The policy of Austria-Hungary at the end of the 19th century. Austria-Hungary in the last third of the 19th - early 20th centuries

Austria-Hungary (German Österreich-Ungarn, officially since November 14, 1868 - German Die im Reichsrat vertretenen Königreiche und Länder und die Länder der heiligen ungarischen Stephanskrone (Kingdoms and lands represented in the Reichsrat and lands of the Hungarian crown of St. Stephen), unofficial full name - German Österreichisch-Ungarische Monarchie (Austro-Hungarian Monarchy), Hungarian Osztrák-Magyar Monarchia, Czech Rakousko-Uhersko) is a dual monarchy and a multinational state in Central Europe that existed in 1867-1918. The third largest state in Europe of its time, after the British and Russian empires, and the first of those wholly located in Europe.

Military map of the Austro-Hungarian Empire 1882-1883. (1:200,000) - 958mb

Map Description:

Military maps of the Austro-Hungarian Empire
Military Mapping Survey of Austria-Hungary

Year of issue: late 19th, early 20th century
Publisher: geographical department of the Austro-Hungarian General Staff
Format: jpg scans 220dpi
Scale: 1:200,000

Description:
265 sheets
Coverage of maps from Strassburg to Kyiv

Story

Austria-Hungary appeared in 1867 as a result of a bilateral agreement that reformed the Austrian Empire (which, in turn, was created in 1804). In foreign policy, Austria-Hungary was part of the Three Emperors Alliance with Germany and Russia, then the Triple alliance with Germany and Italy. In 1914, as part of the bloc of the Central Powers (Germany, the Ottoman Empire, and later also Bulgaria), she entered the First World War.
The assassination of the Archduke by Gavrila Princip (Mlada Bosna) in Sarajevo served as a pretext for Austria-Hungary to unleash a war against Serbia, which inevitably led to a conflict with the Russian Empire, which concluded a defensive alliance with the latter.

Borders

In the north, Austria-Hungary bordered Saxony, Prussia and Russia, in the east - with Romania and Russia, in the south - with Romania, Serbia, Turkey, Montenegro and Italy and was washed by the Adriatic Sea, and in the west - with Italy, Switzerland, Liechtenstein and Bavaria. (Since 1871 Saxony, Prussia and Bavaria have been part of the German Empire).

Administrative division

Politically, Austria-Hungary was divided into two parts - the Austrian Empire (see more Austrian lands within Austria-Hungary), ruled with the help of the Reichsrat, and the Kingdom of Hungary, which included the historical lands of the Hungarian crown and was subordinate to the Hungarian parliament and government. Unofficially, these two parts were called Cisleithania and Transleithania, respectively. Annexed by Austria-Hungary in 1908, Bosnia and Herzegovina was not included in either Cisleithania or Transleithania and was governed by special authorities.

Collapse of Austria-Hungary in 1918

Simultaneously with the defeat in the war, Austria-Hungary collapsed (November 1918): Austria (as part of the German-speaking lands) proclaimed itself a republic, in Hungary the king from the Habsburg dynasty was deposed, and the Czech lands and Slovakia formed a new independent state - Czechoslovakia. Slovenian, Croatian and Bosnian lands became part of the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes (from 1929 - Yugoslavia). Krakow land and territories with a predominantly Ukrainian population (known as part of Austria-Hungary as Galicia) went to another new state - Poland. Trieste, the southern part of Tyrol, and somewhat later Fiume (Rijeka) were annexed by Italy. Transylvania and Bukovina became part of Romania

Austria-Hungary in the late 19th - early 20th century

1) Domestic policy: exacerbation of social and national problems.

2) Foreign policy: the struggle for a place among the leading powers.

3) Preparation of Austria-Hungary for the First World War and the reasons for the collapse of the empire.

Literature: Shimov Ya. Austro-Hungarian Empire. M. 2003 (bibliography of the issue, p.
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603-605).

1. The transformation of the unified Austrian Empire into a (dualistic) Austria-Hungary in 1867 allowed the country to maintain its position among the great powers. In December 1867, a liberal constitution was adopted. Emperor Franz Joseph I (1848-1916) had to give up absolutist illusions and become a constitutional ruler. It seemed that the state had avoided collapse, but it immediately had to face new problems: social conflicts, a sharp aggravation of the national question.

The most acute was the national question. At the same time, the Austrian Germans were dissatisfied with the compromise of 1867. A small but very noisy National Party appears in the country (Georg von Schenereyr). The basis of the program of this party was pan-Germanism and support for the Hohenzollern dynasty as the unifier of all Germans. Shenereyr invented a new tactic of political struggle - not participation in parliamentary life, but noisy street demonstrations and power actions. Party members raided the offices of a Viennese newspaper that erroneously announced the death of Wilhelm I. This tactic was later adopted by Hitler's party.

A more influential political force was another party of Austrian Germans - the Christian Socialists (Karl Luger). Program:

1. Exposing the vices of a liberal society that does not care about the poor.

2. Sharp criticism of the ruling elite, which has grown together with the trade and financial oligarchy.

3. Calls to fight against the dominance of the Jewish plutocracy.

4. The struggle against the socialists and Marxists who are leading Europe to revolution.

The social support of the party was the petty bourgeoisie, the lower ranks of the bureaucracy, part of the peasantry, rural priests, part of the intelligentsia. In 1895, the Christian Socialists won the elections to the Vienna Municipality. Luger was elected mayor of Vienna. This was opposed by Emperor Franz Joseph I, who was annoyed by the popularity, xenophobia and anti-Semitism of Luger. He refused three times to approve the results of the elections and only surrendered in April 1897, having received a promise from Luger to act within the framework of the constitution. Luger kept his promise, dealing exclusively with economic issues and constantly demonstrating loyalty, he even refused anti-Semitism (ʼʼwho is the Jew here, I decideʼʼ). Luger becomes the leader and idol of the Austrian middle class.

The workers, urban and rural poor followed the Social Democrats (SDPA). The leader is Viktor Adler, who completely reformed the party. 1888 - the party announces itself with mass actions: the organization of ʼʼhungry marchesʼʼ, the organization of the first actions on May 1. The attitude towards the Social Democrats in Austria-Hungary is better than in Germany. Franz Joseph I saw the Social Democrats as allies in the fight against the nationalists. Adler's personal meeting with the emperor, where he and Karl Renner proposed to the emperor their concept of solving the national question (the project of federalization of the monarchy):

1. Divide the empire into separate national regions with broad autonomy in the field of internal self-government (Bohemia, Galicia, Moravia, Transylvania, Croatia).

2. Create a cadastre of nationalities, give every citizen the right to register in it. He can use his native language in everyday life and in contacts with the state (all languages \u200b\u200bmust be declared equal in the daily life of citizens).

3. All peoples must be granted broad cultural autonomy.

4. The development of a common economic strategy, defense and foreign policy of the state should be under the jurisdiction of the central government.

The project was utopian, but by order of the emperor, it began to be implemented in two provinces - Moravia and Bukovina. The sharp protest of the Austrian Germans and Hungarians. Such a close rapprochement between the leaders of the socialists and the emperor provoked a sharp protest from the social democrats and led to a split in this party. Adler's opponents ironically called them "imperial and royal socialists". The SDPA is actually falling apart into several socialist parties.

Nationalism had a detrimental effect on the unity of the empire. After the recognition of the rights of Hungary, the Czech provinces (Bohemia, Moravia, part of Silesia) began to claim such rights. The Czech Republic is the third most developed country after Austria and Hungary. The Czechs demanded not only cultural, but also national-state autonomy.

Back in the early 70s of the XIX century, the Czech elite split into two groups - Old Czechs and Young Czechs. The former soon founded their own national party, led by František Palacki and Rieger. The main point is the restoration of the ʼʼhistorical rights of the Czech crownʼʼ, the creation of trialism. The government is ready to negotiate. The head of the Austrian government, Count Hohenwart, in 1871 achieved an agreement with the Old Czechs on granting the Czech lands broad internal autonomy, leaving Vienna with the highest sovereignty. The Austrian Germans and Hungarians opposed. The ʼʼHohenwart Compromiseʼʼ denounces the emperor's entourage. Franz Joseph retreated. On October 30, 1871, he referred the decision of this issue to the lower house, where opponents of Czech autonomy predominated. The question is buried, the resignation of Hohenwart. This intensified the activities of the Young Czechs, who in 1871 created their own ʼʼNational Liberal Partyʼʼ (K. Sładkowski, Gregr). If the Old Czechs boycotted the elections to the Reichstag, then the Young Czechs abandon this policy. In 1879, they entered into a coalition with the Austrian and Polish conservative deputies (ʼʼIron Ringʼʼ) in parliament, thus winning a parliamentary majority. Political support was given to the Austrian Prime Minister E. Taaffe (1879-1893). ʼʼEra Taaffeʼʼ - the time of greatest political stability, economic growth and cultural flourishing. Taaffe played on national contradictions. ʼʼDifferent peoples must be kept in a state of constant slight discontentʼʼ. But as soon as he came up with a project to democratize the electoral system, the block supporting him fell apart. Aristocrats of all nationalities and liberal German nationalists were not ready to allow representatives of ʼʼunprivileged peoplesʼʼ into parliament, primarily Slavs, as well as social democrats. In 1893, anti-German, anti-Habsburg demonstrations swept through the Slavic cities. Cause for Taaffe's resignation. All subsequent governments have to solve the most difficult national problem. On the one hand, the reform of the electoral system was inevitable, on the other hand, the government could not lose the support of the Austrian Germans. Germans (35% of the population) provided 63% of tax collections. The government of Badoni (1895-1897) fell due to an attempt to introduce bilingualism in the Czech Republic. Czech cities are again overwhelmed by a wave of unrest. German politicians (von Monsen) urged the Austrian Germans not to surrender to the Slavs. Russia secretly supported the struggle of the Slavs, relying on the Young Czechs. In the western part of the monarchy (Cisleithania), universal suffrage was introduced in 1907, opening the way to parliament for both the Slavs and the Social Democrats. The fight flares up with renewed vigor.

In addition to the Czech question, there were other acute national problems in Austria-Hungary. In the South Slavic lands - pan-Slavism, in Galicia - strife between Polish landowners and Ukrainian peasants, South Tyrol and Istria (700 thousand Italians) were covered by a movement for joining Italy (iredentism).

National problems all the time posed new questions for the government. Franz Joseph I was a master of political compromise ʼʼJosefinismʼʼ, but he fought all the time with the consequences, not the causes.

2. Since the beginning of the 70s of the XIX century, there were 3 basic problems in the foreign policy of Austria-Hungary:

1. Close alliance with Germany.

2. Careful advance to the Balkans.

3. The desire to avoid a new big war.

An alliance with Germany was necessary for Vienna in order to ensure advance into the Balkans and neutralize Russian influence there. Prussia needed the support of Austria to counter France. It remains to oppose something to the influence of Great Britain. Bismarck invites Franz Joseph and Alexander II to conclude the "Union of the Three Emperors" (1873). however, the rivalry between St. Petersburg and Vienna in the Balkans significantly weakened this alliance. Austria-Hungary lost the opportunity to influence the affairs of Germany and Italy. She did not have colonies and did not seek to acquire them. It could only strengthen its position in the Balkans. She is terrified by the possibility of Russia using pan-Slavism to strike at the Ottoman Empire. Vienna takes a course to support the Turks.

In 1875 the situation in the Balkans sharply worsened. Slavic uprisings in Bosnia and Herzegovina. The Turks brutally suppressed the uprisings. In Russia, the public demands from the tsar to provide decisive support to the Slavic brothers. Franz Joseph I and his foreign minister, Count Gyula Androshi, hesitated: they did not want to push Turkey away. Bismarck advised to negotiate with Russia on the division of spheres of influence in the Balkans. In January-March 1877, the Austro-Russian diplomatic agreements were signed (Vienna received freedom of action in Bosnia and Herzegovina in exchange for benevolent neutrality during the Russian-Turkish war). The Treaty of San Stefano of 1878 provided for the creation of an independent Bulgaria, the strengthening of Montenegro and Serbia. In Vienna, this was regarded as a violation of the agreement. During the Congress of Berlin in 1878, Austria received permission from the Great Powers to occupy Bosnia and Herzegovina while formally maintaining Turkish sovereignty. The territories of Bulgaria, Serbia and Montenegro were cut. The triumph of Androsha's policy. The only time Austria-Hungary gained land and did not lose it.

Cons of this acquisition: the new lands were poor, the existence of significant social and national problems. These lands became an "apple of discord" between Vienna and St. Petersburg. The ʼʼUnion of the Three Emperorsʼʼ received a mortal blow.
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This throws Austria into the closest alliance with Germany. On October 7, 1879, a secret Austro-German agreement was signed in Vienna. Franz Joseph I finally falls into the sphere of influence of Wilhelm I and Bismarck.

After the accession to the throne of Emperor Alexander III, Bismarck pushes Franz Joseph I to renew the "Union of Three Emperors", but the Bulgarian issue (the Austro-German protege ceased to suit Russia) finally buried this union. Austria managed to significantly strengthen its position in Serbia, whose economy completely fell under Austrian control. The Serbian prince (since 1881 king) Milos Abrenovich, who was entangled in debt, offered Franz Joseph to "buy" Serbia, but he refused, fearing the preponderance of the Slavs in Austria-Hungary. Bismarck pushed Austria to improve relations with Italy. In his opinion, Italy, in the event of a new Franco-German war, could divert part of the French forces to itself. On May 20, 1882, the Triple Alliance of Germany, Austria-Hungary and Italy was concluded in Vienna. Italy, the weak link, withdrew from the union in 1912ᴦ. but until then

assistance allowed Vienna to strengthen its advance in the Balkans.

After the death of Wilhelm I and the resignation of Bismarck, Germany also begins to look at the Balkans. This caused Franz Joseph and his foreign minister, Count Holuchovsky, to turn their attention back to improving relations with Russia. The rapprochement of the two countries was facilitated by the death of Alexander III and the accession to the throne of Nicholas II. During 1896-1897, the parties exchanged official state visits, agreements were concluded on non-obstruction to each other in the south-east of Europe. But this improvement in relations did not cancel Vienna's desire to completely annex Bosnia and Herzegovina, and Russia wanted to achieve control over the Black Sea straits. The Austrian General Staff in the late 1890s begins to develop plans for a war with Russia.

On June 11, 1903, a coup d'etat took place in Serbia. King Alexander Abrenovich and his wife Draga were overthrown and killed by conspiring officers (ʼʼPeople's Defenseʼʼ and ʼʼBlack Handʼʼ). King Peter I Karageorgievich, who sympathized with the ideas of pan-Slavism and Russia, came to the throne. Austrian influence in Serbia begins to wane. The Austrian government tried to change the situation with a customs war (pig), but the Serbs quickly found other trading partners such as France, Germany and Bulgaria, and Austria finally lost the Serbian market. Serbs, with the support of Russia, begin to put forward claims to create a "Great Serbia" with the inclusion of Bosnia and Herzegovina (occupied by the Austrians since 1878), as well as all Austrian lands inhabited by Slavs (Slovenia).

The situation in the Balkans quickly heated up (ʼʼpowder keg of Europeʼʼ). Three basic problems:

10. the struggle of the great powers for the division of spheres of influence

11. contradictions between young, independent states: Bulgaria, Serbia and Greece were at enmity over Macedonia, and Romania and Bulgaria - because of Dobruja (a region in the lower reaches of the Danube)

12. Serbia and Italy claimed dominance over the Albanian lands, which worried Austria-Hungary.

Bosnian Crisis 1908-1909.

A war with Serbia inevitably meant a clash between Austria and Russia. It was extremely important for Vienna to get the support of Berlin, but in Berlin they did not want to spoil relations with Serbia, since Germany began to actively develop the Serbian market. Vienna tried to bring Turkey into the union, but she was weakened by the Young Turk revolution of 1908ᴦ.

In this situation, the new Minister of Foreign Affairs of Austria, Baron (and later Count) Alois Lexa von Ehrenthal (1906-1912) headed for the complete annexation of Bosnia and Herzegovina. It was a strategically important part of the Balkan Peninsula, inhabited by Orthodox Serbs (42%), Catholic Croats (21%) and Bosniaks (34%, Muslim Slavs). The Austrians were forced to act immediately by the events in Turkey, where, after the successful revolution of 1908, parliamentary elections were scheduled. On August 19, 1908, at a meeting of the Cabinet of Ministers, Erenthal declared the extreme importance of the annexation of Bosnia and Herzegovina. He was supported by the Chief of the Austrian General Staff, General Konrad von Getzendorf, and the heir to the Austrian throne, Archduke Franz Ferdinand d'Este.

Emperor Franz Joseph I hesitated, fearing Russian discontent, but Erenthal was able to negotiate with the Russian Foreign Minister Izvolsky, who promised not to object to the annexation of Bosnia and Herzegovina, and in return Erenthal promised to support St. Petersburg's demand for a revision of the status of the Black Sea straits. Ehrenthal knew that Great Britain would be strongly opposed to this. And so it happened. Izvolsky's mission to London ended unsuccessfully. And on October 6, Franz Joseph I announced the annexation of Bosnia and Herzegovina. This caused indignation in Serbia, and in St. Petersburg, Izvolsky was subjected to sharp criticism in the State Duma. He justifies himself, claiming that Erenthal deceived him by not specifying the exact terms of the annexation, but the documents caught him in a lie. Petersburg felt deceived, but this acquisition brought new difficulties to Vienna:

7. Berlin was extremely offended by the fact that France found out about the annexation earlier than Germany, due to the negligence of the ambassador in Paris, Kevenhüller.

8. Turkey did not agree with this loss and announced a boycott of all Austrian goods on the Turkish market. Turkey was only able to calm down with a huge compensation of 54 million marks.

9. Belgrade announces the mobilization of reservists and increases the military budget by 16 million dinars.

Serbia hoped for help from Russia, but Russia, weakened by the revolution of 1905-1907, could not fight. The Serbs were tried in every possible way to reassure the Serbs from St. Petersburg, promising that Serbia would receive compensation for Bosnia and Herzegovina. Erenthal categorically refuses this, stating that the Serbs have not lost anything. Vienna turns to Berlin for help, but Berlin is also not going to fight. Chancellor Bulow appeals to St. Petersburg with a proposal not to object to this annexation. If his proposal was not accepted, Bülow threatened to ʼʼleave events to their natural courseʼʼ. Petersburg was forced to retreat. London also influenced the Serbs to come to terms with this loss. On March 31, 1909, Serbia officially agreed to recognize Bosnia and Herzegovina. Ehrenthal won, but this only added to Vienna's problems:

1) The Treasury suffered significant material losses associated with the compensation of Turkey and the mobilization of reservists.

2) The hostility of Russia is sharply manifested.

3) Hostility towards Austria is growing among the Bosnian Serbs.

4) The Austrian Germans and Hungarians are extremely dissatisfied with the sharp increase in the Slavic population of the Empire.

But there were also pluses of this accession. In particular, the alliance between Austria and Germany was significantly strengthened. Germany, even for a short time, went in line with Austrian policy (the Bosnian crisis of 1908-1909).

3. The time, ĸᴏᴛᴏᴩᴏᴇ, preceded the First World War, for Austria it is an almost continuous chain of large and small crises. The rivalry between the Entente and the Triple Alliance is becoming more and more acute. Moreover, in each of these blocks there was no internal unity.

By 1911, Vienna finally fell under the influence of Berlin, and Ehrenthal died in 1912 from leukemia. After that, the Austrian military elite strengthens its position, and Getzendorf returns to the post of Chief of the General Staff. In 1912, the Balkan problem escalated. The Ottoman Empire is falling apart, losing one province after another. In the summer of 1912, Bulgaria, Greece, Serbia and Montenegro formed the Balkan Union against Turkey. From October 1912 to June 1913 the first Balkan war was going on. Turkey has lost almost all of its territories in the Balkan Peninsula. In Austria, this caused shock and suspicions of the revitalization of Russia's activities. But having barely won a victory in Turkey, the winners quarreled over the issue of Macedonia. In June 1913, the Second Balkan War began against the aggression of Bulgaria, Serbia, Greece and Romania allied with Turkey. Bulgaria was defeated, losing most of the conquered territory, and Turkey was able to retain a small part of its European possessions, centered on Adrianople (Edirne). Austria-Hungary decided to use the results of the Second Balkan War to weaken Serbia. Vienna supported the idea of creating an independent Albania, hoping that this state would be under the Austrian protectorate. Russia, supporting Serbia, began to concentrate troops near the Austrian border. Austria does the same. It was about the prestige of the Austro-Hungarian monarchy, without which it was impossible to resolve the internal national question, but the position of Great Britain and Germany puts off a big war for a while. For a while, the interests of these states intersect. In both countries, it was believed that it was stupid to start a war because of a petty conflict between Serbia and Austria-Hungary. Britain did not want to lose profitable trade in the Mediterranean and feared for the ways of communication with the eastern colonies. Germany is actively developing the young Balkan states. Under the joint pressure of the Great Powers, Serbia agrees to the creation of a formally independent Albania. The crisis of 1912 was resolved. But in Vienna there is a sense of defeat. Causes:

6. Serbia did not lose its positions in the Balkans and retained its claims to unite the Balkan Slavs. Austro-Serbian relations were hopelessly damaged.

7. The clash between Romania and Bulgaria destroyed the fragile system of relations beneficial to Austria.

8. More and more contradictions arise between Austria-Hungary and Italy, threatening the collapse of the Triple Alliance.

The abundance of insoluble problems forces Austria-Hungary to hope only for a big war. The aged emperor Franz Joseph I did not want war, but was unable to restrain national strife (the Austrian Germans, the Hungarian elite, the Slavs were dissatisfied). Many of the Austrian politicians saw a way out in the transfer of the throne to the heir Archduke Franz Ferdinand (since 1913 he was appointed to the most important military post of inspector general of the armed forces). He spoke in favor of improving relations with Russia and at the same time was sharply anti-Hungarian.

In June 1914 he left for maneuvers in Bosnia. After the end of the maneuvers, he visited the Bosnian capital of Sarajevo. Here he and his wife, Countess Sophia von Hohenberg, were killed on June 28 by Serbian terrorist Gavrilo Princip of the Black Hand. This pushes Vienna to present an ultimatum to Serbia, which becomes the formal reason for the start of the First World War. Participation in the war to the limit aggravated the internal problems of the Empire and led to its collapse in 1918ᴦ.

Austria-Hungary in the late XIX - early XX century - concept and types. Classification and features of the category "Austria-Hungary in the late XIX - early XX centuries" 2017, 2018.

Austrian Empire and Austria-Hungary in the 19th century

In the 19th century, the rulers of the multinational Austrian Empire had to fight against revolutionary and national liberation movements on their territory. Ethnic conflicts, which could not be resolved, led Austria-Hungary to the threshold of the First World War.

background

The Austrian ruler Franz II proclaimed the hereditary possessions of the Habsburgs an empire, and himself - Emperor Franz I, in response to the imperial policy of Napoleon Bonaparte. During the Napoleonic Wars, the Austrian Empire suffered defeats, but in the end, thanks to the actions of Russia, it was among the winners. It was in Vienna, the capital of the Austrian Empire, that an international congress took place in 1815, at which the fate of post-war Europe was determined. After the Congress of Vienna, Austria tried to resist any revolutionary manifestations on the continent.

Events

1859 - defeat in the war with France and Sardinia, loss of Lombardy (see).

1866 - defeat in the war with Prussia and Italy, loss of Silesia and Venice (see).

Problems of the Austrian Empire

The Austrian Empire was not a strong nation-state with a common history and culture. Rather, it represented the heterogeneous possessions of the Habsburg dynasty accumulated over the centuries, the inhabitants of which had different ethnic and national self-consciousness. Actually, the Austrians, for whom German was their native language, were a minority in the Austrian Empire. In addition to them, in this state there were a large number of Hungarians, Serbs, Croats, Czechs, Poles and representatives of other peoples. Some of these peoples had a full experience of living within an independent nation-state, so their desire for at least wide autonomy within the empire, and at most full independence, was very strong.

At the same time, the Austrian rulers made concessions only to the extent necessary to maintain the formal unity of the state. In general, the desire of peoples for independence was suppressed.

In 1867, with the granting of broad autonomy to Hungary, a constitution was also adopted in Austria and a parliament was convened. There was a gradual liberalization of the electoral legislation up to the introduction of universal suffrage for men.

Conclusion

The national policy of Austria-Hungary, within the framework of which the peoples inhabiting it did not receive equal status with the Austrians and continued to strive for independence, became one of the reasons for the collapse of this state after the First World War.

Parallels

Austria is a clear evidence of the instability of the empire as a type of state formation. If several peoples coexist within the framework of one state, while power belongs to one of them, and the rest are in a subordinate position, such a state sooner or later has to spend huge resources to keep all these peoples in the orbit of its influence, and in the end eventually becomes unable to cope with this task. Similar was the history of the Ottoman Empire, which at the time of its heyday conquered many peoples, and then found itself unable to resist their desire for independence.

"Patchwork Empire". Having lost the position of a great power after the defeat in the Austro-Prussian war of 1866, Austria in 1867 concluded an agreement on unification with Hungary.

The united Austria-Hungary became one of the largest states in Europe. In terms of territory and population, it surpassed Great Britain, Italy and France. At the beginning of the XX century. Austria-Hungary included the territories of Austria, Hungary, the Czech Republic, Slovakia, Slovenia and Croatia, as well as part of the territories of modern Romania, Poland, Italy and Ukraine. Vienna, the capital of Austria, was one of the most ancient, populous and wealthy cities in Europe. Industrial, commercial and cultural centers were also the capital of Hungary, Budapest, and the main city of the Czech lands, Prague.

Unlike most states of Western Europe, Austria-Hungary was a multinational state, and it was often called a "patchwork empire." More than a dozen different nationalities lived on the territory of Austria-Hungary, and none of them made up even a quarter of the total population. The most numerous were Austrians (23.5% of the population) and Hungarians (19.1%). This was followed by Czechs and Slovaks (16.5%), Serbs and Croats (16.5%), Poles (10%), Ukrainians (8%), Romanians (6.5%), Slovenes, Italians, Germans and many others. .

Some nationalities lived more or less compactly: for example, Austrians in Austria, Hungarians in Hungary, Croats in Croatia, Czechs in the Czech lands, Poles and Ukrainians in Galicia, Romanians and Hungarians in Transylvania. Many areas had a mixed population.

Religious differences were added to national differences: Austrians, Italians and Poles professed Catholicism, Czechs and Germans - Protestantism, Croats - Muslims, Ukrainians - Orthodoxy or Uniatism.

According to the terms of the agreement of 1867 between Austria and Hungary, Austria-Hungary was considered "dual royal" Hungarians and Austrians. The Austrian emperor Franz Joseph was also the Hungarian king. He had the right to issue legislative acts, approved the composition of the government and was the commander-in-chief of the united Austro-Hungarian army. Austria and Hungary had three common ministries - military, foreign affairs and finance. Austria and Hungary had their own parliaments and governments, the composition of which was approved by the emperor.

There was no universal suffrage. Only the owners of any property enjoyed the right to vote; the vote was open. In areas densely populated by some nationalities (in Croatia, the Czech lands, Galicia), their own constitutions were in force, there were local parliaments and self-government bodies. In such areas, primary school instruction and local government administration were required by law to be conducted in the national languages, but this law was frequently violated.

The great complexity of the national and religious composition, the unequal position of all nationalities, except for the Austrians and Hungarians, gave rise to various national movements whose interests did not coincide. Serious contradictions existed even between the two dominant nations - the Austrians and the Hungarians. Part of the ruling circles of Hungary advocated the liquidation of the agreement of 1867, the separation of Hungary from Austria and the proclamation of Hungary's independence. Relations between other nationalities were even more complicated. The peoples who did not have their own statehood were at enmity with the Austrians and Hungarians, and at the same time were often in hostile relations with each other.

The government of Austria-Hungary sought to suppress the desire of the oppressed nationalities for independence. Several times it dissolved the local parliaments and governments, but could not put an end to the national movements. Numerous legal and illegal nationalist organizations continued to operate in the empire.

Socio-economic development. In the field of economy, Austria-Hungary lagged behind the great powers. The most industrially developed were Austria and the Czech lands located in the western part of Austria-Hungary. There was a large industry and banks. The six largest monopolies controlled the extraction of almost all iron ore and 92% of steel production. Metallurgical concern "Skoda" in the Czech Republic was one of the most significant enterprises in the European military industry. In other parts of Austria-Hungary, small and medium industry predominated. Hungary, Croatia, Galicia, Transylvania were agrarian regions with large landed estates. About a third of all cultivated land there belonged to the largest owners, who each had more than 1,000 hectares. The peasants were dependent on the landlords, often ran their households in outdated traditional ways.

A feature of the economy of Austria-Hungary was the important role of foreign capital in it. The leading branches of the Austro-Hungarian industry: metallurgical, machine-building, oil, electrical engineering - were financed by German firms or were their property. In second place was French capital. He owned the Skoda factories, part of the railways, mines and enterprises of the iron foundry industry.

The working class of Austria-Hungary was small. It concentrated mainly in large cities of Austria and the Czech Republic, as well as in the capital of Hungary - Budapest. Two-thirds of the population of Austria-Hungary lived in the countryside, engaged in agriculture, crafts and trade. In many areas the ruling and exploited classes belonged to different nationalities. Croatian, Serbian, Romanian peasants often worked for the Hungarian magnates, Ukrainian peasants - for the Polish landowners. This circumstance further complicated national relations and increased national hostility.

Crisis of the Austro-Hungarian Empire. At the beginning of the XX century. The Austro-Hungarian Empire was going through a deep political crisis caused by the rise of the labor and national liberation movement. After the publication in Russia of the tsarist manifesto on October 17 (30), 1905, which promised democratic freedoms and the convocation of the State Duma, the leadership of the Austrian Social Democratic Party called on the working people to mass actions in support of universal suffrage. In early November 1905, in Vienna and Prague, workers took to the streets, staged demonstrations, organized strikes, built barricades, clashed with the police. The Austrian government made concessions and on November 4, 1905 announced its consent to the introduction of universal suffrage. In February 1907, a new electoral law was adopted, which, for the first time in the history of Austria, gave the right to vote to all men over the age of 24.

Events in Hungary developed differently. The Suffrage Reform Act was introduced in the Hungarian parliament in 1908, but it granted the right to vote only to literate men, and the owners of any property received two votes. It was only in 1910 that the Hungarian government promised to introduce universal suffrage, but did not fulfill its promise.

The main place in the political life of Austria-Hungary at that time was occupied by questions of foreign policy. The ruling circles, especially the so-called "military party", headed by the ardent militarist deputy commander in chief, heir to the throne, Archduke Franz Ferdinand, sought to expand in the Balkans. In October 1908, the government announced the accession to Austria-Hungary of Bosnia and Herzegovina, the former Turkish provinces populated mainly by Serbs and Croats.

The annexation of Bosnia and Herzegovina aroused the protest of the population of these provinces and led to a sharp aggravation of the contradictions between Austria-Hungary and Serbia. The "Military Party" launched a propaganda campaign against Serbia and began to prepare for a "preventive" (precautionary) war with it.

For their part, Serbian and Croatian nationalist organizations operating in Austria-Hungary launched a struggle for the liberation of Bosnia and Herzegovina and the creation of a unified Yugoslav state led by Serbia. In an effort to suppress the national movements of the peoples inhabiting Austria-Hungary, the government decided to dissolve part of the local self-government bodies. In 1912, the Croatian parliament was dissolved and the constitution suspended. In 1913 the same fate befell the Czech Parliament. In 1914 the government dissolved the Austrian Parliament. As a result, national and class contradictions became even more aggravated.

The turning point - 1867 - the transformation of the unitary Austrian empire into a dualitarian Austria-Hungary:

The defeat of Austria in the war with Prussia in 1866 - alienated from the unification of Germany;
National movements (eg Hungarian).

From February 1867 Verger. Minister D. Andrasche is developing a draft Hungarian requirements, which will save Austria. Empire. June-August 1867 The Austrian Emperor approves this project and crowns the King of Hungary. December 1867 - law on the common affairs of Austria and Hungary - dualistic monarchy.

Those. A state in the form of a confederation that has a center. Power. And limited features.

General: the monarch, a single all-imperial minister (András), affairs (military sphere - a single army; foreign policy; funding - 70% Austria and 30% Hungary); Separately: attributes of statehood, parliament, government.

Austria (Cisleithania) - 17 provinces with their own self-government (Austria, Czech Republic, Maravia, Czech Selesia, Galicia, northern Bukovina, Slovenian lands, South Tyrol, Dolmatia).

Hungary (Transleithania) is a unitary state (Hungary, Slovakia, Transylvania, Croatia, Slovonia, Kvavodina?).

Inevitable compromise:

Austria: Relinquished control of Hungary; retained a dominant position within the empire;
Hungary: abandoned aspirations for full independence; received complete independence inside;
The Habsburg dynasty: renounced absolute power; retained control in both parts of the empire.

Controlling the disintegration from a unitary state into an asymmetric confederation:

In the second half of 1867, he adopted 3 laws of constitutional significance:

law on the change of imperial power;
law on the functioning of the executive branch;
law on universal rights of citizens;

December constitution of 1867. Hungary's own constitution of 1849.

The most developed are Austria and the Czech lands. Up to 90% of coal was mined. The newest branches of the economy: electrical engineering, mechanical engineering. Hungary lagged behind, the agrarian character of the territory.

Features of the internal political development of Austria:

instability within the political course;
the main directions are centralist and federalist.
multi-party system (parties on national grounds)

1868 Hungarian law on the equality of nationalities (Magyers = Hungarians).

1868 Hungarian-Croatian agreement. Provided for a certain autonomy of the Croats. Lands (for example, language, culture): Croatia, Slavonia, Dolmatia were part of Austria and the provisions did not apply to it.

National movements on the territory of Austria-Hungary:

the diversity of nations;
the existence of 2 dominant nations: the Austro-Germans and the Hungarians under the agreement of 1867;
The Czechs had special autonomy in the territory of the Czech Republic, Moravia and Bohemia, the Poles in Galicia, the Croats. These are peoples enjoying to-l rights.
The rest of the peoples did not have rights.

Until 1867, there was the only dominant ethnic group - the Austro-Germans, followed by the Hungarians, Czechs, Poles.

2 dominant ethnic groups never had a majority in numbers (data for 1900: Slavic population in Astria - 60%, Hungarians in Hungary - 45%, Slavic peoples - 27%).

The specifics of the national Relations in Austria:

constant balancing of powers in solving nat. Question (policy of concessions and centralis policy);
National Movements: Czech and Polish.

The Czechs, in the conditions of the A-B compromise (its preparation), simultaneously formulated their demands - “fundamental articles”, the monarchy should become trialistic. The Germans in the Czech lands, German nationalists, Hungarians, Germany took up arms against the Czechs. Consequence: Czech nat. The requirements have not been implemented. Therefore, they continued to protest by peaceful means (protest of the Czech party in the Austrian Diet - concentrated on the language requirement, the equality of the Czech and German languages). 1896-1897 Austrian The prime minister implemented the "linguistic decree" on equality in the Czech lands - an anti-Czech company - the abolition of the decree.

The most acute contradictions: between Germans and Czechs; between Germans and Slavs; between the Austrian authorities and the Italians. Settlement of Trieste and south. Tyrol (transfer land to Italy).

Non-German controversies: between Italians and Croats in Dalmatia; between Poles and Ukrainians in Galicia.

The reasons for the national Movements and features:

high level of economy. development;
relative autonomy of the lands;
developed social culture;
developed in the absence of strong national traditions;
the highest degree of development and differentiation of the movement (Old Czechs; Liberals - Young Czechs; radicals - National Socialist Party; Agrarian Party, Social Democrats);
moderate nature of the movement;
main goals: Austro-Slavism and federalism, Trialism, Pan-Slavism.

Galicia. The level of development is low, agricultural lands with federal vestiges;
Social The structure was not entirely the structure of bourgeois society;
Preserve their own feud. Class (landownership);
Polit. Fragmentation within the framework of 3 empires (the kingdom of Poland in Russia, in Germany and a-c);
The most favorable conditions for the development of nat. Movements in Galicia, as had some autonomy (for example, the Sejm, the language, most state positions were occupied by Poles);
Preservation of the traditions of Polish statehood;
High differentiation of the movement: conservative-clerical groupings, liberal, radical (peasant party), social democratic;
Moderate movement. The dominance of the ideas of Austro-Slavism, the unification of all Polish lands together, the restoration of Poland within the borders before the first partition.

The specifics of the national Relations in Hungary:

hard assimilation course;
Croatian movement.

Croatian development conditions. National Movements:

slow development of the capitalist. Relations, agricultural territories with feudal lords. Remnants (large. Landownership);
since 1868 it developed in terms of autonomy: its own elected body - the cathedral under the governor - ban;
Croatian political fragmentation. Lands;
lack of strong state. Traditions;
differentiation: conservative. - people's party - people;; liberals - the party of rights - right-handers; socialist.
A high degree of heterogeneity: legal activity on the scale of the cathedral and the Austrian. Seimas + armed strikes (for example, 1871);
Main ideas: Austro-Slavism, Croatian trialism, Con-Croatism, Yugoslavism;
Different orientation of forces: pro-Autrian and Pro-Hungarian.

Relations between Austria and Hungary under nat. Movement:

The dynasty sought to use nat. Movements to maintain their power and the integrity of the empire. Austria sought to use the Croat. National Movement to contain Hungarian separatism. Hungary supported any anti-Slavic movements in Austria, to prevent the strengthening of Slavic influence.

The development of the worker and the social democrat. Movements:

The labor movement has been developing since the 1860s and 70s.

1867 - the first slave. Society in Vienna;

1869 - the first social democrats. Newspaper;

1873 - the first democratic organization in Hungary (forbidden);

1874 - the Social Democrat was created at the congress. Party of Austria with the right of nations to self-determination;

1878 - in the Czech lands, the Czechoslovak social. Union;

1878-1879 Hanfilho. Social Democrat. The party has been restored. New program: socialist character;

Since 1897 - within the framework of the Social Democrats. The party acted several times. National parties;

1899 - Mr. Bruno. National program Question: Democrat. Federation, state-in with self-governing lands according to nat. sign; the demand for guarantees of the rights of nat. Minorities and the exclusion of nat. Privilege; cultural-national Autonomy of mixed territories.

1870 - universal slave. The Hungarian Party in 1880 was transformed into a Social Democrat. party;

1894 - Social Democrat. Party of Croatia and Slavonia.

The influence of the national Questions on external Policy:

European policy - emphasis on the Balkans - to prevent the creation of a large South Slavic state;

The problem of foreign policy. Orientations (Russia, Germany):

Union of the Three Emperors 1873;
The final definition of an ally during the Eastern crisis of 1875-1878;
1879 - dual alliance under German dominance.

Since 1878 the problem of relations with Serbia. Since 1903, the aggravation of Austro-Serbian relations.

1882 - tripartite alliance with complex relations between A-B and Italy.

Every pro-German. step strengthened nat. Problems. Czech national the movement begins to operate towards other countries, i.e. to Russia.