Minerals industry of France. Gypsum deposits in France

To the west of the Bayonne-Sedan diagonal, elevations above sea level are low, most often below 200 m. Most of the territory is occupied by plains and low plateaus of the Parisian and Aquitaine lowlands. They are characterized by contrasting landscapes, partly due to their different origins. Some coastal plains, such as the Flanders Plateau, were formed in the process of reclamation of river or sea sediments. The low plateaus, such as Bes, Brie, and Picardy, are of sedimentary origin. Their contours are formed by marine calcareous and clay deposits of the Mesozoic and Tertiary periods. Picturesque alluvial plains stretch nearby, including the Seine and Loire valleys. Along the periphery of the Parisian lowland, elevations are increasing. This is observed in the north in the Ardennes, an ancient Hercynian massif, eaten away by long-term erosion; in the northeast - on the slopes of the Vosges, facing Lorraine; in the south - in areas framing the Central Massif; in the west - in the Armo-Rican massif. The same picture is typical for the peripheral regions of the Aquitanian lowland, the regions adjacent to the Massif Central in the east and to the Pyrenees in the south.

The southeastern part of the country is characterized by a more rugged relief. The medium-altitude mountains located here rise to 500-1700 m. Some of them, such as the Vosges and the Central Massif, are ancient Hercynian massifs that underwent tectonic displacements during the rise of the Alpine ranges. These are heaps of stone blocks, cut by valleys with steep slopes, which makes transport communication extremely difficult. In addition, there are many extinct volcanoes in the Massif Central, such as Cantal and Puy de Dome. Even more striking are other, less extensive ancient massifs, such as the Mor and Esterel, which are furrowed by Mediterranean showers, although their height does not exceed 900 m. The Jura massif also represents medium-altitude, but young mountains that formed in the Tertiary period. These folded mountains of sedimentary origin, dominated by limestone, are distinguished by a sharper relief with alternating ridges with steep slopes and valleys. The ridges are often cut through by narrow valleys and gorges, along which transport routes mainly pass. Similar reliefs of medium-altitude mountains are also found in the northern and southern foothills of the Alps, where altitudes sometimes reach 2000 m. As a result of more rapid mountain building processes and strong erosion, a relief with steep slopes has developed there, turning in places into high mountain massifs.

High peaks also determine the appearance of the central regions of the Pyrenees and the Alps, the formation of which began more than 50 million years ago, in the Tertiary period, when the European and African platforms of the earth's crust collided. The highest peaks of these massifs, continuing outside the country, are Mont Blanc (4807 m) in the Alps, Vinmal (3298 m) and Aneto peak (3404 m, Spain) in the Pyrenees. Majestic landscapes, inherited to a large extent from the ice age, open up to the gaze: peaked peaks, jagged mountain ridges and trough-shaped deep valleys. Ancient and young mountains occupy almost the entire southeastern part of the country. The plains lay only along the coast, as in the Languedoc and eastern Corsica, or between the mountains, as in the valleys of the Saone and the Rhone.

Minerals- natural mineral formations of the earth's crust, which can be used in the field of production. Formed during the geological history of the Earth. Limestone, sulfur, potassium, and uranium ores are mined in France.

Land resources

Remark 1

The area of cultivated land is more than 50% of the entire territory of France. Arable land accounts for 61% and pastures for 20%. The opportunity to increase the share of cultivated land has been completely exhausted.

The variety of relief, geological features, climatic conditions predetermined the diversity of soil cover. The country's soils are mostly fertile, with the exception of areas in which soil formation occurs on sands and crystalline rocks.

Soils of different types:

forest;
brown forest;
humus-carbonate;
mountain forest.

Fuel and energy minerals

All deposits of oil and natural gas are concentrated in oil and gas basins:

Aquitaine;
Rhine;
Anglo-Paris;
Ronsky.

The total area of the pools is about 500 thousand square meters. km. Limestones and sandstones of the Paleogene, Cretaceous, Jurassic and Triassic are productive.

The largest fields in France: gas - Lac (reserves are estimated at 250 billion cubic meters); oil - Parantis (total reserves are about 20 million tons). Both pools are located in the Aquitaine Basin.

In the Anglo-Paris basin, a large deposit is Shonua (up to 8.5 million tons). In the waters of the northeastern territories of the Atlantic Ocean, there are oil and gas deposits of Armorikansky and Western Aprouch.

The main reserves of coal are concentrated in the Hop-Pas-de-Calais basin, in the Lorraine basin, in numerous minor deposits of the Central French Massif. Gas and long-flame coals account for more than 50% of all coal reserves, fat coals - up to 40%.

Brown coal deposits are located in the southern regions of the country within the Provence and Landes basins.

Up to 30 uranium deposits have been explored in the country. The main share of resources belongs to hydrothermal deposits of vein and vein-disseminated ores in the areas: Limousin, Morvan, Foret-Madeleine in the Central French Massif; Vendée in the Armorican massif. Of particular importance are fluorite-nasturan and pitchblende ores.

The largest uranium deposits are located in the departments:

Vendée (La Commandery, Chardon, L "Ecarpie);
Upper Vienne (Belzan, Le Brugeot, Fanet, Margnac, Fres-Gors, Bonnac, Montulat, Le Bernardon, Gouzon);
Loser (Villeret, Cellier, Le Pierre Plante);
Limousin (Le Bernardon).

Ores of stratiform deposits occur in the Permian (Department of Herault, Lodev) and Cenozoic (Coutra, La Besse, Saint-Pierre-du-Cantal) deposits of the sedimentary cover. In the Lodev area, the uranium-bitumen deposits of Mac-d "Alari and Mac-Laver, represented by coffinite, uraninite, pitchblende mineralization.

The uranium mineralization of Saint-Pierre-du-Cantal is represented by francisville and otenite. The deposit is confined to clay-sandy Oligocene deposits.

Iron ore deposits are represented by various types: Lorraine iron ore basin - the largest iron ore region located in the east of the country; Department of Calvados, Sumon deposit; Loire-Atlantique department, Rouget deposits; Maine-et-Loire department, Segre deposit; Pyrenees, Bater deposit.

Aluminum ores form deposits that belong to the Mediterranean bauxite-bearing province and are represented by bauxites. The main deposits of aluminum ores: the department of Bap (Taufonet, Brignoles, Pegro, Saint-Julien); Department of Hérault (Vilverac, Bedarieu, La Rouquette); Ariège; Bouches du Rhone (Le Baux).

Among the tungsten ores, skarn scheelite ores in the Ariège department of the Salo deposit play the main industrial role. Deposits of scheelite ores have been explored in the departments of Tarn (Montredon), Bap (Favier), Haute-Vienne, and others.

Within the Central French Massif, hydrothermal veined quartz-wolframite deposits of Lekan and Angiales have been developed. Within the Armorican massif, the Bovin and La Rousseliere deposits containing molybdenum, tungsten, copper, and lead have been identified.

The main deposits of gold ores are located in the Aude department, on the Salsin ore field. Significant deposits are located in the department of Haute-Vienne in the ores of the Bournex deposit.

Polymetallic ores contain silver, copper, beryllium, sulfur and arsenic.

Large deposits of ores containing lead, zinc and copper were found in the province of Brittany, Saint-Tya, Scrinac, Aveyron (Chessy), Sarthe (Rue) and others.

Nonmetallic minerals

In the department of Upper Rhine, deposits of potash salts are concentrated. Productive salt-bearing deposits are located in the Alsatian salt-bearing basin, in Lorraine. The largest deposits: Vauvert (Bouches-du-Rhone department); Dax, Yourkui (Department of Landes), Varengeville (Departments of Moselle and Meurthe), etc.

High concentrations of rock salt are found in the waters of the Mediterranean coast (in particular, in the Bouches-du-Rhone department).

Sulfur deposits are concentrated in Provence and Languedoc. The largest deposit is located northwest of the city of Narbonne - Malwezi. Sulfur reserves are present in the Pont d'As Mayon and Lac deposits.

The most important fluorite deposits are: Escaro (Eastern Pyrenees), Fonsante (Department of Bap), Mulinal and Montroc (Department of Tarn).

The main reserves of phosphorites are represented by phosphorite concretions and phosphated chalk, the Beauval deposit, the Paris basin.

Large deposits of gypsum include: Panshar, Taverny, Vozhur.

The country occupies a leading position in the world in terms of talc reserves. The largest deposits of talc include Luzenac and Trimun, located in the department of Ariège.

Kaolin reserves are located in the Massif Central and in the deposits of Brittany (Keccya, Côtes-du-Hop department; Berien, department; Finistère Ploermel, Morbihan department).

France has large reserves of feldspar, diatomite (Lozère department, Saint-Chelis-d'Apchet deposit), andalusite (Cotes-du-Hop department, Glomel deposit), kyanite, limestone, quartz sands, building materials (facing stones, sand, roofing slate, gravel), bituminous limestones (Avezhan deposit).

France is the largest country in Europe (borders on Belgium, Luxembourg, Germany, Switzerland, Italy and Spain and Andorra), the area is 555 thousand km2, the length of the borders is 5.5 thousand km, of which 2.7 thousand km are maritime. The territory of the country is almost a regular hexagon. Even ancient historians and geographers noted the unusually convenient geographical position of France. Strabo wrote that "providence itself erected mountains, brought the seas closer, laid the channels of the rivers in order to create here the most flourishing place on earth."

France is the third largest country in Europe (after Russia and Ukraine), if you count the overseas regions - then the second. The lowest point in France is the Rhone Delta (2 m below sea level), the highest is Mont Blanc (4,810 m above sea level). France shares borders with 11 countries. The metropolis borders on 8 countries, and overseas regions - on three. The total length of the land borders is 4,082.2 km. With the exception of the northeastern part of the country, France mainly has natural borders: the Rhine, the Jura, the Alps, the Pyrenees.

Climate of France

For Normandy and Brittany, a maritime climate is characteristic, spreading its influence over the entire western part of the country. Brittany has a particularly mild and humid climate, which is characterized by a small difference between summer and winter temperatures, as well as cloudy days with strong winds.

It is warm here in winter (average January temperature is +7°C), but summers are cool and cloudy (+17°C in July). In the eastern regions of the country, the continental climate dominates: here the annual amplitude of average monthly temperatures reaches 20°C. Paris is characterized by a mild winter, with an average January temperature of +3.5°C. Protected from the northern winds by the Alps and the Central Massif, the Mediterranean coast has a Mediterranean climate with hot, dry summers and wet, warm winters. In low-lying areas remote from the sea, the average January temperature is also positive, and the summer is much warmer. In the southern part of France, on the coast, the climate is Mediterranean subtropical: summers are dry and hot, winters are warm, but rains begin in autumn.

In Nice, the average temperature in July is +23°С, in January +8°С. In the mountains - the Alps, the Pyrenees, the Massif Central - there are low winter temperatures, strong winds, an abundance of precipitation, and long-term snow cover. The average annual rainfall in most of the country is 600-1000 mm, with precipitation distributed throughout the country, with the exception of the Mediterranean coast, relatively evenly.

Geographical regions of France

The country has several mountain ranges. The Alps are the highest mountains, stretching from north to south (actually to the Mediterranean Sea) for 370 km, the highest point in Europe - Mont Blanc (4807m) - There are many ski resorts in the Alps, which are considered one of the best in terms of location and equipment in the world. The Jura mountains are a kind of outskirts of the Alps. It has cold winters and many forests. The Pyrenees stretch for 430 km from west to east (altitude up to 3000 m), the natural border between France and Spain.

The massif central is a high-altitude massif in the center of the country, the highest point is Mount Puy de Sancy (1886 m). In the massif are the sources of many rivers, in the Auvergne - extinct volcanoes. (The screen mountains of the Central Massif - Cevennes, stretched from north to south, their height is up to 1700 m. This is a kind of climate dividing line: humid in the west; dry in the east. The Vosges forests (approx. 1400 m) separate Elsasota from Lorraine. Ardennes (not higher than 700 m) are located in the north-west of France.Their name comes from the Celtic word for oak.

The north of the country is almost at sea level. The center of the country - the Loire Valley is higher. The relief of the coastal territories of Aquitaine and the regions overlooking the Mediterranean coast is also mostly flat. The Loire, whose length is more than a thousand kilometers, gave the name to the wine-growing region - the Loire Valley, which is divided into five large areas: Muscode-Lei-Nantes, Anjou-Samur, Touraine. Central Loire and Haute Loire. The region stretches from west to east, so its climate varies from mild maritime in Muscadet to continental - with a sharp difference in temperature: Sancerre and Pouilly-Fume.

The Central French massif, located between the basins of the Loire, Garonne and Rhone, is the largest massif that arose as a result of the destruction of the ancient Hercynian mountains. Like other ancient mountainous regions of France, it rose during the Alpine era, with the softer rocks in the Alps being crumpled into folds, and the dense rocks of the Central French Massif broken up by cracks and faults. Deep-seated molten rocks rose along such disturbed zones, which was accompanied by volcanic eruptions. In the modern era, these volcanoes have lost their activity. Nevertheless, many extinct volcanoes and other volcanic landforms have been preserved on the surface of the massif.

The Armorican Massif, which occupies the territory of the Brittany and Cotentin peninsulas, is less uplifted and less fractured than the Central French Massif. However, despite its low heights, the Armorican massif is deeply dissected by river valleys and there are few leveled areas. Steep slopes predominate, which, combined with infertile soils, limits the possibilities for agricultural development.

The Vosges Mountains, which separate the fertile Rhine Valley in Alsace from the rest of France, are only 40 km wide. The smoothed and forested surfaces of these mountains rise above deep valleys. A similar landscape prevails in the north of the country in the Ardennes (their main array is located on the territory of Belgium). The Paris Basin is located in north-central France, surrounded by the Massif Armorican, Massif Central, the Vosges and the Ardennes. Around Paris is a system of concentric ledges of ridges separated by narrow strips of plains.

The Garonne lowland, located in southwestern France at the foot of the Pyrenees, is a flat area with fertile soils. The Landes, a triangular wedge-shaped area southwest of the lower Garonne, is characterized by less fertile soils and is planted with coniferous forests. The graben of the Rhone and Saone in southeastern France forms a narrow passage between the Alps in the east and the Massif Central in the west. It consists of a series of small depressions separated by heavily dissected uplifted areas.

Rivers of France

Most of the rivers of France, starting in the Massif Central, flow into the Atlantic Ocean or the Mediterranean Sea. The Seine (775 km, from Latin “calm”) is a flat river. It forms a widely branched system with large right tributaries of the Marne and Oise and the left tributary of the Ionne. The Seine is navigable and ensures the movement of goods between Paris and Rouen.

Garonne (650 km) originates in the Spanish Pyrenees, flows through Toulouse and Bordeaux, at the confluence with the ocean, forming a vast estuary - the Gironde. The main tributaries are Tarn, Lot and Dordogne. Used in agriculture for irrigation.

The Rhone (812 km, the nickname of the river is “an angry bull”) is the most full-flowing river in France, starts in the Swiss Alps from the Rhone Glacier, flows through Lake Geneva. Near Lyon, the Saone River flows into it. Other major tributaries are the Durance and the Isère. It is of great hydropower and transport importance. Provides water supply to the cities located on the Cote d'Azur. It is navigable below the tributary - the river En. Also plays a large role in agriculture (used for irrigation).

Loire (1020 km) - the longest river in France starts in the Massif Central. The river receives many tributaries, the main ones being Allier, Cher, Indre and Vienne. The river is navigable only in the lower reaches, where Nantes and Saint-Nazaire are located. In December and January, the Loire is especially full-flowing (it increases about eight times) and only by summer does the water subside. In former times, important trade routes passed along the Loire and it was called the Queen River. The banks of the Loire are composed of white limestone, which was used to build temples and palaces. The Loire is navigable to the city of Rouen. It is of great tourist importance.

Minerals of France

Coal deposits are found in the foothills and intermontane depressions of the Hercynian mountains in northern France, in Lorraine and in the Massif Central. The total reserves of hard coal are estimated at 2-3 billion tons, and low-quality coals, low coking coals and anthracites predominate. The largest reserves of uranium ore in Europe have been discovered in the Central Massif and in other Hercynian Uplands; antimony, gold and other non-ferrous metals are also mined here in small quantities.

Europe's largest iron ore deposits have been found in the Jurassic limestone beds in the west of the Lorraine Plateau. Lorraine ores are not rich: they contain only 30-33% iron and a lot of phosphorus, but their layers are thick, they lie shallow and the ores contain natural fluxes. Nearby, east of Nancy, deposits of rock salt are known. The western part of the French Alps (Pre-Alps) is composed of sedimentary rocks, mainly limestones, the eastern, higher one, is composed of crystalline rocks. The centuries-old activity of ice, snow and meltwater has led to a strong dissection of the Alps.

The Pyrenees (only their northern slopes belong to France) are much lower than the Alps (~2500m). Especially majestic is the huge glacial circus of Gavarni with almost sheer walls 400-500 m high, from where waterfalls rush down, giving birth to the river. By. Nowadays, there are almost no glaciers left in the Pyrenees.

The powerful mountain systems of the Alps and the Pyrenees have large water reserves, their vast subalpine and alpine meadows are used for pastures, and forests provide raw materials for the woodworking industry. Here are the centers of international tourism and mountaineering.

The bowels of France as a whole contain significant reserves of mineral raw materials, especially iron ore, bauxite, potash and rock salts, but fuel resources are very limited. Mineral reserves as of 2001:

Barite - 1300 thousand tons (general), 800 thousand tons (confirmed)
Bauxite - 100 million tons (identified), 53 million tons (total), 13 million tons (confirmed)
Tungsten - 40 thousand tons (identified), 20 thousand tons (general), 20 thousand tons (confirmed)
Gas - 9.7 billion cubic meters
Iron ore - 2200 million tons (total, confirmed)
Tin - 65 thousand tons (general, confirmed)
Fluorspar - 14 Mt (total), 10 Mt (confirmed)
Silver - 4000 tons (general), 2000 tons (confirmed)
Lead - 700 thousand tons (general), 320 thousand tons (confirmed)
Brown coal - 161 million tons (general), 14 million tons (confirmed)
Coal - 441 million tons (general), 15 million tons (confirmed)
The data are given as of 01.01.2007.

Flora and fauna of France

Forests occupy 27% of the country's territory. Walnut, birch, oak, spruce, cork tree grow in the northern and western regions of the country. On the Mediterranean coast - palm trees, citrus fruits. Among the representatives of the fauna, deer and fox stand out. Roe deer inhabit the alpine regions, and the wild boar has been preserved in remote forests. It is also home to a large number of different bird species, including migratory ones. Reptiles are rare, and among snakes, only one poisonous one is an ordinary viper. Many types of fish live in coastal sea waters: herring, cod, tuna, sardine, mackerel, flounder, silver hake.

Source - http://ru.wikipedia.org/

MINERAL RESOURCES OF FRANCE

France is the third largest country in Europe. It borders on 11 countries. All borders (with the exception of the northeast) are mostly natural: the Alps, the Rhine, the Pyrenees, the Jura. The country is located on the Central French massif, which arose as a result of the destruction of the ancient Hercynian mountains, also occupies the territory of the Armorican massif.

France is the most mineral-rich country in Europe . France ranks first in Europe in terms of reserves of uranium, lithium, niobium, iron ore, and tantalum. Currently already explored the presence of other minerals in France : gold, tin, talc, barite, bauxite, aluminum ores, copper, etc.

France also has significant reserves of diatomite, feldspar (Saint-Chely-d'Apchet deposit in the Loser department), andalusite (Glomel deposit in the Côte-du-Hop department), kyanite, quartz sand, limestone, building materials (including facing stones, gravel, sand , roofing slate), bituminous limestones (the Avejan deposit in the Gard department and the Pont du Chateau in the Puy-de-Dome department).

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Oil and gas in France

oil - proven reserves - 14.7 million tons

Natural gas - proven reserves - 21 billion m3
share of world reserves - 0.002%

Oil and gas fields in France concentrated in 4 oil and gas basins: Aquitaine, Anglo-Paris, Rhine and Rhone with a total area of about 500 thousand square meters. km. All basins are confined to troughs of various origins of the West European epi-Hercynian platform. Productive are sandstones and limestones of the Triassic, Jurassic, Cretaceous, Paleogene.

France's largest gas field - Lak (reserves 250 billion m³) in the Aquitaine basin. The largest oil field in France - Parantis (Aquitaine basin, reserves of 20 million tons).

A significant deposit in the Anglo-Paris basin is Shonua (8.5 million tons). In the waters of the northeastern part of the Atlantic Ocean, 2 potential oil and gas bearing basins are known - the Western Aproach and the Armorican.

proven reserves - 258 million tons
share of world reserves - 0.03%

Coal deposits in France are associated with the Carboniferous and Lower Permian masses of the foredeeps and intermountain troughs, which were formed in the Sudetenian and Asturian phases of the Hercynian tectogenesis. The main industrial coal content is confined to the Westphalian stage, to a lesser extent - to the Stefanian.

Deposits of Namur and Early Permian age are of limited practical importance. Long-flame and gas coal accounts for 51% of the total French coal reserves , fatty coal - 38%. Main part coal reserves in France concentrated in the Lorraine basin (Saar-Lorraine bass), in the Nord-Pas-de-Calais basin, as well as in numerous small deposits of the Central French Massif. Brown coal deposits are associated with the Upper Cretaceous and Cenozoic deposits of the epihercynian platform cover and are concentrated in the south of the country within the Landes and Provence basins.

Uranium ores in France

proven reserves - 13.46 thousand tons
share of world reserves - 0.5%

About 30 uranium deposits explored in France with reserves of hundreds and thousands of tons concentrated in the zone of Hercynian uplifts. Most (about 60%) of reserves and resources are contained in hydrothermal deposits of vein and vein-disseminated ores in the areas of Limousin (about 50% of proven reserves), Morvan, Foret-Madeleine in the Central French Massif and in the Vendée region in the Armorican Massif.

Uranium deposits in France are located in zones of increased permeability in submeridional and sublatitudinal lineaments of ancient origin, activated during the epochs of the Hercynian orogeny, characterized by the intrusion of leucogranites. There are actually pitchblende and fluorite-nasturan ores with a content of tenths to several percent. The most significant deposits are located in the departments of Haute-Vienne (Le Brugeot, Belzan, Fanay, Fres-Gors, Margnac, Bonnac, Le Bernardon, Montulat, Gouzon), Vendée (L "Ecarpier, Chardon, La Commandery) and Loser (Celiers The Le Bernardon deposit in Limousin is represented by irregularly shaped steeply dipping ore bodies, traced to a depth of 400 m, with a thickness of 1-30 m. Uranium reserves are 5.9 thousand tons, of which 1.9 thousand tons in the contours of open works.

The ores of exogenous stratiform deposits occur in the Permian (Lodev) and Cenozoic (Saint-Pierre-du-Cantal, La Besse, Coutra) deposits of the sedimentary cover. In the ore region of Lodev, in the department of Hérault, the uranium-bitumen deposits of Mac-Laver and Mac-d "Alari, associated with paleo-conditional and lagoonal sediments, are represented by pitchblende, uraninite and coffinite mineralization. The uranium content reaches 2-3%. At the Saint-Pierre deposit -du-Cantal uranium mineralization, represented by otenite and francswillite, is confined to clay-sandy Oligocene deposits enriched in plant material.Uranium content is 0.1%.The deposits in metamorphites developed at contact with granitoids have the least industrial value so far (Le-Bondon, in the department of Loser) or among the sedimentary strata (Bertholin, in the department of Aveyron).

More about France:

proven reserves - 2200 million tons
share of world reserves - 1.3%

Iron ore deposits in France presented in various types.

France's largest iron ore region - Lorraine iron ore basin in the east of the country. The deposits of the west of France are of great economic importance. At the Sumon deposit (Department of Calvados), bedded oolitic chlorite-carbonate ores (Fe 36-46%) have been explored. To the south, smaller deposits of Rouge (department of Atlantic Loire) and Segre (departments of Maine and Loire) with an iron content of 33-48% were revealed. Small lens and stock deposits of high-quality siderite-hematite ores (iron concentration - up to 50%) have been explored at the Baterey deposit in the Pyrenees.

Aluminum ores of France

proven reserves - 13 million tons

Aluminum ores of France are presented bauxites, large deposits of which form the deposits of the Mediterranean bauxite-bearing province. The deposits are confined to the carbonate strata of the Cretaceous and Jurassic. The main deposits are concentrated in the Var ore region of the department of the same name (Brignolles, Tofonet, Saint-Julien, Pegro), as well as in the departments of Hérault (Bedarier, Villeverac, La Rouquet), Bouches-du-Rhone (Le Baux), Ariège. Deposits are predominantly karst-lens type, sedimentary.

Tungsten mining in France

proven reserves - 20 thousand tons
share of world reserves - 0.8%

Among tungsten ore deposits in France The skarn scheelite ores of the Salo deposit in the department of Ariège are of primary industrial importance. Several ore deposits were found here with a WO3 content of 1.2-1.8% and significant concentrations of copper, gold and silver. Ore zones of the stockwork type occur in granites, have a strike length of up to 280 m, a thickness of up to 50 m. The hydrothermal vein quartz-wolframite deposits of Angialis and Lekana are known within the Central French Massif. The thickness of the cores is 0.3-1.6 m, the content of WO3 is 0.1-1.5%. Within the framework of the Armorican massif, deposits of new types for France were discovered: Mo-W-Cu (Bovin) and Mo-W-Pb-Cu (La Rousselère).

Gold mining in France

proven reserves - 44 tons
share of world reserves - 0.1%

The main reserves of gold ores in France are associated with the Salsin ore field in the department of Aude, in the center of a gold-bearing region with an area of about 200 km 2. Deposits are veined, up to 3 m thick and seam thick up to 7 m. Cu, Bi, S and As. A significant part of the gold reserves is contained in the ores of the Bournex deposit in the Haute-Vienne department. Gold deposits are also known in the regions of Anjou and Limousin, along the border of the Cévennes, gold ore bodies have been discovered in the region of Lecur and Saint-Irie (Upper Vienne).

French copper ores

proven reserves - 165 thousand tons
share of world reserves - 0.01%

French copper ore reserves associated mainly with the Hercynian and Alpine deposits of pyrite-polymetallic ores. The deposits are small, but composed of relatively rich ores, represented by bedded and lenticular deposits of sulfide ores in sedimentary-volcanic and terrigenous rocks. The largest deposits of Pb-Zn-Cu ores have been discovered in the province of Brittany. Large reserves are available at the Bodennec deposit in the department of Finistère (Pb 2.65%, Zn 4.3%, Cu 1.6%, Ag 83 g/t). Deposits of this type Port-au-Moine have been explored in the Côtes-du-Nord department. The conditions for the occurrence of ores are difficult, the ores are difficult to enrich. Within the framework of the Armorican massif, there are also explored deposits of Cu-Pb-Zn ores: Skrinyak, Saint-Thois, etc. Deposits of complex Cu-Pb-Zn ores are known in the department of Sart (RUE), Aveyron (Chessy), Pb-Zn-Cu-Ag ore - in the Morvan region.

Tin mining in France

proven reserves - 65 thousand tons
share of world reserves - 0.1%

Numerous deposits of tin ores have been known in France since ancient times. . In scale, they are medium and small, concentrated within the Armorican and Central French massifs. Tin ores are often complex, containing W, Mb, Ta, Li. Deposits with Sn content of 0.1-0.2% are known in the Armorican massif, they belong to cassiterite-quartz (Abbares, Montbello), cassiterite-silicate (Saint-Renan) and cassiterite-greisen types. In Brittany, tin-bearing placers associated with tertiary weathering crusts have been discovered. Sand thickness is 4-5 m, cassiterite content is 0.5-0.6 kg/m³. To the Center. The massif contains the largest deposits of pegmatite (Montebras) and cassiterite-sulfide Cu-Sn (Charrier) types. Ores (50 million tons) of the Echasier deposit (Allier dep.), confined to the greisen dome of the Beauvoir granites, are of the greatest commercial importance. Ores contain on average (%): Sn 0.13, Li2O 0.71, Nb2O5 0.22, Ta2O5 0.023.

Polymetals of France

French polymetallic ores (mainly zinc), characteristic of the western and southern environs of the Cévennes, explored at the Noaillac-Saint-Salve deposit in the dep. Tarn and Viel-Montagne. The main ore mineral is sphalerite. The average content in ores is Zn 10.5%, Ag 85 g/t. The reserves of lead ores are located mainly in stratiform polymetallic deposits of the epiplatform type, concentrated in the vicinity of the Central French Massif. The deposits of Le Malin (Gard department), Largentiere (Ardèche department), Gardenier (Côte-du-Nor department) are of major industrial importance. Main ore minerals: silver-bearing galena, sphalenite, pyrite. Vein Fe-Ba-Pb-Zn deposits are also known, composed of fluorite-carbonate-sulfide, carbonate-polymetallic and Pb-Zn-barite veins.

Silver deposits in France

French silver ore reserves insignificant. There are no actual silver deposits. Complex deposits of pyrite-polymetallic and copper-pyrite ores are of primary industrial importance. In the Creuse department, the Farge stratiform deposit of Pb-AG-Ba ore has been explored. Ore minerals: argentite, electrum, hesite, sylvanite, freibergite and native silver. Ag content in ores is 15-30 g/t. In stratiform Pb-Zn deposits, silver is present in galena. The content of Ag in ores is 10-150 g/t.

Antimony mining in France

Reserves of stibium ores in France associated with vein deposits of gold-antimony-quartz type, concentrated in the Armorican massif and the southern part of the Central French massif. New antimony deposits have been discovered in the regions of Ronoan (Finistère department), Kouafri (departments of Ile and Vile), as well as on about. Corsica.

Rare metals of France

All reserves of ores of rare metals in France explored at the Eshasier deposit. Deposit of lepidolite-microcline-albite type with tantalite-columbite, cassiterite and amblygonite. Within the framework of the Central French Massif, lithium pegmatites are developed in the department of Creuse and Haute-Vienne, niobium-tantalum pegmatites in the dep. Saone-et-Loire, tantalum deposits in the department of Haute-Vienne.

Barite deposits in France

proven reserves - 2000 thousand tons
share of world reserves - 0.6%

Major deposits of barite in France - predominantly stratiform type with a BaSO4 content of 50-97% located within the Central French Massif. In the veins of deposits filled mainly with barite and fluorite, elevated concentrations of rare earth elements have been established.

Potash salts in France

proven reserves - 9 million tons
share of world reserves - 0.1%

Potash deposit in France concentrated in the Haut-Rhin department. Productive salt-bearing deposits of the Tertiary age occur in the Alsatian salt-bearing basin. The average content of K2O is 19%. Significant reserves of rock salt have been found in Lorraine. The largest deposits are Varengeville (departments of Miort and Moselle), Vover (department of Bouches-du-Rhone), Yurkuy, Dax (department of Landi), etc. High concentrations of table salt are found in the sea waters of the Mediterranean, especially in the department of Bouches-du-Rhone.

Phosphate mining in France

proven reserves - 300 thousand tons
share of world reserves - 0.01%

The main part of the reserves of phosphorites in France , represented by low-grade ores (P2O5 2.1-20%) such as phosphated chalk and phosphorite nodules, is concentrated in the Paris Basin (the Beauval deposit).

Sulfur mining in France

Sulfur deposits (with low quality ores) in France concentrated in Languedoc and Provence. The large Malwezi deposit, discovered in 1892 and explored in 1942, is represented by finely dispersed disseminated sulfur in Upper Oligocene clays, limestones, and gypsum. Content S 8-10%. Sulfur reserves are available in the Lac and Pont d'As Mayon fields, whose natural gas contains up to 15% H2.

Fluorite deposits in France

France ranks sixth in the world (after China, Mexico, South Africa, Mongolia and Russia) in terms of total fluorite reserves (4.4%) and 6th in proven reserves. Fluorite reserves in France are concentrated on deposits of medium-sized vein ore, but with a relatively high quality of ores containing 40-55% CaF2, often 10-25% BaSO4. The most important deposits are: Fontsante (Department of Var), Escaro (Oriental Pyrenees), Montroc and Mulinal (Department of Tarn). The Fonsante deposit (hydrothermal) is the only one in the world containing up to 15-20% selaite (MgF2) in ores in industrial concentrations (except for fluorite). The deposit is represented by a system of sublatitudinal veins 400-500 m long and 1-2 m thick among late Paleozoic gneisses. The veins are composed mainly of fluorite, barite and sulfides.

Gypsum deposits in France

The largest deposits of gypsum in France known in the Paris basin (Tavern, Panchard, Vaujour). The Vozhur deposit is represented by 2 layers: at a depth of 27 m (thickness 19 m) and 33 m (thickness 6 m).

Development of kaolin in France

proven reserves - 900 thousand tons
share of world reserves - 0.3%

Large reserves of kaolin in France are localized mainly in the field of high-quality raw materials of Brittany (Kessois in the Côtes-du-Nor department; Ploermel in the Morbihan department; Berien in the Finistère department), as well as in the Central French Massif.

Talc mining in France

France occupies one of the leading places in the world in terms of talc reserves . The largest deposits are Trimun and Luzenac in the department of Ariège.

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The oldest evidence of the use of stone for the manufacture of tools in France dates back to the early Acheulean (about 700-500 thousand years ago). Flint and quartzite artifacts from this period have been found at the Paleolithic site at Teppa-Amata (Nice). The famous sites and locations of Levallois belong to a somewhat later time: the Le Moustier cave gave its name to the latest culture of the early Paleolithic - Mustier (100-40 thousand years ago); according to the names of the ancient sites, the phases of the development of the late Paleolithic are indicated - Aurignac, Solutre, Madeleine (40-12 thousand years ago).

Beginning of regular mining operations in France with the arrangement of mines up to 10-15 m deep, adits and other extended workings, it coincides mainly with the Neolithic era (5-3 millennium BC). Traces of hundreds of such objects of this time were found in more than 50 regions of France. The most significant regions with traces ancient flint mining in france are noted in the interfluve of the Seine and the Somme, in the valley of the river Larg (eastern Alps), south-west of Metz. Of greatest importance were the numerous developments of high-quality flint deposits near Le Grand Presigny (Vienne River, Indre-et-Loire departments). Products made of flint dispersed throughout France, as well as beyond its borders, up to Northern Germany. For driving the workings, the burning method was used. The breed was fought back with stone hammers and horn pickles and wedges. Numerous collections of these tools were collected during clearing ancient workings in Nointel, Le Grand Presigny, Saint-Michel, Mur-de-Barre and other places.

In the 4-3rd millennium BC. France begins large-scale mining of building stone for the construction of numerous religious and tomb structures such as menhirs and dolmens. Stone construction reached a special scale after the conquest of France (formerly Gaul) by Ancient Rome in the 1st century BC. BC. and the inclusion of Gaul in the Roman Empire as a province.

The first copper appears in France approximately in the 4th-3rd millennium BC. The ore sources for its smelting remain uncertain. In the 3rd - early 2nd millennium BC. occasionally copper-arsenic alloys or bronzes are used. From the XVI-XV centuries. BC. the number of bronze products increases sharply. Products are cast mainly from tin bronzes: the sources of tin, apparently, were in England (Cornwall) and on the Iberian Peninsula. Iron tools are relatively widespread in the 1st quarter of the 1st millennium BC.

Under the Romans, in the first centuries of our era, France has significant stone mining . So, in the Nimes region, quarries of fine-grained white stone, soft calcareous sandstone, and other rocks used in urban construction are known. High-quality marble from the quarries of Saint-Bea, Campan, Sarrancolin was exported as far as Constantinople.

In the Middle Ages in France, mineral deposits were developed poorly . Iron was mined in the eastern part of the country, gold - on the Rhone River, non-ferrous metals - in Alsace and on the right bank of the middle and lower reaches of the Rhine. Salt production developed along the coasts of Provence and Languedoc, from the Garonne to the Loire on the Atlantic coast. As far back as the early Middle Ages in France, the right of feudal landowners to develop minerals was established . The development of mining in the XIV-XV centuries. characterized by an influx of large merchant capital. The decline of mining in Germany and the higher wages for foreigners in France attracted many German specialists here. Charles VI issued the first mining law (1413) , proclaiming the royal regalia and freedom of exploration and development of mineral deposits. In the future, the French kings repeatedly confirm this law, but in the mining law issued by Louis XI (1471), which remained in force for the next 300 years, some concessions were made to feudal owners.

In the XVI-XVII centuries. a small amount of iron was produced in the Ardennes , coal mining began in Saint-Etienne and Blangy, salt mining developed in Provence and on the west coast. Creation of France's major mining industry connected in the 18th century. with an increase in the consumption of coal as an energy carrier for a steam engine. Large companies were created to operate coal mines. Until the middle of the XIX century. coal was little used in the iron industry. Only after the discovery of the Thomas process in 1878 did it become possible to actively develop deposits of phosphorous iron ores in Lorraine. French iron ore production up from 714 thousand tons in 1833 to 7 million tons in 1904. Coal mining also increased from 1 million tons in 1820 to 30 million tons in 1897. In the 40s. 19th century most coal in France was mined in the Saint-Etienne basin, and at the end of the 19th century. - in the Hop basin - Pas de Calais, which produced 2/3 of French coal. In the middle of the 19th century, about 900 tons of copper, 200 tons of lead, a small amount of antimony, salt were produced in France per year, peat, non-metallic building materials were mined.

At the turn of the 20th century, the annual ore mining and metal production in France were (thousand tons): iron ore 5503; bauxites - 67; copper - 7.0; lead - 15.0; zinc - 18.4; nickel - 1.6; aluminum - 0.9; salt - 1004; building stone - 9771; marble - 133. In the early 20s. In the twentieth century, France began to produce its own oil (about 60 thousand tons per year).

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About France: short description

France is located between 42°20' and 51°5' N; 4°27' west and 8°47' east. The length from north to south is about 975 km., from east to west - about 950 km. In the north, the territory of France is washed by the North Sea, the Pas de Calais and the English Channel, in the west - by the Bay of Biscay and the Atlantic Ocean, in the south - by the Mediterranean Sea.

France is the largest country in Western Europe : it occupies almost one-fifth of the territory of the European Union, has extensive maritime spaces (exclusive economic zone extends over an area of 11 million square kilometers). The state also includes the island of Corsica in the Mediterranean Sea and more than twenty overseas departments and dependent territories. The total area of the country is 547,030 sq. km. (674,685 sq. km. together with overseas possessions).

All types of Western European landscape are found in France . The central, eastern and southern parts are distinguished by hilly or mountainous relief.

The largest mountain region in France - The central French massif (the highest point is Mount Puy de Sancy, 1886 m) - basalt plateaus alternating with volcanic cones, plateaus, rivers of the Loire basin. In the south-east of France, the highest mountains of Western Europe stretch - the Alps (the highest point is Mont Blanc, 4807 m), framed in the west by medium-altitude ridges - the Pre-Alps, which continue in the north with the Jura and Vosges mountains (Ballon de Guerbiller, 1423 m). The southwest of France is occupied by the Pyrenees (Vignemal, 3298 m).

France has several climatic zones .

Climate of France characterized by moderation in everything: in heat, rain, wind and cold. The country is located in the west of Europe, and the main factor determining its weather is the Atlantic air masses.

France has an extensive river system . Thanks to its favorable geographical position, France, washed by the waters of the Atlantic and the Mediterranean Sea, is rich in its own water resources. At the same time, there are very few lakes in France, and there are no large ones at all. Most of the rivers flow completely through the territory of France, because. originate in the mountains of the Central French Massif. For the most part, the rivers of France belong to the Atlantic Ocean basin.

Among the rivers of France the longest is the Loire. Its length is 1020 kilometers, the basin area is 115.120 square kilometers. The sources of the Loire are located in the Ardèche department, at an altitude of 1408 meters above sea level. Initially, the waters of the Loire flow almost from south to north under the influence of tertiary deposits of the Central French Massif, but in the Orleans region, the river abruptly changes direction to the west and does not change direction until it flows into the waters of the Atlantic Ocean. On the banks of the Loire there are such French cities as Rouen, Nevers, Orleans, Blois, Tours, Angers (Le Pont-de-Se), Nantes. The Loire flows into the Bay of Biscay. In addition to it, such large French rivers as the Garonne (575 km) and the Dordogne flow into the same bay, forming a common estuary - the Gironde.

France has vast maritime spaces, in which there are many islands. In the European part of France, there are several hundred islands of various sizes. The largest of them - island of Corsica located in the waters of the Mediterranean Sea. From other major French Mediterranean islands you can note islands of Porqueroy (12.54 sq. km.), Levan (9 sq. km.), Port-Cros (7 sq. km.) related to the group Isles d'Hyères. In addition to them, other groups of islands and islets of France are noted in the waters of the Mediterranean Sea: Corsican Islands, Isles of Marseilles, Archipelago du Frioul, Archipelago des Embiers, Group of Islands de Lérins.

France also includes more than twenty overseas departments and dependent territories. And all of them, with the exception of Guiana, are islands. At the same time, French overseas territories are scattered around the world and are found in the waters of the Indian (Reunion, Mayotte, French Southern and Antarctic Territories - FSA), Atlantic (Guadeloupe, Martinique, Saint Martin, Saint Barthelemy, Saint Pierre and Miquelon) and Pacific (French Polynesia, Wallis and Futuna, New Caledonia, Clipperton) oceans. The largest islands of overseas territories of France: about. Grand Terre (New Caledonia, 16,664 sq. km.), about. Grande Terre (FIAT, 6,675 sq. km.), Reunion (2,512 sq. km.), Lifou (New Caledonia, 1,146 sq. km.), Martinique (1,128 sq. km.), Tahiti (French Polynesia) , 1,036 sq. km.), etc. The total area of the islands of the overseas territories of France is 468,655 sq. km., where more than 2.4 million people live.

As of January 1, 2015, the number of people living in France and making up its population estimated at 66.3 million, including 64.2 million in France and 2.1 million in overseas departments (DOM). This figure does not include the 600,000 residents of the Overseas Communities (COM) and New Caledonia.

As of January 1, 2014, 11.6% of them, or 7.6 million of them population of France , were persons of foreign origin, 8.9%, or 5.9 million people - immigrants and 6.4%, or 4.2 million - foreign citizens. In addition, almost 3 and a half million people born in France live abroad.

Total Fertility Rate in France reached 2.01 in 2014, significantly lower than in 1950 (2.9), but higher than that of the French population in the 1990s, when the birth rate in France barely reached 1.8. According to this indicator, France is ahead of the average birth rate in Europe, but this value is not enough to ensure the renewal of generations. However, the population continues to grow due to the shape of the pyramid, immigration and increasing life expectancy among the French population, which averaged 79.2 years for males and 85.4 years for women in 2014. It should be noted that this figure in France over the past 50 years has increased by 10 years of life of any member of French society.

State symbols of France: coat of arms, flag, anthem

Modern France does not have its own approved coat of arms.

The change of the political system in the history of France took place more than once, therefore it is not difficult to understand why the people who honor revolutionary traditions and republican freedoms today do not express a desire to accept official state emblem . However, it would be a mistake to think that French heraldry remained only a legacy of the past.

Along with various republican symbols you can see the so-called Great coat of arms of France , which combines inherited from the distant Middle Ages coats of arms of all French provinces and territories. ancient french symbols experienced a great influence of the dominant Christian religion in the country.

current the coat of arms of France became the symbol of France after 1953, although it has no legal status as an official coat of arms.

The national flag of the French Republic is a rectangular panel, which consists of three vertical stripes of the same size. The pole has a blue stripe, followed by a white one, and then a red one. The sides are related to each other on a scale of two to three.

In the form as we know it now, flag of france approved in one thousand seven hundred and ninety-four. The blue banner in France was first used during the time of the first king of the Franks - Clovis I. Almost until the end of the fifth century, the king used a white banner, which depicted three lilies, and earlier three golden toads. But, with the adoption of Christianity, Clovis I ordered that the blue banner be used in the future. Over its long history, the French banner has repeatedly radically changed its appearance. It was red, which depicted yellow-red-blue roses, blue with a huge number of golden lilies - symbols of the royal family, a white cloth, with slogans written on it, for example, "Jesus Christ" or "Virgin Mary".

The blue-white-red "tricolor" was proclaimed the national flag of France on February 15, 1794. It is believed that the blue color symbolizes Saint Martin, the patron saint of the city of Paris. Red is the color of the flames of hearths and hearts. White is the symbol of the French national heroine Jeanne de Arc. According to another version, the three colors of the flag correspond to the three words of the national motto: "Freedom, Equality, Fraternity".

History of the flag of France began in 496, when the Frankish king Clovis I converted to Christianity and changed his white cloth to blue - the symbol of Saint Martin, who was considered the patron saint of France. Bishop Martin of Tours, who lived in the 4th century. and subsequently declared a saint, according to legend, once meeting a ragged beggar on the road, cut off with a sword and gave him half of his blue cloak. For a long time, the Franks had a banner in the form of a blue banner, reinforced with a red cord on a cross.

White color in the period from 1638 to 1790. was the color of the royal flag and some naval banners. From 1814 to 1830, it was also the color of the flags of the royal army. The white color symbolizes France and everything that is connected with the divine order, with God (hence the choice of this color as the main emblem of the kingdom - according to the official doctrine, the power of the king was of divine origin).

The history of the anthem of the French Republic, oddly enough for some, was not so easy. It is well known that this anthem is one of the most revolutionary songs in the world "Marseillaise" . And this revolutionary spirit of hers in modern bourgeois-socialist France confuses few people.

The author of words and music "La Marseillaise" is the captain of the French revolutionary army, a specialist in the construction of fortifications Claude-Joseph Rouget, better known by the double surname Rouget de Lisle (Rouget de Lisle, 1760-1836).

The current version of the Marseillaise consists of 6 verses, of which five belong to the pen of Claude-Joseph Rouget de Lisle and one to Antoine Pesonneau, a school teacher from Isère, who significantly supplemented the song during the passage of Marseille volunteers through his town. Music orchestrated by Berlioz, slightly modernized during the reign of Valéry Giscard de Steen. In 1996, the Rouget de Lily Museum was opened in Lons de Saunier at the expense of patrons. At the same time, the only monument to him in France was erected.

History of France: briefly

According to the assumptions of the majority of historians the birth of human civilization in France happened in the period 1000 000-700000 years BC. e. France, like the rest of Europe, was settled by Homo erectus. We can roughly imagine the transition from homo erectus ("Homo erectus") to our immediate ancestors, but the specifics of this transition in French territory remain unknown.

During the time from 400,000 to 100,000 BC, the territory of France was inhabited by representatives of this particular species. In their life they already used primitive tools. Findings found during excavations near Totavel in the south of France testify to the residence of hominids in France during this period.

In 200 B.C. e. for the first time Roman army crossed the Alps and entered Gaul , although organized conquest was still about fifty years away. In the middle of the 1st c. BC. Gaul, conquered by Rome, became its province. For 500 years, the development of Gaul proceeded under the sign of Roman culture - general, political, legal, economic. In II-IV centuries. AD Christianity spread in Gaul.

At the end of the 5th century Gaul was conquered Germanic tribes of the Franks, after which it became known as. The leader of the Franks was a talented military leader, an intelligent and prudent politician Clovis from the Merovingian dynasty. He largely retained Roman laws and established social relations, and was the first of the German leaders in the former Roman Empire to make an alliance with the Roman Catholic Church. The mixing of the Franks with the Gallo-Roman population and the fusion of their cultures created a kind of synthesis - the basis for the formation of the future French nation .

Since the death of Clovis in the beginning. 6th century Frankish kingdom subjected to continuous, acted as the scene of countless wars of various branches of the Merovingians. K ser. 8th century they have lost power. Charlemagne, who gave the name of the new Carolingian dynasty, part of Germany and, as tributaries, Northern and Central Italy and Western Slavs. After his death, and as an independent state, the West Frankish kingdom stood out. This year is considered the starting point of French history. .

From the 2nd half of the XVIII century. obsolete absolutism experienced an acute spiritual and economic crisis. In the spiritual sphere, its expression was the appearance of a galaxy of philosophers and writers who rethought the acute problems of social life in a new way (). In the economy, persistent budget deficits, prolonged increases in taxes and prices, combined with prolonged crop failures, caused the impoverishment of the masses and famine.

In 1789, in an abrupt situation, under pressure from the Third Estate (merchants and artisans), the States General were convened after a long break. Deputies from the Third Estate declared themselves the National Assembly (June 17, 1789), and then - the Constituent Assembly, which adopted the Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen. The insurgent people destroyed the symbol of the "old regime", the Bastille royal prison (July 14, 1789). The monarchy was overthrown in August 1792. (King Louis XVI executed) In September, the Republic is proclaimed. The uprising of the extreme left of its supporters led to the establishment of a bloody Jacobin dictatorship (June 1793 - July 1794). After the coup on July 27-28, 1794, power passed to the more moderate Thermidorians, and in 1795. - to the Directory. A new coup, which led to the fall of the Directory (November 1799), turned France into a Consulate: the board was concentrated in the hands of 3 consuls; The functions of the First Consul were assumed by Napoleon Bonaparte. In 1804, France has become an empire .

During the period of the Consulate and the Empire, continuous Napoleonic wars were fought . Constant recruitment into the army, tax increases, the unsuccessful Continental blockade exhausted the forces of France; the defeat of the Napoleonic troops (Great Army) in Russia and Europe (1813-1814) accelerated the collapse of the empire. In 1814 Napoleon abdicated; to . France became a monarchy (constitutional) again. Napoleon's attempt to regain the throne (1815) was unsuccessful. By decisions of the Congress of Vienna (1815), France was returned to the borders of 1790. But the main achievements of the revolution - the abolition of class privileges and feudal duties, the transfer of land to the peasants, legal reforms (Napoleon's Civil and other codes) - were not canceled.

In the 1st half of the XIX century. France was shaken by revolutions . was caused by the attempts of supporters of the Bourbons (royalists) to restore the "old regime" in its entirety. It cost the power of the main branch of the Bourbons, finally deposed. Napoleon's nephew, Louis Napoleon Bonaparte, became president of the newly proclaimed II Republic. After the coup d'état of 1851 and the year of military dictatorship that followed, Louis Napoleon was crowned emperor under the name of Napoleon III. France has become an empire again .