept with the help of a noun, we thereby objectify it. This is possible when the epithet is abstracted: “white sail” or “silver stream” instead of “white sail” or “silver stream”. The same stylistic role is played by the verb in metaphorical or metonymic personification. When we say "the sun is rising" or "a cloud is flying by", then the presence of a verb associated with the subject, producing

ing action, in our languages, by its very form, it is a personification. "The cloud flies" just as we would say "the bird flies". Or a metonymic personification. If the subject is an abstract concept, for example:

... Hope them

Lies with its childish babble...

(Pushkin)

or:

Hope has deceived me...

then the abstract word "hope" becomes an actor in relation to the action ("lies", "deceived"), and we embark on the path of metonymic personification. These considerations show what significance the grammatical form of expression can have for poetic style.

When we approach a passage from the point of view of the thematic, from the point of view of content, when, for example, we characterize the description of nature in terms of what colors, what sounds are involved in this description of nature, then we don’t care if the poet says “pink” or "turns pink", whether he says "white sail" or "white sail". The thematic element is the same here. But if we approach the same topic from the point of view of how it is expressed: “the pleasantness of the evening crowded around me”, then it is very important here - “the pleasantness of the evening” as some personified abstract concept, or “pleasant evening”, where “pleasant” is expressed how is the quality.

Among the various grammatical categories, let us first of all single out the adjective as a qualitative word. The whole descriptive side of poetry is closely connected with the presence of adjectives as qualitative words. Let us take, for example, Turgenev's description of nature, at least the description of the night I have already quoted ("Two Meetings"). Let's pay attention to the role that adjectives play in creating a picture: "Young here and there apple-trees towered over the glade; through them liquid the branches meekly turned blue nocturnal sky, poured drowsy moon light; in front of each apple tree lay on whitening her grass weak mottled shadow. On one side of the garden the lindens were vaguely green, bathed in motionless pale bright light, on the other hand, they all stood black and opaque, strange, discreet a rustle arose from time to time in their continuous foliage; they seemed to be calling to the path that was disappearing under them, as if beckoning under their deaf canopy. The whole sky was dotted with stars; mysteriously flowed from the top of their blue, soft flickering..." etc.

The whole description is based on the presence of these defining qualitative words in the objects.

Let's take another example, Tyutchev's poem:

Is in the autumn of the original

Short but wonderful time -

The whole day stands as if crystal,

And radiant evenings ...

Where a peppy sickle walked and an ear fell,

Now everything is empty - space is everywhere -

Only cobwebs of thin hair

Shines on an idle furrow ...

And here is an excerpt from a poem by Balmont, who likes to pile up a number of adjectives-definitions that create the color of his descriptions of nature:

Pale, tenderly bashful,

Blossomed in the swamp wilderness

White lily flowers are silent...

Or:

Smooth, flat, one-color,

wordless, pointless,

Sun-scorched sand...

The question of adjectives has long been raised in stylistics precisely because of their great importance for describing the qualities of an object. This question was raised in connection with the poetic figure, which was called "epithet" (an adjective as an epithet).

Now in the theories of literature, they tend to understand any definition of an object as an epithet, but, strictly speaking, an epithet as a poetic figure means some special use of adjectives, which was characteristic of folk poetry with its so-called "permanent" epithets, which later became widespread in the poetry of classicism XVII -XVIII centuries. Using the example of the so-called "permanent" epithets of folk poetry, I would like to explain what an epithet is as a poetic figure.

In the epic, for example, in the Russian epic, we meet “permanent” epithets, or, as they said in ancient stylistics, “decorating” epithets: “oak tables”, “sugar yams”, “silk stirrup”, “good fellow”, “red girl”, etc. The same constant epithets exist in the Homeric epic, especially with the names of epic heroes: “swift-footed Achilles”, “cunning Odysseus”, etc. Permanent epithets as a sign of traditional style are found in the majority of folk poetry peoples. Next to the Russians Examples of the type "druzhinushka good" or "silk stirrup" can be put epithets from the English folk ballad: true love - faithful lover; green wood - green forest; milk-white steed - milky white horse; yellow hair - yellow, i.e. golden hair; white hand - white hand.

The constancy of the use of the epithet in folk poetry, in folklore is so great that the epithet as a typical feature may conflict with a specific situation. The South Slavic epic always says “hands are white”, and therefore the black arap can raise its “white hands” to the sky. Or, say, the hero of an ancient Greek epic raises his hands to the "starry sky", even if the action takes place during the day, because the sky is always "starry".

These examples of the contradiction of constant epithets with a specific situation show the most essential thing in an epithet: that the epithet is conceived as a typical feature of a given subject. When we say “good fellow, good fellow,” or “good fellow,” or “blue sea,” “silk rein,” we do not take “good fellow,” as opposed to a cowardly squad, or “good fellow, good fellow,” as opposed to an unsuccessful fellow, or “blue sea" as opposed to "green" or "black". We think of "blue" as a typical sign of the sea, "good" as a typical sign of a squad, "silk" as a typical sign of a halter or stirrup.

In conversation, we can say "white paper" or "green paper", "red cabinet" or "black cabinet". These definitions limit the concept of the subject: red cabinet as opposed to black cabinets; white paper as opposed to green paper. But when constant epithets are used in folk poetry, they do not narrow the concept, but are used in the sense of typical signs, which, from the point of view of poetic folk consciousness, should be present as a norm in a given subject, that is, every good fellow can be a remote, good fellow , every squad is good. This is due to the poetic idealization inherent in the epic. The epic of heroes and the objects surrounding them idealizes. If well done, so good fellow or daring good fellow. If a stirrup, then certainly silk. If there are tables, then by all means the best tables are white, oak. The epithet is a mode of idealization characteristic of the epic. A. N. Veselovsky speaks very well and in detail about these issues in the article “From the History of the Epithet”.

Consequently, a permanent or embellishing epithet of folk poetry, in particular folk epic, expresses a typical feature of the subject, without narrowing the meaning of the word to which it refers.

Definitions are also used in the poetry of French classicism of the 17th-18th centuries. And here the epithet has the meaning not of an individualized definition that narrows the meaning of the subject, but of an embellishing epithet that emphasizes the typical feature of this subject.

For example, English poets of the 18th century always say"gentle breeze" - gentle breeze. Word"breeze" ("breeze") always goes hand in hand with the word"gentle" ("gentle"); they are always used together. Or brown shades ("brown shadows"). Shadows in English poetry of the 18th century are always brown, the moon is always pale -"pale moon", etc.

We also know such epithets in Russian poetry of the 18th century: “hard-working bee”, “pale Diana”, “silver stream”, “white sail”. It is clear that in the poetry of the 17th-18th centuries such permanent, embellishing epithets could exist not because, as in folk poetry, they are traditional, but because the poetry of the 17th-18th centuries is connected with aesthetic rationalism, with typification, with generalization. It does not deal with individual qualities, but with the typical qualities of an object, because it typifies, generalizes.

When Romantic poetry at the beginning of the 19th century began to strive for greater individualization in description, for more characteristic words, it led the fight against the "permanent epithet" of the classical style. She put forward the demand for an individual epithet characterizing the epithet. The sail is not only “white”, but also “brown”, the sea is not “blue”, but “green” with appropriate lighting, etc.

After this romantic revolution, they began to use the word "epithet" in an expanded sense, understanding by it any artistic definition. But, in essence, it is more correct to say that the Romantic Revolution led to the removal of the epithet as a special poetic figure, as a special poetic device, because when we talk about some object, say, about snow, it’s not “white” snow, but “brown » snow, then there is no special word usage specific to the language of poetry. We call snow brown in the same way that we would call a brown object in prose. But when we say "white snow" as it is said in folk poetry, we use the adjective as an epithet, that is, we use the adjective in some special sense that is not characteristic of ordinary prose usage. We use it as a typical, constant attribute of an object.

The next question we will focus on is the word order in a sentence: how does the word order in a sentencelocation can be used for artistic impact purposes.

Here, as in all matters related to the language, one must proceed from the peculiarities of the language. There are languages in which word order is strict, bound, and there are languages in which word order is looser. In European languages, this depends on the degree of development of analysis, or the so-called analytical system.

If a language is of the inflectional type, if it has retained rich case endings, then it does not need word order to express syntactic relations; word order in this language is much more free.

On the contrary, in languages of the analytical type (French, English), the word order is largely related, because it is the word order that allows us to distinguish the accusative case from the nominative case, the subject from the object, since there are either no signs of inflection in these languages, or they are present in small degree. In French you can only say:"J'aime mon frere" (“I love my brother”), while in Russian much more freedom is possible in the arrangement of words. It is against the background of the connected word order that what has received the name “inversion” in stylistics stands out especially clearly. Inversion is a permutation of words that deviates from the normal arrangement of words that grammar requires for prose speech. Inversion highlights words using their position, for example, puts in the first place a word that requires a greater degree of attention.

In the poems of the young Goethe, brightly emotional, expressive, belonging to the period of "storm and onslaught", one can often find a violation of the logical, grammatical arrangement of words:

Dich sah "ich, und die Freude

Floss aus dem lieben Blick auf mich...

(YouI saw, and joy came to me from your tender gaze).

The object in the accusative case opens the sentence. And further:

Ganz war mein Herz auf deiner Seite

Und jeder Atemzug fur dich...

(Entirelymy heart was with you). The word "entirely" stands out due to the fact that it is placed not in the usual place, but at the beginning of the sentence.

It cannot be said that word order is not important in Russian. Word order in poetry is never indifferent, and in a number of casestea, we do not feel that the words are not in the order that would be common in prose language.

For example, in Pushkin:

Rich and famous Kochubey...

Quiet Ukrainian night...

Here the defining, predicative, predicate words are pushed forward, as this is more expressive than if it were said:

Kochubey is rich and famous...

Ukrainian night is quiet...

Now about the types of sentences, about the use of different types of sentences in poetic syntax. First of all, a few words about sentences of an unusual type. The usual type of sentence in our languages: subject, predicate, if necessary - object, etc. But there are sentences of a special type - as if underdeveloped, archaic. For example, sentences in which there is no verb are possible - verbless sentences.

Night. The street. Lamp. Pharmacy.

A meaningless and dim light.

This is how one of A. Blok's poems begins.

And here is an example of a poem that is entirely written without verbs, the famous poem by Fet, which at one time caused great controversy precisely with its unusual structure:

Whisper, timid breath,

trill nightingale,

Silver and flutter

sleepy stream,

Night light, night shadows,

Shadows without end

A series of magical changes

sweet face,

In smoky clouds purple roses,

reflection of amber,

And kisses, and tears,

And dawn, dawn!..

The whole poem is built on verbless sentences, although here not only a description of the night is given, but also a story about a night date is given in artistic form.

What artistic purpose can be pursued by such a way of expressing itself in poetry without verbs? From such a poem we get the impression as if it were a series ofjuicy spots that are not interconnected. This is the same as in an impressionist painting, where visual sensations are conveyed by unrelated colorful spots. In this sense, Fet opens the line of impressionistic lyrics. Balmont adopted this manner from Fet:

The rustle of leaves. Whisper of herbs.

The splash of a river wave.

The murmur of the wind, the rumble of oak forests,

Smooth, pale luster of the moon.

Or:

Lilies of the valley, buttercups. Love caresses.

Swallows babble. The kiss of rays.

Green forest. Blooming meadow.

Light free murmuring stream.

There are only nouns with the corresponding qualitative definitions, like a series of spots thrown over without a connection or with a purely emotional, lyrical connection, conveying the poet's impressions of the world around him.

In the language we find, there are other sentences of a special type - impersonal sentences, non-subjective sentences in which there is no clearly marked subject, or, in any case, an indefinite subject.

The use of impersonal or indefinitely personal sentences may be a feature of poetic style. You can use these forms of language to convey the impression of actions whose carrier is unclear.

There is something mysterious, indefinite, mysterious. “And just imagine, gentlemen: just as I blew out the candle, there was a fuss under my bed. Think rat? No, not a rat; scratching, fiddling, itching. Finally - ears clapped!

Schiller's ballad "The Cup" (translated into Russian by Zhukovsky) describes how a young man rushes after the cup into the abyss and disappears into it. Then he swims up, holding a goblet in his hand. The poem is very dramatic. It does not tell what happens to the young man when he disappears, but depicts the king, his retinue, ladies; excited, they look into the abyss and see how the abyss is raging and how suddenly something rises up from the abyss, something turns white, a hand is shown, then a man, and now he comes out. In German, this moment when something suddenly turns white is conveyed through an impersonal or indefinitely personal sentence:

Und sieh! aus dem finster flutenden Scho ß ,

Da hebet sich's schwanenwei ß,

Und ein Arm und ein glänzender Nacken wird bloß,

Und es rudert mit Kraft und mit emsigen Fleiß,

Under ist's...

(Look, something swan-white rises from the rippling abyss... The hand is visible... The shoulder... and someone is swimming... And finally - it's him!..)

The poet first uses an impersonal or indefinitely personal form, and when it is already clear who is swimming, he switches to a personal form.

Let me give you another example, a famous poem by the French symbolist poet Verlaine, which begins like this:

II pleure dans:mon coeur Comme il pleut sur la ville.

Quelle est cette langueur Qui penetre mon coeur? ..

(Crying in my heart, as it rains over the city. What is this yearning that fills my heart? ..). In Russian, we would say: "Something is crying in my heart, like rain is falling over the city."

Interrogative and exclamatory sentences play a special role in the emotional poetic style. These sentences have varying degrees of emotional coloring, and this can play a significant role in the emotional style of the poet.

Let's start with address, as it most noticeably deviates from prose speech. Appeals can be of different nature. Sometimes the poet in a solemn ode apostrophes, refers to abstract concepts. Examples from Derzhavin:

As long as dominion and glory

Cunning! will you assign? ..

Hear, hear me, O Happiness!..

There may also be an appeal to a specific person, often absent, to an imaginary interlocutor:

Give me some guidance, Felida!

You are immortal, great Peter!

Arise, Palaiologos, defeated by the Moon! ..

These are rhetorical appeals, they do not imply a conversation between the poet and a real person; it is a conversation at a great distance, in a loud voice, with the invocation of the person to whom the poet's rhetorical statement is addressed.

We can meet another kind of appeal in lyrical poems by Byron, Pushkin. Lermontov as an expression of the emotional participation of the poet in the fate of his heroes:

You recognized them, maiden of the mountains,

Delights of the heart, sweetness of life;

Your fiery innocent gaze

He expressed love and joy.

When your friend is in the dark of night

I kissed you with a dumb kiss,

Burning with malice and desire,

You forgot the earthly world

You said... (IV, 93)

This is how Pushkin addresses the Circassian woman. He does not just talk about her love experiences as an objective fact. Talking to her, addressing her lyrically, he shows participation in her fate.

Or Pushkin describes the oriental beauty Zarema in The Fountain of Bakhchisarai:

He changed! But who is with you

Georgian, equal to beauty?

Around the lily brow

You twisted your braid twice;

Your captivating eyes

Clearer than day, blacker than night... (IV, 135)

This is not just a description of beauty; it is given in the form of an address and, due to this, acquires a lyrical character.

Now for exclamations. Exclamations in poetry are also of two kinds. There are exclamations of a rhetorical nature, in which we primarily deal with amplification, emphase (emphasis - underlining, amplification), and there are exclamations of an emotional-lyrical nature. Let's start with rhetorical exclamations.

An example of this kind of rhetorical exclamation can be found in the poems of Byron or Lermontov. For example:

The face - before gentle - was more terrible

Everything that is scary for people!

(Lermontov. "Angel of Death")

Lermontov puts an exclamation point here. This sign means that something extraordinary, out of the ordinary, hyperbolic is reported here. This emphatic expression, this emphasis on tension, extraordinaryness, is expressed by the intonation indicated by the exclamation point.

That is the angel of death, perishable death

Freed from the bonds of the earth! ..

Byron's youthful poem recounts how his only lover cheated on him:

And fiends might pity what I feel,-

To know that thou art lost for ever.

(And even demons can sympathize with me when they see what I'm going through, knowing that you're lost to me forever.)

But the exclamation is not necessarily rhetorical, emphasic. Here are examples of lyrical exclamations that are common in agitated, emotional lyric poems.

Compare with Tyutchev:

How good are you, O night sea, -

It's radiant here, it's gray-dark there...

How sweetly the dark green garden slumbers,

Embraced by the bliss of the blue night,

Through the apple trees, whitened with flowers,

How sweetly the golden moon shines!

Or Fet:

How undead you are, silver night,

In the soul, the flowering of dumb and secret power!

Oh, inspire - and let me overcome

All this ashes are soulless and dull! ..

What a night! Transparent air is bound;

Fragrance swirls over the earth.

Oh now I'm happy, I'm excited

Oh, now I'm glad to speak!

Let's compare Fet's poem, which consists of lyrical exclamations through and through:

What a night! How clean the air

Like a silver leaf slumbers,

Like a shadow of black coastal willows,

How peacefully the bay sleeps

As the wave does not sigh anywhere,

How silent the chest is full! ..

All this can be told simply as a description of the night, but due to the fact that the description is given in the form of lyrical exclamations, it acquires a distinctly emotional character. The same applies to the lyric poems of Pushkin, LerMontov and, of course, Byron (who in this sense was their teacher).

Let's compare the lyric description:

How lovely dark beauty

Nights of the luxurious East!

How sweetly their hours pour

For the admirers of the Prophet!.. (IV, 138)

Oh my God! If Giray

In her distant dungeon

I forgot the unfortunate forever

Or an accelerated death

Sad days stopped her!

With what joy Mary

Left a sad light!

precious moments of life

Long gone, long gone! (IV, 142)

Here, Mary's state of mind is conveyed by a series of exclamations that give the story of the poem not an objective character, but a lyrical coloring.

We have already said how the exclamation, together with a number of other devices, contributes to the emotional coloring of the story in the lyrical poem of Byron, Pushkin, Lermontov. But the same applies to lyric prose. Let us recall the lyrical passages in Gogol's "Evenings on a Farm near Dikanka": "How delightful, how luxurious a summer day in Little Russia! How painfully hot are those hours when noon shines in silence and heat ... How full of voluptuousness and bliss is the Little Russian summer!

Or a lyrical passage in "Dead Souls": "What a strange, and alluring, and bearing, and wonderful in the word: road! and how wonderful she herself is, this road! .. And the night! heavenly powers! what a night is made in the sky! And the air, and the sky, distant, high, there, in its inaccessible depths, spread so immensely, sonorously and clearly! ..».

The presence of such exclamations in the descriptions is a feature of the romantic style and gives a lyrical character to these passages of fiction.

The question can also be rhetorical. Such rhetorical questions, along with addresses, are common in the style of a solemn ode. Let us recall Pushkin's patriotic poem "To the Slanderers of Russia":

What are you fussing about, folk vitias?

Why are you threatening Russia with an anathema? .. (III, 209)

Questions of this kind have long been called rhetorical questions in stylistics, and it is usually said that rhetoricalA question is a question that does not require an answer. The question is not asked to get an answer, it is a poetic device. In the form of a question, it is told that the "people's vitias" are attacking Russia for the suppression of the Polish uprising. Of course, such a message in the form of a question does not require any response.

Isn't copper in the belly of Etna neighing

And, boiling with sulfur, bubbling?

Is it not hell that the bonds are breaking

And he wants to open his jaw? ..

But the question in the poem is not necessarily rhetorical. It can be an emotional, lyrical question. When some lyrical description is given in verse, say, a description of a beautiful night and the experiences associated with it, then usually an interrogative intonation appears at the top of the poem, as a breakthrough of feeling, as a way to emotionally elevate the poem. Here is a very typical poem by Fet in this sense:

Let's go out with you to wander

In the moonlight!

How long to torment the soul

In dark silence!

A pond like shining steel

Weeping herbs,

Mill, river and distance

In the moonlight.

Is it possible to grieve and not live

Are we in awe?

Let's go quietly wandering

In the moonlight!

Lyrical question: “Is it possible to grieve and not live in charm?” elevates the passage emotionally, sounds like the excited voice of a poet.

Sometimes a poem is built entirely on lyrical questions. Zhukovsky knew how to write such lyrical poems, the whole emotionality of which lies in questions that give a kind of mystery to something that, in essence, does not represent any secret.

Light, light breeze

What is so. sweet, quietly blowing?

What are you playing, what are you shining,

Enchanted stream?

What is the soul full of again?

What awakened in her again?

Something mysterious arises in the soul, which is not said. This has its own widespread tradition in Western European poetry. Goethe, describing the birth of love in the soul, one of his early poems begins like this:

Herz, mein Herz, was soli das geben?

Was bedranget dich so sehr?

Welch ein fremdes, neues Leben!

Ich erkenne dich nicht mehr.

(Heart, my heart, what would that mean? What makes you so oppressed? What an alien, new life! I don't recognize you anymore).

Something incomprehensible appeared in the soul, and the poet addresses his heart with such a rhetorical question. Many of Heine's poems also exemplify this use of the question.

Warum sind denn die Rosen so bl a ß ,

About sprich, mein Lieb, warum?

Warum sind denn im griinen Gras

Die blauen Veilchen so stumm?

(Why are roses so pale, oh tell me, my love, why? Why are blue violets so dumb in green grass?).

Again, if we turn to the lyrical poems of Pushkin, Lermontov, Byron, then next to the appeal, with an exclamation, questions play an important role here as a way of expressing the narrator's interest in what he is talking about, as if the narrator himself asks, is interested, would like know.

Who is under the stars and under the moon

Riding a horse this late?

Whose tireless horse is this

Running in the boundless steppe? (IV, 189)

This is not just a story about a jump, but a story that is both a mystery, and mystery, and interest for the narrator.

... But who is with you,

Georgian, equal to beauty? (IV, 135)

Such questions in the story are not only a feature of the lyrical style. In the folk epic narrative, there is often a question, perhaps that arose as a way to interest the listener. I will give the beginning of the Serbian epic tale in prose translation: “What is whitening there on the mountain? Is it snow or white swans? If it were snow, it would melt. If there were swans, they would fly away. No it's not snow and not swans, these are the tents of Asan-Aga. (Asan-Aga lies seriously ill and waits for his young wife to come to visit him.)

In the German, in the English ballad, we constantly come across such questions.

Es reit der Herr von Falkenstein

Wohl fiber ein breite Heide.

Was sieht er an dem Wegestehn?

Ein Madel mit Weisem Kleide.

(Count Falkenstein is driving across a wide field. Whom does he see in the middle of the road? A girl in a white dress).

The narrator, a folk singer, as if stops for a minute, interests the listener with a question, and then gives an answer to this question.

Lyrical questions, together with lyrical exclamations, color special romantic prose.

“What was this warm, this sleepless night waiting for? She was waiting for the sound ... ”(Turgenev).

“But what incomprehensible, secret force attracts you? Why is your melancholy song, rushing along your entire length and width, from sea to sea, heard and heard incessantly in your ears? What's in it, in this song? What calls, and sobs, and grabs the heart? What sounds painfully kiss and strive to the soul and curl around my heart? Russia! what do you want from me? what incomprehensible bond lurks between us? ("Dead Souls").

The question of the relationship between sentences can also be essential for the construction of a poetic work. Proposals can be linked together in various ways. It is known from grammar that sentences can be combined with the help of composition (composed sentences) and with the help of different forms of subordination (subordinate sentences). Composition or submission can play a prominent role in the artistic style of a poem.The simplest narrative is usually built on elementary forms of composition. We find such an elementary narrative in the biblical account of the Old Testament: "AND God said: let there be light! And became light. And God saw the light that it was good. . . And It was evening, and it was morning, one day” (Genesis 1:1-4).

In the Old Testament, which is a translation from the Hebrew, the narrative is built by simply joining one sentence to another through "and".

Let's take an example from a Russian fairy tale, where the story is told in exactly the same way, with a simple additionchanging one element to another. “They are coming to town. They landed at the pier. And so this merchant went to the city. And so he bought a free store from one merchant, and became he is in this store to trade with his son. I went to them trade well. I So that they have lived in this city for a year now ... ”(An accurate record of the storyteller in“ Tales and Songs of the Belozersky Territory of the Sokolov Brothers ”).

The storyteller strings one sentence onto another, combining them with the word "and" or "and here."

It is not necessary to think, however, what is "and" connecting one sentence to another, without fail gives the story a naive epic character. Everything depends, as always in style, on the context, on the general meaning of the whole.

In a lyrical poem, in which such a chain of sentences is given, combined with the help of “and”, “and” can contribute to lyrical forcing, strengthening the emotional impression. We see this in A. Blok's "The Stranger":

And every evening, at the appointed hour

(Is this just a dream?)

Maiden's camp, seized by silks,

In the foggy window moves.

And slowly, passing among the drunk,

Always without companions, alone,

Breathing in spirits and mists,

She sits by the window.

And breathe ancient beliefs

Her elastic silks

And a hat with mourning feathers

And in the rings a narrow hand.

And chained by a strange closeness,

I look behind the dark veil

And I see the enchanted shore

And the enchanted distance...

The connection of successive elements with the union "and" gives this lyrical story more emotional reinforcement, injection. This will be opposed to the style of the poet, who uses adversarial conjunctions. If the poet says "but" or "a" (softer opposition), then he thereby gives a logical opposition: one is opposed to the other in a logical way of thought.

In the poem "For the shores of the distant homeland ..." everything is built on the opposition of one stanza to another, the subsequent stanza with the help of a logical, adversative "but":

But you are from a bitter kiss

She tore off her mouth;

From the edge of the dark exile

You called me to another land...

But there, alas, where the sky vaults

Shine in blue...

And the last:

And kiss goodbye with them ...

But I'm waiting for him; he is behind you... (III, 193)

Here is a clear articulation of the internal movement of thought, a story built on the opposition of the next link to the previous one.

Anna Akhmatova willingly uses such oppositions in her poems:

I will wake my daughter now

I look into her gray eyes.

And poplars rustle outside the window:

"Your king is not on earth..."

Or:

Ah, the travel bags are empty,

And the next day, hunger and bad weather ...

With conjunction "but":

You breathe the sun, I breathe the moon

But we live by love alone ..

The poem is deeply lyrical, but the moment of opposition appears here as a logically clear moment.

Of course, complex forms of submission, especially logical submission, are unusual in poetry. I understand the logical forms of subordination of the proposal as causal, target, investigative, conditional, concessive. These are all sentences expressing logical relations between thoughts, and in the development of language these types of sentences are relatively late. They are developed primarily in prosaic language, one might even say, in clerical, legal language. You can trace how this happens in French or German in the XIV-XV centuries or in Russian in the Petrine era. Of course, this type of logical connection is unusual in poetry. But there are also lyrical poems, such as Byron's famous poem "Farewell to his wife" (when he leaves England), which sounds like a kind of rhetorical judgment. The poet accuses someone justifies itself, and this is given in the form of a logical connection between individual statements:

Fare thee well, and if for ever

Still for ever fare thee well.

(Farewell! And if our separation will be forever, nevertheless, at least forever goodbye! ..).

In this sense, colloquial prose in Akhmatova's poetry is very characteristic:

And if you knock on my door,

I don't even think I can hear...

If you stay with me...

Then, that the air was not ours at all,

What a wonderful gift from God...

To be more distinct and clear

You were visible to them, wise and brave.

In Akhmatova’s poems, “so that”, “if”, etc. are often found.

But one should not approach these things formalistically, one should not be deceived by the outward form of the statement. I will give as an example one of the best poems of Akhmatova:

The sun filled the room

Dust yellow and through,

I woke up and remembered:

Dear, today is your holiday.

That's why it's snowy

The distance outside the windows is light,

That's why I'm sleepless

How the communicant slept.

Formally, “because” speaks of a logical connection. But this is emotional logic (as they used to say in the old days, “female logic”). Undoubtedly, a sunny day is not because that today is someone's name day. This is an external form of expression, behind which stands, in essence, an irrational connection, a connection prompted by a feeling of love. Therefore, it is not a real logical connection, as we would have it in prose.

I will dwell on one more question, which, although it belongs to the field of syntax, but partially goes beyond the field of syntax - the question of the role of repetition in artistic language.

Repetitions are also found in ordinary speech: high-high; long-long; runs-runs - in the sense: very highcue, very long, runs for a long time. In emotional speech, repetitions are especially frequent: “Didn't I tell you? Didn't I warn you?"

Repetitions can be viewed from different points of view. The syntactic point of view is only one side of the issue. First of all, in repetition we have a repetition of meaning: the meaning of a word or a group of words is repeated twice or several times, and thus emotional amplification occurs.

With the repetition of meaning, since the same word is repeated, sound repetition is also associated. This means that repetition has its own sound side. In verse, and sometimes in rhythmic prose, rhythmic parallelism can be associated with this kind of sound repetition, i.e., some repetitive sound elements are repeated as rhythmic series. And not only rhythmic parallelism, but also syntactic, that is, the same arrangement of syntactic elements: subject and predicate, subject and predicate; or noun and adjective (definition), noun and adjective.

In an unforgettable hour, in a sad hour ...

(Pushkin)

We have here the rhythmic and syntactic parallelism of the half lines. In this case, we are talking about the rhythmic-syntactic parallelism of hemistiches.

Thus, repetition is a complex set of phenomena, and the syntactic aspect is only one of the aspects of repetition.

From a purely descriptive - morphological, formal point of view, several different types of repetitions can be distinguished. In the old stylistics, it is this descriptive, formal side that has been studied the most. Without dwelling on this in detail, I will give a few examples. There may be a simple repetition of words, which usually serves to reinforce. "Come, to me, here, here!"; "I'm going, I'm going alone"; "I'll follow him, follow him." “Darling, dear, we are near again” (Bryusov).

The repetition may not be direct, but at some distance, so to speak, picking up the word.

The masters enter again on the shoulder,

Work has started again...

(A. K. Tolstoy)

The darkness is falling again

Twilight with a crimson glow,

Is it flame, is it blood.

Blood flowing through wounds?

(V. Bryusov)

When repeated or picked up, the word may change, stand in a different case. Another word formed from the same root was called "annomination" in the old style.

Bryusov:

To the feet whiter than white lilies...

I am a slave and was a submissive slave...

Lermontov:

Blackening on the black rock...

The location of repetition in rhythmic matter, the place of repetition in verse, is of the greatest importance. There are four ways in which repeated words can be arranged. Repeating words at the beginning of the rows are called "anaphora". This is the most common type of repetition in verse and rhythmic prose.

I swear by the first day of creation.

I swear on his last day

I swear on the shame of crime

And eternal truth triumph ...

(Lermontov. "Demon")

The last words of two passages may be repeated. In the old style, this is called "epiphora" (in Russian, "ending").

More rare cases are when the repetition is at the end of one and at the beginning of the next verse. Compare with Balmont:

I dreamed of catching the departing shadows.

The fading shadows of the fading day,

I climbed the tower, and the steps trembled,

And the steps trembled under my foot ...

In Greek style, this had its own name, but in Russian it is called a joint.

Finally, repetition is possible, in which the repeating element is at the beginning of one group and at the end of another. Then we get what in Russian is called "ring". For example, Sologub's poem:

The star Mair shines above me,

Star Mair...

It was said above that repetitions are very often associated with syntactic parallelism (“In an unforgettable hour, in a sad hour ...”). But rhythmic-syntactic parallelism can also arise without repetition. Wed in half lines:

Renegade of light, friend of nature...

It can also be parallel constructed verses:

I light up and burn

I break and soar...

There is also a rhyming roll call of parallel verses.

With such rhythmic-syntactic parallelism, there can also be an inverse order of repeating elements.

In a shaggy hat, in a black cloak...

(Pushkin. "Prisoner of the Caucasus")

"In a shaggy hat" - definition - defined; “in a black cloak” - defined - definition. In the old style, this was called "chiasm" (from the Greek letter "chi").

In lyrical poems, repetitions are very common; they are here an element of emotional musical impact. The more emotional tension in the verses, the more often repetitions occur in them. Of course, this largely depends on the style of the poet. Pushkin, for example, did not abuse repetition, because the emotionality of his poems rests primarily on the emotionality of the meaning, the semantic significance of the poem. And in Lermontov and Fet, this kind of repetition is common, since these are poets of an emotional-lyrical style.

Repetition plays a very important role in lyrical poems. The emotional coloring of the lyrical narrative in Pushkin, Lermontov, in the lyrical poems of Byron is largely associated with a combination of repetitions, with exclamations, questions. This is what gives the impression of the emotional participation of the poet in the story.

A long way leads to Russia,

To a country where fiery youth

He proudly started without worries;

Where did he first know joy,

Where he loved a lot

Where he embraced terrible suffering,

Where stormy life ruined

Hope, joy and desire... (IV, 84)

So in the "Prisoner of the Caucasus" a memory of the hero's past is given. It does not just tell the biography of the Caucasian captive; its lyricism is emphasized by the repeated "where".

Not long ago, young Mary saw other people's skies;

Recently sweet beauty

She blossomed in her native land... (IV, 135)

(a story about Maria Pototskaya in the "Fountain of Bakhchisarai").

The same applies to lyrical prose in the romantic style of Turgenev and Gogol.

"Notlook back not remember not go where the light is where laughing youth, where hope is crowned with the flowers of spring, where a dove of joy beats with azure wings, where love, like dew at dawn, sows with tears of delight - do not look there, where"Blessed" faith and strength - there is not our place! (Turgenev).

This does not require the presence of a significant group of repeated words; enough, as in this case, one repeated word "where". The syntactic parallelism of subordinate clauses, which is introduced by the same union, gives us the impression of rhythmic speech, since we correlate these parallel clauses or parts of one whole.

In this regard, I would like to characterize the compositional role of repetition.

Repetition in general, syntactic repetition in particular, can play an essential role in the composition of a lyrical poem. It forms a period built on the principle of repetition of parallel syntactic elements. A classic example is Lermontov's poem "When the yellowing field is agitated...". How is the poem structured as a whole? It consists of four stanzas. The three stanzas that begin with the word "when" are three subordinate clauses that form, as it were, a ladder of ascent. Then comes the fourth stanza, beginning with the word "then", the main sentence, which forms the descending part, is the conclusion of the poem. The whole composition consists of three extended subordinate clauses with a final main clause.

Let me remind you of the well-known poem by Fet, also built on the principle of detailed subordinate clauses, also occupying four stanzas, but here also with the repetition of the word:

I came to you with greetings

Say that the sun has risen

What is hot light

The sheets fluttered;

Tell that the forest woke up

All woke up, each branch,

Startled by every bird

And full of spring thirst;

Tell that with the same passion

Like yesterday, I came again

That the soul is still the same happiness

And ready to serve you;

Tell that from everywhere

Joy blows over me

I don't know what I will

Sing - but only the song matures.

"Tell that ..." determines the content of each stanza, and within the stanza, the second period also begins with the word "what." This gives a certain amplification, forcing, lyrical character and movement to the whole poem. It is not necessary that the stanzas of a poem, connected by repetition and parallelism, necessarily form subordinate clauses that are part of a detailed complex sentence. Such cases are much rarer than the simple repetition of syntactic, independent verses arranged in parallel places. An example of such a repetition is the poem by Vl. Solovyov, built on the reception of an anaphora, the same beginning of the first three verses in each stanza:

Dear friend, can't you see

that everything we see

Only reflections, only shadows

From invisible eyes?

Dear friend, don't you hear.

That the noise of life is crackling

Just a garbled response.

Triumphant harmonies?

Dear friend, don't you hear

What is one thing in the whole world -

Just what's heart to heart

Saying hello?

Thanks to such repeated and diverse repetition, the poem acquires a song, musical style.

Now the question is about the compositional use of the ending, about the same ending of stanzas. To quote Fet:

We met again after a long separation

Waking up from a hard winter;

We shook each other's cold hands

And we cried, we cried.

But in strong, invisible shackles they managed

Keep us human minds;

How often did we look into each other's eyes,

And we cried, we cried!

But now it lit up above the black cloud

And the sun peeped out of the darkness;

Spring - we sat under the weeping willow,

And we cried, we cried.

“And we cried, we cried” forms the ending, which compositionally unites the entire poem with a single leitmotif. It's close to what we call a chorus. The refrain in folk poetry is the ending, more or less independent in compositional, metric terms. Let us recall Goethe's poem, written in the spirit of a folk song - Heidenroslein:

Roslein, Roslein, Roslein rot,

Roslein auf der Heiden!

In Russian translation:

Rose, rose, scarlet!

Rose in the open field! ..

The refrain is rhythmically accentuated, and in the folk song tradition this is connected with the choral performance of the song. The chorus is repeated in chorus, and then it becomes a special compositional device.

The last compositional technique is the ring. We very often meet lyrical poems closed in a ring of repetitive stanzas.

Do not sing, beauty, with me

You are the sad songs of Georgia:

They remind me of one

Another life and a distant shore.

Alas, they remind me

Your cruel songs

And vtep, and night, and under the moon

The traits of a distant, poor maiden!..

I am a cute, fatal ghost,

When I see you, I forget:

But you sing - and in front of me

I am imagining it again.

Do not sing, beauty, with me

You are the sad songs of Georgia:

They remind me of one

Another life and a distant shore. (III, 64)

At the end, the same words return as at the beginning, closing the poem, as is often the case in romances, but the repetitive stanza, upon its return, acquires a new meaning. The first stanza is the thesis. Then this thesis develops, and when the first stanza appears again at the end, it it sounds something like if we said: “That's why don't sing, beauty, in front of me ...” (i.e., as a result of all that is said). Ring construction is usually in lyrics, especially in the lyrics of a song, musical style.

Parameter name	Meaning
Article subject:	Syntax of poetic speech.
Rubric (thematic category)	Literature

No less significant area of study of expressive means is poetic syntax. The study of poetic syntax consists in the analysis of the functions of each of the artistic methods of selection and subsequent grouping of lexical elements into single syntactic constructions. If in the study of the vocabulary of a literary text, words act as the analyzed units, then in the study of syntax, sentences and phrases. If the study of vocabulary establishes the facts of deviation from the literary norm in the selection of words, as well as the facts of the transfer of the meanings of words (a word with a figurative meaning, i.e. a trope, manifests itself only in context, only during semantic interaction with another word), then the study of syntax obliges not only the typological consideration of the syntactic units and grammatical relationships of words in a sentence, but also the identification of facts of correction or even a change in the meaning of the whole phrase with the semantic correlation of its parts (which usually occurs as a result of the writer's use of the so-called figures).

But what can be said about our writers, who, considering it base to explain simply the most ordinary things, think to enliven children's prose with additions and languid metaphors? These people will never say friendship without adding: this sacred feeling, of which noble flame, etc.
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I should have said: early in the morning - and they write: as soon as the first rays of the rising sun illuminated the eastern edges of the azure sky - oh, how new and fresh it all is, is it better just because it is longer.<...>Accuracy and brevity are the first virtues of prose. It requires thoughts and thoughts - without them, brilliant expressions are of no use. Poems are another matter..." ("On Russian Prose")

Consequently, the "brilliant expressions" that the poet wrote about - namely, the lexical "beauties" and the variety of rhetorical means, in general types of syntactic constructions - are not an obligatory phenomenon in prose, but possible. And in poetry it is common, because the actual aesthetic function of a poetic text always significantly sets off the informative function. This is proved by examples from the work of Pushkin himself. Syntactically brief Pushkin the prose writer:

"Finally, something began to turn black in the direction. Vladimir turned in that direction. Approaching, he saw a grove. Thank God, he thought, now it's close." ("Blizzard")

On the contrary, Pushkin the poet is often verbose, building long phrases with rows of periphrastic phrases:

The frisky and peeing philosopher, The happy sloth of Parnassus, Harit's pampered favorite, The confidant of the lovely aonids, Why, on the golden-stringed harp, Has he silenced, the singer of joy? Have you, young dreamer, parted with Phoebus at last?

It should be clarified that lexical "beauty" and syntactic "longness" are necessary in poetry only when they are semantically or compositionally motivated. Verbosity in poetry may be unjustified. And in prose, lexico-syntactic minimalism is just as unjustified, if it is raised to an absolute degree:

"The donkey put on a lion's skin, and everyone thought it was a lion. The people and cattle ran. The wind blew, the skin opened up, and the donkey became visible. The people came running: they beat the donkey." ("Donkey in a lion's skin")

The sparing phrases give this finished work the appearance of a preliminary plot plan. The choice of elliptical-type constructions (“and everyone thought it was a lion”), the saving of meaningful words, leading to grammatical violations (“the people and the cattle ran”), and finally, the economy of service words (“the people ran away: they beat the donkey”) determined excessive schematism plot of this parable, and therefore weakened its aesthetic impact.

The other extreme is the overcomplication of constructions, the use of polynomial sentences with different types of logical and grammatical connections, with many ways of distribution.

In the field of Russian language studies, there is no established idea of what maximum length a Russian phrase can achieve. The author's desire for maximum detail when describing actions and mental states leads to violations of the logical connection of the parts of the sentence ("she fell into despair, and a state of despair began to come over her").

The study of poetic syntax also involves an assessment of the facts of the correspondence of the methods of grammatical connection used in the author's phrases to the norms of the national literary style. Here we can draw a parallel with passive vocabulary of different styles as an important part of the poetic vocabulary. In the sphere of syntax, as well as in the sphere of vocabulary, barbarisms, archaisms, dialectisms, etc. are possible, because these two spheres are interconnected: according to B.V. Tomashevsky, "each lexical environment has its own specific syntactic turns."

In Russian literature, syntactic barbarisms, archaisms, and vernacular are the most common. Barbarism in syntax occurs if the phrase is built according to the rules of a foreign language. In prose, syntactic barbarisms are more often recognized as speech errors: "Approaching this station and looking at nature through the window, my hat flew off" in A.P. Chekhov's story "The Book of Complaints" - this gallicism is so obvious that it causes the reader to feel comic . In Russian poetry, syntactic barbarisms were sometimes used as signs of high style. For example, in Pushkin's ballad "There was a poor knight in the world..." the line "He had one vision..." is an example of such barbarism: the link "he had a vision" appears instead of "he had a vision". Here we also encounter syntactic archaism with the traditional function of raising the stylistic height: "There is no prayer to the Father, nor to the Son, / Nor to the Holy Spirit forever / It has not happened to a paladin ..." (it would follow: "neither to the Father, nor to the Son"). Syntactic vernacular, as a rule, is present in epic and dramatic works in the speech of the characters for a realistic reflection of the individual speech style, for the autocharacterization of the characters. To this end, Chekhov resorted to the use of vernacular: "Your dad told me that he was a court adviser, but now it turns out that he is only a titular one" ("Before the wedding"), "Are you talking about which Turkins? This is about those that daughter plays the piano? ("Ionych").

Of particular importance for identifying the specifics of artistic speech is the study of stylistic figures (they are also called rhetorical - in relation to the private scientific discipline, within which the theory of tropes and figures was first developed; syntactic - in relation to that side of the poetic text to characterize which a description is required).

Today, there are many classifications of stylistic figures, which are based on one or another - quantitative or qualitative - differentiating feature: the verbal composition of the phrase, the logical or psychological correlation of its parts, etc. Below we list the most significant figures, taking into account three factors:

1. Unusual logical or grammatical connection of elements of syntactic constructions.

2. An unusual mutual arrangement of words in a phrase or phrases in a text, as well as elements that are part of different (adjacent) syntactic and rhythmic-syntactic structures (verses, columns), but possessing grammatical similarity.

3. Unusual ways of intonational markup of the text using syntactic means.

Taking into account the dominance of a single factor, we will single out the corresponding groups of figures.
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To a group of techniques for non-standard connection of words into syntactic units include ellipse, anacoluf, sylleps, alogism, amphibolia (figures with an unusual grammatical connection), as well as catachresis, oxymoron, gendiadis, enallaga (figures with an unusual semantic connection of elements).

1. One of the most common syntactic techniques not only in fiction, but also in everyday speech is ellipse(Greek elleipsis- abandonment). This is an imitation of a break in a grammatical connection, consisting in the omission of a word or a series of words in a sentence, in which the meaning of the omitted members is easily restored from the general speech context. Elliptical speech in a literary text gives the impression of being reliable, because in a life situation of a conversation, an ellipse is one of the basic means of composition phrases: when exchanging remarks, it allows you to skip previously spoken words. Therefore, in colloquial speech, ellipses are assigned extremely practical function: the speaker conveys information to the interlocutor in an extremely important volume using the minimum vocabulary.

2. Both in everyday life and in literature, a speech error is recognized anacoluthon(Greek anakoluthos - inconsistent) - incorrect use of grammatical forms in coordination and management: "The smell of shag and some sour cabbage soup that was felt from there made life in this place almost unbearable" (A.F. Pisemsky, "Old Man's Sin"). At the same time, its use should be justified in cases where the writer gives expression to the character's speech: "Stop, brothers, stop! You're not sitting like that!" (in Krylov's fable "Quartet").

3. If the anacoluf is more often seen as a mistake than an artistic device, and sylleps and alogism- more often by reception than by mistake, then amphibolia(Greek amphibolia) is always perceived in two ways. Duality is in its very nature, since amphibole is the syntactic indistinguishability of the subject and direct object, expressed by nouns in the same grammatical forms. "Hearing sensitive sail strains ..." in the poem of the same name by Mandelstam - a mistake or a trick? It can be understood as follows: "A sensitive ear, if its owner desires to catch the rustle of the wind in the sails, magically acts on the sail, forcing it to strain," or as follows: "A wind-blown (ᴛ.ᴇ. tense) sail attracts attention, and a person strains his hearing" . Amphibolia is justified only when it turns out to be compositionally significant. So, in the miniature by D. Kharms "The Chest" the hero checks the possibility of the existence of life after death by self-suffocation in a locked chest. The finale for the reader, as the author planned, is unclear: either the hero did not suffocate, or he suffocated and resurrected, as the hero ambiguously sums up: "It means that life defeated death in a way unknown to me."

4. An unusual semantic connection of parts of a phrase or sentence is created catachresis and oxymoron(Greek oxymoron - witty-stupid). In both cases, there is a logical contradiction between the members of a single structure. Catahresis arises as a result of the use of an erased metaphor or metonymy and is assessed as a mistake within the framework of "natural" speech: "sea voyage" is a contradiction between "sail on the sea" and "walk on land", "oral prescription" - between "oral" and " in writing", "Soviet Champagne" - between "Soviet Union" and "Champagne". Oxymoron, on the contrary, is a planned consequence of the use of a fresh metaphor and is perceived even in everyday speech as an exquisite figurative tool. "Mom! Your son is beautifully ill!" (V. Mayakovsky, "A cloud in pants") - here "sick" is a metaphorical replacement for "in love".

5. Among the rare in Russian literature and therefore especially notable figures is gendiadis(from the Greek hen dia dyoin - one through two), in which compound adjectives are divided into their original constituent parts: "longing road, iron" (A. Blok, "On the railroad"). Here the word "railroad" was split, thanks to which the three words entered into interaction - and the verse acquired an additional meaning.

6. Words in a column or verse receive a special semantic connection when the writer uses enallagu(Greek enallage - moving) - transferring the definition to a word adjacent to the defined. So, in the line "Through meat, fat trenches ..." from N. Zabolotsky's poem "Wedding", the definition of "fat" became a vivid epithet after being transferred from "meat" to "trench". Enallaga is a sign of verbose poetic speech. The use of this figure in an elliptical construction leads to a deplorable result: the verse "A familiar corpse lay in that valley ..." in Lermontov's ballad "Dream" is an example of an unforeseen logical error. The combination "familiar corpse" was supposed to mean "the corpse of a familiar [person]", but for the reader it actually means: "This person has long been known to the heroine precisely as a corpse."

The use of syntactic figures by the writer leaves an imprint of individuality on his author's style. By the middle of the 20th century, by the time when the concept of "creative individuality" had significantly depreciated, the study of figures ceased to be relevant.

Syntax of poetic speech. - concept and types. Classification and features of the category "Syntax of poetic speech." 2017, 2018.

The general nature of the writer's work leaves a certain imprint on his poetic syntax, that is, on his manner of constructing phrases and sentences. It is in poetic syntax that the syntactic structure of poetic speech is determined by the general nature of the writer's creative talent.

The poetic figures of the language are associated with a special role played by individual lexical resources and visual means of the language.

Rhetorical exclamations, appeals, questions are created by the author to focus the attention of readers on the phenomenon or problem in question. Thus, they should draw attention to them, and not demand an answer ("Oh field, field, who strewn you with dead bones?" "Do you know the Ukrainian night?", "Do you like theater?", "Oh Rus! Raspberry field...").

Repetitions: anaphora, epiphora, junction. They belong to the figures of poetic speech and are syntactic constructions based on the repetition of individual words that carry the main semantic load.

Among the repetitions stand out anaphora, that is, the repetition of initial words or phrases in sentences, poems or stanzas ("I loved you" - A.S. Pushkin;

I swear on the first day of creation

I swear on his last day

I swear on the shame of crime,

And eternal truth triumph. - M.Yu. Lermontov).

Epiphora represents a repetition of the final words or phrases in sentences or stanzas - "Here the master will come" N.A. Nekrasov.

joint- a rhetorical figure in which a word or expression is repeated at the end of one phrase and at the beginning of the second. Most often found in folklore:

He fell on the cold snow

On the cold snow like a pine

Like a pine in a damp forest ... - (M.Yu. Lermontov).

Oh spring, without end and without edge,

A dream without end and without edge ... - (A.A. Blok).

Gain represents the arrangement of words and expressions according to the principle of their increasing power: "I spoke, persuaded, demanded, ordered." The authors need this figure of poetic speech for greater strength and expressiveness when conveying the image of an object, thought, feeling: "I knew him in love tenderly, passionately, furiously, boldly, modestly ..." - (I.S. Turgenev).

Default- a rhetorical device based on the omission of individual words or phrases in the speech (most often this is used to emphasize the excitement or unpreparedness of the speech). - "There are such moments, such feelings ... You can only point to them ... and pass by" - (I.S. Turgenev).

Parallelism- is a rhetorical device - a detailed comparison of two or more phenomena, given in similar syntactic constructions. -

What is clouded, the dawn is clear,

Has fallen to the ground with dew?

What are you thinking, red girl,

Did your eyes sparkle with tears? (A.N. Koltsov)

Parceling- dismemberment of a single syntactic structure of the sentence for the purpose of a more emotional, vivid perception by the reader - "The child must be taught to feel. Beauty. People. Everything living around."

Antithesis(opposition, contrast) - a rhetorical device in which the disclosure of contradictions between phenomena is usually carried out using a number of antonymic words and expressions. -

Black evening, white snow... - (A.A. Blok).

I'm rotting in the ashes,

I command thunder with my mind.

I am a king - I am a slave, I am a worm - I am a god! (A.N. Radishchev).

Inversion- unusual word order in a sentence. Despite the fact that in the Russian language there is no once and for all fixed word order, nevertheless there is a familiar order. For example, the definition comes before the word being defined. Then Lermontov's "A lonely sail turns white In the blue fog of the sea" seems unusual and poetically sublime compared to the traditional one: "A lonely sail turns white in the blue fog of the sea." Or "The longed-for moment has come: My long-term work is over" - A.S. Pushkin.

Unions can also be used to make speech expressive. So, asyndeton usually used to convey the swiftness of the action when depicting pictures or sensations: "Cannonballs are rolling, bullets are whistling, Cold bayonets are hovering ...", or "Lanterns are flashing by, Pharmacies, fashion stores ... Lions at the gates ..." - A. WITH. Pushkin.

polyunion usually creates the impression of separateness of speech, emphasizes the significance of each word separated by the union:

Oh! Summer red! I would love you

If it weren't for the heat, and dust, and mosquitoes, and flies. - A.S. Pushkin.

And a cloak, and an arrow, and a crafty dagger -

Keep the master for years. - M.Yu. Lermontov.

Connection of non-union with multi-union- also a means of emotional expression for the author:

Drums, screams, rattle,

The thunder of cannons, the clatter, the neighing, the groan,

And death, and hell from all sides. - A.S. Pushkin.

No less significant area of study of expressive means is poetic syntax. The study of poetic syntax consists in the analysis of the functions of each of the artistic methods of selection and subsequent grouping of lexical elements into single syntactic constructions. If in the study of the vocabulary of a literary text, words act as the analyzed units, then in the study of syntax, sentences and phrases. If the study of vocabulary establishes the facts of deviation from the literary norm in the selection of words, as well as the facts of the transfer of the meanings of words (a word with a figurative meaning, i.e. a trope, manifests itself only in context, only during semantic interaction with another word), then the study of syntax obliges not only a typological consideration of the syntactic units and grammatical relationships of words in a sentence, but also to identify the facts of correction or even change in the meaning of the whole phrase with the semantic correlation of its parts (which usually occurs as a result of the use of so-called figures by the writer).

“But what can be said about our writers, who, considering it base to explain simply the most ordinary things, think to enliven children's prose with additions and languid metaphors? These people will never say friendship without adding: this sacred feeling, of which noble flame, etc. say: early in the morning - and they write: as soon as the first rays of the rising sun illuminated the eastern edges of the azure sky - oh, how new and fresh it all is, is it better just because it is longer.<...>Accuracy and brevity are the first virtues of prose. It requires thoughts and thoughts - without them, brilliant expressions are of no use. Poems are another matter..." ("On Russian Prose")

"Finally, something began to turn black in the direction. Vladimir turned in that direction. Approaching, he saw a grove. Thank God, he thought, now it's close." ("Blizzard")

On the contrary, Pushkin the poet is often verbose, building long phrases with rows of periphrastic phrases:

The sparing phrases give this finished work the appearance of a preliminary plot plan. The choice of constructions of the elliptical type (“and everyone thought it was a lion”), the economy of significant words, leading to grammatical violations (“the people and cattle ran”), and finally, the economy of official words (“the people ran away: they beat the donkey”) determined the excessive schematism of the plot of this parables, and therefore weakened its aesthetic impact.

The other extreme is the overcomplication of constructions, the use of polynomial sentences with different types of logical and grammatical connections, with many ways of distribution.

In Russian literature, syntactic barbarisms, archaisms, and vernacular are the most common. Barbarism in syntax occurs if the phrase is built according to the rules of a foreign language. In prose, syntactic barbarisms are more often identified as speech errors: "Approaching this station and looking at nature through the window, my hat flew off" in A.P. Chekhov's story "The Book of Complaints" - this gallicism is so obvious that it causes the reader to feel comic . In Russian poetry, syntactic barbarisms were sometimes used as signs of high style. For example, in Pushkin's ballad "There was a poor knight in the world..." the line "He had one vision..." is an example of such barbarism: the link "he had a vision" appears instead of "he had a vision". Here we also encounter syntactic archaism with the traditional function of raising the stylistic height: "There is no prayer to the Father, nor to the Son, / Nor to the Holy Spirit forever / It has not happened to a paladin ..." (it would follow: "neither to the Father, nor to the Son"). Syntactic vernacular, as a rule, is present in epic and dramatic works in the speech of the characters for a realistic reflection of the individual speech style, for the autocharacterization of the characters. To this end, Chekhov resorted to the use of vernacular: “Your dad told me that he was a court adviser, but now it turns out that he is only a titular one” (“Before the wedding”), “Are you talking about which Turkins? This is about those that my daughter plays pianos?" ("Ionych").

Of particular importance for identifying the specifics of artistic speech is the study of stylistic figures (they are also called rhetorical - in relation to the private scientific discipline in which the theory of tropes and figures was first developed; syntactic - in relation to that side of the poetic text, for the characteristics of which they are required description).

Currently, there are many classifications of stylistic figures, which are based on one or another - quantitative or qualitative - differentiating feature: the verbal composition of the phrase, the logical or psychological correlation of its parts, etc. Below we list the most significant figures, taking into account three factors:

1. Unusual logical or grammatical connection of elements of syntactic constructions.

3. Unusual ways of intonational markup of the text using syntactic means.

Taking into account the dominance of a single factor, we will single out the corresponding groups of figures. To a group of techniques for non-standard connection of words into syntactic units include ellipse, anacoluf, sylleps, alogism, amphibolia (figures with an unusual grammatical connection), as well as catachresis, oxymoron, gendiadis, enallaga (figures with an unusual semantic connection of elements).

1. One of the most common syntactic techniques not only in fiction, but also in everyday speech is ellipse(Greek elleipsis- abandonment). This is an imitation of a break in a grammatical connection, consisting in the omission of a word or a series of words in a sentence, in which the meaning of the omitted members is easily restored from the general speech context. Elliptical speech in a literary text gives the impression of being reliable, because in a life situation of a conversation, an ellipse is one of the main means of composition phrases: when exchanging remarks, it allows you to skip previously spoken words. Therefore, in colloquial speech, ellipses are assigned exclusively practical function: the speaker conveys information to the interlocutor in the required volume using the minimum vocabulary.

2. Both in everyday life and in literature, a speech error is recognized anacoluthon(Greek anakoluthos - inconsistent) - incorrect use of grammatical forms in coordination and management: "The smell of shag and some sour cabbage soup felt from there made life in this place almost unbearable" (A.F. Pisemsky, "Old Man's Sin"). However, its use can be justified in cases where the writer gives expression to the character's speech: "Stop, brothers, stop! You're not sitting like that!" (in Krylov's fable "Quartet").

3. If the anacoluf is more often seen as a mistake than an artistic device, and sylleps and alogism- more often by reception than by mistake, then amphibolia(Greek amphibolia) is always perceived in two ways. Duality is in its very nature, since amphibole is the syntactic indistinguishability of the subject and direct object, expressed by nouns in the same grammatical forms. "Hearing sensitive sail strains ..." in the poem of the same name by Mandelstam - a mistake or a trick? It can be understood as follows: "A sensitive ear, if its owner desires to catch the rustle of the wind in the sails, magically acts on the sail, forcing it to strain," or as follows: "A wind-blown (i.e., tense) sail attracts attention, and a person strains his hearing" . Amphibolia is justified only when it turns out to be compositionally significant. So, in the miniature by D. Kharms "The Chest" the hero checks the possibility of the existence of life after death by self-suffocation in a locked chest. The finale for the reader, as the author planned, is unclear: either the hero did not suffocate, or he suffocated and resurrected, as the hero ambiguously sums up: "It means that life defeated death in a way unknown to me."

5. Among the rare in Russian literature and therefore especially notable figures is gendiadis(from the Greek hen dia dyoin - one through two), in which compound adjectives are divided into their original constituent parts: "longing road, iron" (A. Blok, "On the railroad"). Here the word "railroad" was split, as a result of which three words entered into interaction - and the verse acquired an additional meaning.

6. Words in a column or verse receive a special semantic connection when the writer uses enallagu(Greek enallage - moving) - transferring a definition to a word adjacent to the one being defined. So, in the line "Through meat fat trenches ..." from N. Zabolotsky's poem "Wedding" the definition of "fat" became a vivid epithet after transferring from "meat" to "trench". Enallaga is a sign of verbose poetic speech. The use of this figure in an elliptical construction leads to a deplorable result: the verse "A familiar corpse lay in that valley ..." in Lermontov's ballad "Dream" is an example of an unforeseen logical error. The combination "familiar corpse" was supposed to mean "the corpse of a familiar [person]", but for the reader it actually means: "This person has long been known to the heroine precisely as a corpse."