The concept of a grammatical category. Types of grammatical categories

2.1. Morphological HA

2.2. Lexico-grammatical categories

2.3. Syntactic GK

Historical variability of grammatical categories

Literature

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General understanding of grammatical categories

Definition grammatical category (GC) is built either based on the form, or based on the grammatical meaning (GZ).

1. Grammar category(gr. katē Goria‘judgment, definition’) is a system of rows opposed to each other grammatical forms with homogeneous values ​​[LES, p. 115; Kodukhov, p. 227; Alefirenko, p. 317].

At the same time, it is generally accepted that the basis of the Civil Code are GCs. GK is a generic concept, and GZ is a specific one.

Members (components) of the GC, i.e. grammatical meanings are called grammes(grammemes singular and plural within the category of number; grammemes 1, 2, 3 persons) [LES, 117].

Necessary signs of GC.

Materialexpressiveness grammatical meaning (GS). Wed definition of GC: grammatical meaning- this is the abstract content of a linguistic unit, which has in the language regular and standard expression. If in a given language some GC is not expressed formally (by grammatical means), there is no reason to speak of a GC.

The second necessary sign of HA, closely related to the first, is the presence of at least twoopposed forms, united by some value:

Russians nouns are GK kind, but the English do not;

Russian nouns have case category, but the French do not; in English nouns - it is doubtful (possessive forms are either considered a case or not), despite the fact that English personal pronouns have a case category: I – me, he – him (the direct and indirect cases are contrasted);

in African language wai No GK time, because there are no opposing grammatical forms with the meaning of time.

There is not a single GC that would be characteristic of all languages ​​of the world [Shaikevich, p. 104].

It is important to distinguish:

grammatical forms.

Grammatical formsconnected with a certain way of expression, this is the unity of the CP and the way it is expressed [Reformatsky, p. 317].

Let's compare examples in which the same CG is expressed in different ways:

dog-dogs foo t-fee t

finish - finished wri te-wro te

long - longer good-better interesting -more interesting

In language nass(one of the languages ​​of Colombia) plural is formed 4 ways:

most names (and verbs) in plural. doubles(incomplete root reduplication):

gyat'Human' - gyi gyat 'people';

some prefixes:

an’ on 'hand' - ka - an’ on 'arms';

wai‘paddle’ - lu - wai‘oars’;

suffix:

waky 'brother' - waky- kw ‘brothers’;

internal flexion:

gwu la 'raincoat' - gwi la ‘cloaks’ [ Sapir E. Language, 1934, p. 47 (New ed. - 1993). Cit. Quoted from: Reformed, p. 263].

write -on the -write,

resh-a -t - resh-and -th,

soband army - gather,

incisioná t - razré zat,

speak -to tell .

Types of grammar categories

There are several classifications of GC.

1. Depending on the number of opposing members the same GC in different languages ​​can be organized in different ways.

binomial GC:

cat. numbers in Russian language,

cat. kind in Romance (male ↔ female) and Iranian languages ​​(according to soul / inanimate) [LES, p. 418];

cat. time in Khanty: past ↔ present-future.

Trinomial:

cat faces;

cat. numbers in Slovene, Lusatian, Arabic, Nenets, Khanty languages, where the forms of units, dv. and plural. For example, hunter:

hot'house', hot- ng  n 'two houses', hot-  t ‘at home (more than two)’

yuh'wood', yuh-ng  n ‘two trees’, yuh- t ‘trees (more than two)’.

Polynomial:

Papuan languages ​​also have triple number;

2. GCs are divided into

morphological,

syntactic.

The concept of GC was developed mainly on the basis of morphological categories. The issue of syntactic categories is less developed [LES, p. 116].

2.1. Morphological HA characteristic of lexico-grammatical classes of words - significant parts of speech (nouns, adjectives, numerals, verbs, adverbs, pronouns):

2.1.1. Among the morphological categories, there are

inflectional- those whose members are represented forms of the same word within its paradigms(cf. Russian forms case nouns; kind,numbers and case adjectives; forms faces at the verb);

classification- those whose members represented by different words, because these are categories that are inherent in the word and do not depend on its use in the sentence (cf. Russian categories kind nouns, animate / inanimate nouns, kind verb) [LES, p. 115].

2.1.2. Morphological categories are divided into

Nominal group of companies: GK of gender, case, animation-inanimateness;

CC verb type: GK of time, type, pledge, inclination.

The GCs of the language are in close cooperation and show a tendency to interpenetration:

cat. time closely related to cat. inclinations, as well as kind: temporary forms, as a rule, are opposed within indicative mood representing real events; if there are many "tenses" in the language, then this temporary forms: perfect= finished / imperfect= unfinished action in the past, aorist= point action in the past, present continious etc.

cat. faces connects verbs and pronouns;

cat. numbers connects a noun and a verb.

GRAMMATICAL CATEGORY, a system of opposing rows of grammatical forms with homogeneous meanings. In this system, the categorizing attribute is decisive (see Linguistic category), for example, the generalized meaning of time, person, voice, etc., which unites the system of values ​​of individual tenses, persons, voices, etc. into the corresponding forms. A necessary feature of a grammatical category is the unity of its meaning and the expression of this meaning in the system of grammatical forms.

Grammatical categories are divided into morphological and syntactic. Among the morphological grammatical categories, there are, for example, grammatical categories of aspect, voice, tense, mood, person, gender, number, case; the consistent expression of these categories characterizes entire grammatical classes of words (parts of speech). The number of opposed members within such categories can be different: for example, in Russian the grammatical category of gender is represented by a system of three rows of forms expressing the grammatical meanings of masculine, feminine and neuter, and the grammatical category of number is represented by a system of two rows of forms - singular and plural . In languages ​​with developed inflection, grammatical inflectional categories are distinguished, that is, those whose members can be represented by forms of the same word within its paradigm (for example, in Russian - tense, mood, person of the verb, number, case, gender, degrees comparisons of adjectives) and non-inflective (classifying, classifying), that is, those whose members cannot be represented by forms of the same word (for example, in Russian - gender and animate-inanimate nouns). The belonging of some grammatical categories (for example, in the Russian language - aspect and voice) to inflectional or non-inflectional type is the subject of discussion.

There are also grammatical categories that are syntactically identifiable, that is, indicating, first of all, the compatibility of forms in the composition of a phrase or sentence (for example, in Russian - gender, case), and non-syntactically identifiable, that is, expressing, first of all, various semantic abstractions, abstract from the properties, connections and relations of extralinguistic reality (for example, in Russian - type, time); such grammatical categories as, for example, number or person, combine features of both these types.

The languages ​​of the world are different:

1) by the number and composition of grammatical categories; compare, for example, the category of the verb form, which is specific to some languages ​​- Slavic, etc.; the category of the so-called grammatical class - a person or a thing - in a number of Caucasian languages; the category of certainty-uncertainty, inherent mainly in languages ​​with an article; the category of politeness, or respectability, characteristic of a number of Asian languages ​​(in particular, Japanese and Korean) and associated with the grammatical expression of the speaker's attitude towards the interlocutor and the persons in question;

2) by the number of opposed members within the same category; compare the traditionally distinguished 6 cases in Russian and up to 40 in some Dagestan;

3) according to what parts of speech contain this or that category (for example, in the Nenets language nouns have the categories of person and tense). These characteristics may change in the course of the historical development of one language; compare three forms of number in Old Russian, including the dual, and two in modern Russian.

Lit .: Shcherba L. V. On the parts of speech in the Russian language // Shcherba L. V. Selected works in the Russian language. M., 1957; Gukhman M. M. Grammatical category and structure of paradigms // Studies in the general theory of grammar. M., 1968; Katsnelson SD Typology of language and speech thinking. L., 1972; Lomtev T.P. Proposition and its grammatical categories. M., 1972; Typology of grammatical categories. Meshchaninov readings. M., 1973; Bondarko A. V. Theory of morphological categories. L., 1976; Panfilov V. 3. Philosophical problems of linguistics. M., 1977; Lyons J. Introduction to Theoretical Linguistics. M., 1978; Kholodovich A. A. Problems of grammatical theory. L., 1979; Russian grammar. M., 1980. T. 1. S. 453-459; Typology of grammatical categories. L., 1991; Melchuk I. A. Course of general morphology. M., 1998. T. 2. Part 2; Gak VG Theoretical grammar of the French language. M., 2004.

1) Depending on the number of opposed components, grammatical categories are divided into two-membered (number, form), three-membered (person, mood, gender) and polynomial (case) categories.

2) According to the nature of the opposition of the components, categories are distinguished that are formed on the basis of 1) privative (unequal), 2) equivalent (equivalent), 3) gradual (gradual) relations.

A privative opposition by gender is formed by nouns of the type teacher - teacher, tractor driver - tractor driver, cashier - cashier: a masculine noun in such pairs can name both a man and a woman, and a feminine noun can only name a woman. The privative category is the aspect in the verb. Perfective verbs answer only the semantic question “What to do?”, And imperfective verbs, in addition to the question “What to do?”, in some speech situations also answer the question “What to do?”: What was this boy guilty of? What did he do? He was picking apples in someone else's garden.

Some personal masculine and feminine nouns form an equivalent opposition: mother - father, brother - sister, girl - boy. Masculine nouns denote men, feminine nouns denote women.

Gradual relations are presented in degrees of comparison.

The case as a grammatical category in a certain volume is arranged according to the principle of additional distribution: the same lexical meaning with the help of the case is placed in different syntactic positions: to lose someone, to envy someone, to hate someone, to admire someone, to grieve about com - about what.

In the same grammatical category, different principles of semantic organization can be found. See noun gender.

3) In addition, depending on whether the components of the grammatical category are one word or represent different lexemes, inflectional and classifying (lexicogrammatic) categories are distinguished. Classifying categories combine different words that have the same grammatical meaning. Thus, the categories of gender, number and case of adjectives, the category of case of nouns, the category of person, mood, tense of the verb, etc. are inflectional. Some categories turn out to be of a mixed type, partly inflectional, partly lexico-grammatical (classifying). Such, for example, is the category of number in nouns.

A. V. Bondarko called inflectional categories correlative, and classifying - non-correlative. At the same time, he singled out consistently correlative, consistently non-correlative and inconsistently correlative grammatical categories.

Note. E. V. Klobukov suggested distinguishing interpretative morphological categories as a special type, “designed to express the degree of relative importance of two or more homogeneous semantic elements” of the statement “Thanks to these categories, one of the homogeneous meanings is singled out by the speaker as the main one, and the other sense< >as an additional, accompanying, comitative information part. The grammatical meaning expressed by such categories, E. V. Klobukov calls comitative. On the basis of comitativeness, in his opinion, opposition of full and short forms of the adjective, conjugated and attributive forms of the verb, forms of the active and passive voice, as well as nominative and vocative cases to indirect cases is organized.

Kamynina A. A. Modern Russian language. Morphology. M., 1999

II. Types of grammatical categories. Grammar categories of different languages

Among the grammatical categories, the following types are distinguished:

2. Morphological (inflectional and classifying; general and particular: gender, number, case, tense, person, inclination, pledge; number, gender, case, person, tense, pledge, aspect, inclination.

All differences come down to three types:

1) presence-absence of a category;

Regarding the category of case, it should be noted that in Russian there are 6 cases, in Turkmen there are none, in German - 4, in Lithuanian - 15 cases. Russian has endings, Turkmen has suffixes, Romance languages ​​have articles.

In Russian, names and participles change according to cases and numbers, verbs according to persons and numbers, but in Turkic languages ​​names change according to persons.

III. Parts of speech. Principles of classification

Parts of speech- these are the most general classes of words that differ from each other by a complex of grammatical meanings, a set of grammatical forms and syntactic functions.

Each word belongs to a particular part of speech.

Parts of speech are distinguished on the basis of four features: semantic, morphological, syntactic, derivational. Isolation, definition and classification of parts of speech is one of the most difficult theoretical issues of linguistics.

At the heart of the allocation of parts of speech (as we see from the definition) are three criteria: semantic: my ↔ kind

morphological: run ↔ run

syntactic: I'm hot ↔ firewood is burning hot

Let us dwell in more detail on the characteristics of each criterion.

With semantic terms differ in their meaning. To distinguish between parts of speech, it is important not the specific meaning of the word, but the generalized lexical and grammatical meaning: objectivity, processuality, quality. He is not self-sufficient: build - construction, pallor - pale.

From a semantic point of view, all words are divided into independent and official.

Morphological the criterion focuses on the morphological appearance of the word: grammatical categories and paradigm. For example, nouns and adjectives have common grammatical categories (gender, number, case), but differ in paradigmatics. The criterion is not self-sufficient: such - beautiful, dumplings - wide.

From this point of view, the parts of speech are divided into changeable and immutable.

Syntactic the principle is that when highlighting parts of speech, it is important to take into account the syntactic function and compatibility. For example, adverbs - circumstances, category of state - the main member of a one-part sentence; enter the dumplings, but enter the wide one. The principle is not self-sufficient: The house is standing. - The house is beautiful.

The syntactic criterion plays an important role in the selection of service invariable words.

An adequate division of words into parts of speech is possible only if all these criteria are taken into account. Therefore, the parts of speech are characterized as lexical and grammatical categories of words. At the same time, it should be borne in mind that any sign may not be marked, but this is also important, in which case they speak of negative marking. For example, function words - semantics +

inflection - syntactic. + interjections - semantics +

inflection - syntactic. + → words-prepositions.

The absolutization of any feature leads to a one-sided classification; and although from a logical point of view it is more consistent, it does not reflect the whole variety of the semantic structure of words.

In Russian studies, attempts to classify according to the morphological principle are known - the school of F.F. Fortunatov (Peshkovsky, Ushakov, Peterson). Numerals and pronouns are not distinguished as parts of speech, but were distributed among nouns, adjectives, and adverbs. A similar view in the grammar of AN-80: adjectives + ordinal numbers + pronouns.

In order to state that in some language there is a certain grammatical category, it is necessary that there be a number of forms united by some common meaning, that within this association there is an opposition, and that those opposed meanings have a formal expression. Thus, the grammatical category is the category of number, because it unites linguistic units on the basis of the common meaning "number". Within this association, singularity and plurality are contrasted, and the grammatical meanings of the singular and plural are formally expressed using special endings. Por: forest - forests, spring - springs, lake - lakes, where the grammatical meaning of the singular is expressed by the zero ending and the endings -a and o, and the grammatical meaning of the plural is expressed by the endings -i and -nyami -and that -a.

A formal expression is a very important feature of a grammatical category, since it is its presence or absence that is the main criterion for distinguishing a grammatical category. The fact is that a certain meaning in one language can not exist as a grammatical one, and in another language as a lexical one. Hence, grammatical and conceptual categories are distinguished. For example, there is a conceptual category of gender and a grammatical category of gender. The conceptual category of stat is universal, that is, all people, regardless of the language they use, distinguish between male and female. However, the category of gender is not inherent in all languages. Let's say it's not in English, whale. Gaya, Turkic and Finno-Ugric languages, because there are no special formal means of its expression. In the Ukrainian language, as well as in other Slavic, as well as Romance and German languages, there is such a category of iya, because there are formal means of expressing it here: ending (teacher, wall, window), articles (German der Vater "father", die Mutter "mother", dae Kind "child", fr le regue "father", la x and the Romance languages ​​are characterized by the grammatical category of definite / indefinite, formally expressed by marked and indefinite articles. So, in particular, it der Tag "day", die Blume "flower", das Fenst er "window" mean specific concepts, objects already known to the speaker and listener, while the same nouns with an indefinite article - ein Tag, eine Blume, ein Fenster - mean some day, some a flower is some kind of window.Similarly in English, French, Italian: definiteness is expressed by articles - English the, French le, 1a, Italian il, 1a, and uncertainty - by articles - English and French un, une, ital un, una. In Slavic languages, with the exception of Bulgarian and Macedonian, there is no grammatical category of certainty / indefinite, because there is no formal expression of it, but the conceptual category of certainty /. There is NOT certainty and it is expressed lexically (this book, some kind of book, the category of significance / ambiguity is expressed lexically (this book, like a book).

The languages ​​of the world differ in the number and composition of grammatical categories. So, in the Ibero-Caucasian languages ​​there is a category of the grammatical class "person" and "things", in Japanese and Korean languages ​​- the category of politeness and. The language also differs in the number of opposed members within the categories. For example, in English there are two cases, in German - four, in Russian - six, in Ukrainian - seven, in Finnish - fourteen, in Tabasarai - forty sixth - forty six.

Grammatical categories are divided into morphological and syntactic. The morphological category includes the category of gender, number, case, type, tense, mode, person, to the syntactic category - the category of activity / passivity, the communicative orientation (narrative, nutritional, spontuality), rigidity / reverberation, syntactic tense and syntactic way.

Classification (word-building, derivational) categories are those whose members act as headings for the classification of words. So, in particular, the classification category is the category of noun gender and the category of the aspect of the verb, therefore, nouns are not declined, but are classified by gender (each noun belongs to one particular gender), and verbs are distributed among three aspect groups - verbs of perfect or imperfect output or two-species.

Inflectional (relative) categories - grammatical categories that a word can acquire depending on another word with which it is combined in a sentence. In the inflectional category, the gender of adjectives belongs, therefore adjectives are not classifiable, but are declined according to gender and the generic form of the adjective depends on the noun combined with it (great success, great deed, great impression). Purely relational also cat. Egoria case: each nominal part of speech changes according to case.

In the languages ​​of the world, the most common grammatical categories are gender, case, number, certainty / indefinitely, degree of quality, tense, aspect, state, mode and person.

It is found in most modern Indo-European languages. It does not exist in English, Finno-Ugric, Turkic, Japanese and other languages. In Ukrainian, every noun has a category of gender (masculine, feminine or neuter). In adjectives, ordinal numbers, possessive, demonstrative, interrogative pronouns, participles and past tense verbs, this category is dependent on the noun with which the word classes are named. In Italian, French, Spanish and Danish, nouns have two genders - masculine and feminine. The genus category has a formal expression. In Slavic languages ​​- ce endings, in Romance and German - articles (German der, ein for masculine, die, eine for feminine, das, ein for middle, fr le, un for masculine, la, une for feminine, Italian il , un for novice, la, una for feminine genus.

The number of cases in different languages ​​is not the same. There are languages ​​in which there are no cases at all: Bulgarian, Italian, French, Tajik, Abkhazian, etc.

In the languages ​​of the world, the category of number does not match. From a language in which, in addition to the singular and plural, there is a dual and a triple. The dual was in the ancient Ukrainian language (two tables, see the remains of these forms in dialects: two hands, two are ele, etc.). Troina is found in some of the Papuan languages ​​on the island. New. Guinea. In the ancient Indo-European languages ​​​​- Sanskrit, ancient Greek, ancient Germanic, there were three numbers: singular, dual and plurality.

The category of certainty / indefinite (determination) is a grammatical category indicating whether the name of an object is thought of as the only one in the described situation (certainty) or as belonging to a class of similar phenomena (uncertainty.

As already noted, this category is typical for Germanic, Romance, Bulgarian, Macedonian and other languages ​​and is expressed using the articles of definitions is the English article the, German der die, das, French le, la, les (the last for the set), and indefinite correspondence a; ein, eine, ein; un, une. In Bulgarian, Macedonian, Romanian and Scandinavian languages, there are postpositive arts kli, that is, articles that appear after a word, joining it as a postfix. Por: bolg table "some kind of chair" - stolgt "certain chair", mass "some kind of table" -. Masato "certain table"; village "some village" - village "a certain village"; village "yakes village" - village "pevne village".

In those languages ​​where there are no articles, the meaning of definite/indefinite is expressed lexically and contextually. For example, in the Ukrainian language, demonstrative pronouns this, this, this, these, then oh, and, then, those, shares only, yet (only the teacher didn’t know. Another cup!), are used for this. Indefinite pronouns some, some, some, some, adjectives sure, whole, unknown, unfamiliar, numeral one, word order (before the predicate - certainty, after - uncertainty: The boy went out into the street;. On a boy came out of the street), phrasal stress (Here is a notebook; Here is a notebook). The strongest means of expressing the meaning of signification / indefiniteness is the context. As we can see, in the Ukrainian language the category of certainty / indefiniteness is not grammatical, but conceptual, since there are no morphological means of its expression here.

Distinguish between ordinary, high and high degree. In some languages ​​there are only two degrees of comparison - ordinary and elative, combining the meaning of the highest and superlative degrees. The highest degree indicates the presence of b in the object of some quality more than in another, high - more than in all others. A positive degree means quality regardless of the degree.

Degrees of comparison have adjectives and adverbs (heavy, heavier, heavy; dark, darker, darker). In some languages, nouns and verbs also have degrees of comparison. For example, in the Komi language kuzho o "can do", kuzhodzhik "can do more";

The degrees of comparison are expressed by affixes (interesting - interesting - interesting; English large "large" - larger "more" - largest "greatest", German interessant "interesting" - interesanter "more interesting" - inte eresantest "interesting") and analytically (known - more known - the most famous, English difficult "heavy" - more difficult "heavy" (the) most difficult "heavy"). In Slavic, Germanic and Romance languages ​​there are several adjectives and adverbs comparable in meaning, which create degrees of comparison from other bases: Ukr good - best - best; rus good - better - best; English good - better - best, German gut - besser - best (am bestenр. Good - better - best; English good - better - best, German gut - besser - best (am besten).

Category of time - the grammatical category of the verb, which is a specific linguistic reflection of objective time and serves to temporally localize the event or state referred to in the sentence

This category indicates the one-hour, preceding or continuity of the event relative to the moment of speech in most languages ​​there are three tenses: present, past and future. These are absolute times. In addition to them, some languages ​​have sp. PECIAL "relative" tenses, denoting events relative to some reference point, which, in turn, is determined relative to the moment of speech (before the past time, before the future tense of the forthcoming in the past, vinulom toshcho).

In Slavic languages, the perfect and imperfect form are grammatically opposed. The perfect form indicates the achievement of the limit, i.e. shows a limited action or its result (he made a noise, wrote). An imperfect mind does not indicate the limit of action (noises, he wrote). In the Germanic and Romance languages, according to most linguists, there is no grammatical category of aspect, because there are no formal morphological means (special suffixes, prefixes) of its expression.

Category of state - grammatical category of the verb, expressing subject-object relations

In linguistics, there is still no generally accepted classification of states, however, all classifications mention active, when the carrier of the verbal attribute corresponds to the subject (Students perform a song), and passive, when the carrier of the verbal attribute corresponds to the object (The song is performed by students.

This is the speaker's assessment of the action as desirable, possible, supposed (assumption), etc.

Different languages ​​have a different set of mode forms. 6 All languages ​​have real (represents an action as a real fact), conditional (represents an action as possible, desired, supposed, conditioned) and imperative (serves to convey an order, inducement or request) modes. Western European languages, in addition, have created special forms of the conditional to denote conditioned actions and to express assumptions, possibilities, desirability and non-categorical assertions (German Ich w. Igawa, but translates it from the lips of others. In this way they convey a shade of distrust, doubtful "I, sumnivu.

In agglutinative languages ​​(for example, Turkic) there are from four to twelve ways that express obligation, confirmation, intention, consent, etc.

The performer of the action can be the speaker. His interlocutor or a person who does not take part in the conversation. Accordingly, they distinguish between the first, second and third person (I write, write, write)

The category of a person refers to concordant, inflectional. It is expressed by personal endings (I guess, he works; English / work, he works). In some languages ​​(Samoyedic, Paleo-Asiatic), the category of person is characteristic not only for verbs, but also for names in the position of the predicate. Yes, in In the Koryak language, gyolyaigym "man-I", gyolyaigyt "man-ty", gyola "man-he"; nytuigym "y-ti", nytuykyn "young-he" However, there are also languages ​​in which the category of a person as a whole is not expressed. These include Japanese, Chinese, Indonesian, and some others... Japanese, Chinese, Indonesian, and other languages ​​lie before them.

Lexico-grammatical categories (categories)

Lexico-grammatical categories (categories) are grammatically important groups of words within a certain part of speech that have the following properties:

1) are combined according to a common semantic feature. For example, lexical and grammatical categories are collective nouns, material nouns, nouns - the names of creatures, nouns - inanimate names, proper names, basic names, reflexive verbs, because each such group has a common semantic feature - collectability, materiality, too.

2) may or may not have a formal morphological expression. If, say, some prefabricated nouns have a formal expression - suffixes-stv (o), -) (- postfix-sya (wash, correspond, hug), then proper and common names, real names, names of creatures / inanimate formal indicators do not have (city. Eagle and an eagle flies, oil and a window, a crow and a crown));

3) interact with the grammatical categories associated with them. So, the category of state depends on the reflexivity of verbs (reflexive verbs do not belong to the active state), on the being / inanimate - the category of case (in the names of creatures, the form of the accusative case coincides with the form of the genitive, in the names of inanimate the form of the accusative case coincides with the form of the nominative), from persons / non-special - the category of gender (names in ru usually have the category of masculine or feminine, the names are neosib - all three genders), from proper and common names - the category of number (names have only the singular or only the plural form (Kyiv ,. Sumy), common names have singular and plural forms (table - tables, book - books);

4) may or may not have rows of forms contrasted within the category. If, for example, names are opposed to common names, names of creatures are opposed to inanimate names, transitive verbs are intransitive. Dies words, then inside real and collective nouns of a similar opposition. NO.