In conclusion about attention We must always remember that whims, pampering, hooliganism are desperate attempts by children to get our attention, to tell about their needs for love and security. This is another opportunity for parents to look beyond the solution.

Introduction ................................................ ................................. 3

1. The concept of attention in modern psychology .............................. 6

2. Motor theory of attention N. N. Lange .............................. 10

3. The doctrine of the dominant A. A. Ukhtomsky .............................. 13

4. Theory of attention T. Ribot.................................................. ........ fifteen

5. Theoretical concept of attention P. Ya.

Galperin .................................................. ........................ nineteen

6. The theory of attention by L. S. Vygotsky .................................... 24

7. The problem of educating attention in the works

N.F. Dobrynina .............................................. ................... 26

Conclusion................................................. ........................... 29

Bibliography................................................ ................. 32

Introduction

Attention is one of those cognitive processes of a person, in relation to the essence and law, for independent consideration of which among psychologists there is still no consensus. Some argue that there is no special independent process of attention, that it appears only as a side or moment of another psychological process. Others believe that attention is a completely independent mental state of a person, a specific internal process that has its own characteristics (in the human brain, a special kind of structure is distinguished that is associated specifically with attention, anatomically and physiologically relatively autonomous from those that ensure the functioning of other processes).

In the system of psychological phenomena, attention occupies a special position. It is included in all other mental processes, acts as their necessary moment, and it is impossible to separate it from them, isolate and study it in a “pure” form. We deal with the phenomena of attention only when the dynamics of cognitive processes and the characteristics of various mental states of a person are considered. Every time we try to isolate the "matter" of attention, it seems to disappear.

However, the problem of attention is traditionally considered one of the most important and complex problems of scientific psychology. The development of the entire system of psychological knowledge, both fundamental and applied, depends on its solution. A high assessment of attention at the level of worldview and in the ethical aspect can be found in many authors.

The significance of attention in human life, its decisive role in the selection of the contents of conscious experience, memorization and learning are obvious. It is also difficult to doubt the need for a comprehensive and detailed study of its phenomena. As F. Warden notes, from the point of view of common sense, one can assume that “the phenomena of attention play a noticeably important role in the science of behavior, but, oddly enough, this is not the case, and in psychology textbooks attention, as a rule, occupies a modest and inconspicuous position". Indeed, in published courses and manuals on general psychology, both early and modern, the psychology of attention is presented in a small volume, unevenly and fragmented.

in our country at the beginning of the 20th century. attention was the subject of research conducted under the guidance of G. I. Chelpanov at the Psychological Institute. L. G. Schukina at Moscow University. Since the middle of the last century, the study of attention at Moscow State University. M. V. Lomonosov was led by A. N. Leontiev (who was first a graduate student of G. I. Chelpanov, and later a student of L. S. Vygotsky). Then the main leadership of this topic at the Department of General Psychology passed to Yu. B. Gippenreiter, a student and long-term collaborator of A. N. Leontiev.

In parallel with this line of research at the Faculty of Psychology of Moscow State University since the 1950s. fundamental research by A. R. Luria and E. N. Sokolov on the neuropsychology and psychophysiology of attention was developed.

In the future, this direction was developed by a number of their students and followers - O. S. Vinogradova, E. A. Golubeva, N. N. Danilova, E. D. Khomskaya and others.

From the end of the 20th century there is a return (some, emphasizing its intensity, even prefer to talk about an “explosion”) of interest in the topic of attention in psychology and neurophysiology, qualitatively new opportunities appear for answering old questions posed by the classics. The problem of attention is again at the center of fundamental and experimental psychology.

Such scientists as A. A. Ukhtomsky, D. E. Broadbent, I. P. Pavlov, N. N. Lange, D. N. Uznadze, T. Ribot, E. Titchener, F. Worden and many other. They put forward many theories of attention, but despite a significant amount of research, the problem of attention has not become less significant. The debate about the nature of attention continues. But almost all research emphasizes the individuality of attention.

The physiological foundations of attention were studied by V.M. Bekhterev, L.A. Orbeli, P.K. Anokhin. The leading role of cortical mechanisms in the regulation of attention has been established through neurophysiological studies.

problem research is the psychological theory of attention.

Objective analyze the theoretical literature on the research problem, get acquainted with the history of the emergence of the psychology of attention.

Tasks research:

1. To study the concept of attention in modern psychology.

2. Consider the main psychological theories of attention.

In writing this thesis, the following scientific research methods:

1) theoretical analysis of scientific works devoted to this problem;

2) methods of description and synthesis.

1 . The concept of attention in modern psychology

Attention can be defined as a psychophysiological process, a state that characterizes the dynamic features of cognitive activity. They are expressed in its concentration on a relatively narrow section of external or internal reality, which at a given moment in time become conscious and concentrate on themselves the mental and physical forces of a person for a certain period of time. Attention is a process of conscious or unconscious (semi-conscious) selection of one information coming through the senses and ignoring the other.

Cut out.

link.

Attention in human life and activity performs many different functions. It activates the necessary and slows down the currently unnecessary psychological and physiological processes, promotes an organized and purposeful selection of incoming information in accordance with its actual needs, provides a selective and long-term focus of mental activity on the same object or type of activity.

associated with attention orientation and selectivity of cognitive processes. Their setting directly depends on what at a given time seems to be the most important for the body, for the realization of the interests of the individual. Attention determines the accuracy and detail of perception, the strength and selectivity of memory, the direction and productivity of mental activity - in a word, the quality and results of the functioning of all cognitive activity.

Consider the main types of attention. These are:

natural;

· socially conditioned attention;

involuntary;

Voluntary attention

· sensual;

intellectual attention.

natural attention given to a person from his very birth in the form of an innate ability to selectively respond to certain external or internal stimuli that carry elements of information novelty. The main mechanism that ensures the work of such attention is called the orienting reflex. It is associated with the activity of the reticular formation and novelty detector neurons.

socially conditioned attention develops in vivo as a result of training and education, is associated with volitional regulation of behavior, with a conscious selective response to objects.

immediate attention is not controlled by anything other than the object to which it is directed and which corresponds to the actual interests and needs of a person. Indirect attention is regulated with the help of special means, for example, gestures, words, pointing signs, objects.

involuntary attention not connected with the participation of the will, but arbitrary mandatory includes volitional regulation. Involuntary attention does not require effort to hold and focus attention on something for a certain time, and voluntary has all these qualities. Finally, voluntary attention, in contrast to involuntary attention, is usually associated with a struggle of motives and motives, the presence of strong, oppositely directed and competing interests, each of which is capable of attracting and retaining attention on its own. In this case, a person makes a conscious choice of a goal and, by an effort of will, suppresses one of the interests, directing all his attention to satisfying the other. Finally, one can distinguish sensuous and intellectual Attention. The first is predominantly associated with emotions and the selective work of the senses, and the second - with the concentration and direction of thought. With sensory attention, some sensory impression is in the center of consciousness, and in intellectual attention, the object of interest is a thought.

2. Motor theory of attention N. N. Lange

The connection between attention and movement was singled out in his works in the works of N. N. Lange, who presented it as causal nuyu, where movements are not simply included in the act of attention, but condition it, make attention possible.

Theory of N. N. Lange is already actually motor, or effector. Attention in it is not a special state of consciousness provided by the body's motor adaptation, but "an expedient reaction of the body that instantly improves the conditions of perception" . This reaction of the organism can be both biologically expedient, evolutionarily useful, and consistent with the own goals of the cognizing subject - arbitrary.

Cut out.

To purchase the full version of the work, go to link.

So, N. N. Lange singled out the following main approaches to the problem of the nature of attention:

1. Attention as a result of motor adaptation.

2. Attention as a result of limited scope of consciousness.

3. Attention as a result of emotion.

4. Attention as a result of apperception, i.e. as a result of the life experience of the individual.

5. Attention as a special active ability of the spirit.

6. Attention as an intensification of a nerve stimulus.

7. Theory of nervous suppression

3. The doctrine of the dominant A. A. Ukhtomsky

Another famous Russian physiologist, Alexey Alekseevich Ukhtomsky(1875-1942) introduced the concept of dominant (from lat. dominatio- domination), which has become very important for the psychology of attention. Initially intended to describe and explain the functioning of the nervous system, this concept turned out to be not only suitable, but also very useful for describing human behavior, the phenomena of his cognition and social life.

A.A. Ukhtomsky worked on the doctrine of the dominant for more than two decades. The dominant in his works appears as a "focus of excitation" in the nervous system, which subjugates the work of all other nerve centers and determines the direction of human or animal behavior at a given moment in time. If we turn to the definition of A. A. Ukhtomsky himself, this is “a more or less stable focus of increased excitability of the centers, no matter what it was caused by, and the excitations that come to the centers again serve to strengthen (confirm) excitation in the focus, while in the other central nervous braking processes are widely distributed in the system. That is why the first behavioral consequence of the emerging dominant is “vector definiteness of movement: excitation in one, coupled with inhibition in the other” . In a word, thanks to the dominant, both behavior and cognition turn out to be directed. And since directionality is one of the fundamental properties of attention, the connection between dominant and attention is obvious.

The dominant is characterized by four features, which are in many ways akin to the features of attention, noticed by the classics of the psychology of consciousness.

1. Increased excitability of a certain central region of the brain in relation to stimuli (decrease in excitation thresholds when appropriate stimuli appear). Similarly, we notice weak stimuli if we pay special attention to them, and we do not notice strong ones if we are distracted from them.

2. The ability of this area of ​​the brain to summarize, accumulate excitation.

3. The ability to maintain it over time.

4. Cut out.

5. To purchase the full version of the work, go to link.

In the simplest cases, the dominant develops as a result of an external influence, such as a loud sound or the appearance of a car on the sidewalk, the driver of which lost control. In such cases, it will stand behind the phenomena of involuntary attention. Hearing a loud sound, a person will turn his head and be distracted from what he was doing just now. Having noticed the car, it will stop moving in the same direction, stop talking with the satellite and jump to the side.
Throughout life, a person accumulates many different dominants, ranging from typical ways of responding in dangerous situations to a specific human "dominant on the face of another." According to the definition of A. A. Ukhtomsky, the activation of the entire system of nerve centers, which as a result turns out to be a special “functional organ” of behavior, should be called a dominant.

4. Theory of attention T. Ribot

One of the most famous psychological theories of attention was proposed by T. Ribot. He believed that attention, regardless of whether it is weakened or enhanced, is always associated with emotions and is caused by them.

T. Ribot saw a special close relationship between emotions and voluntary attention. He believed that the intensity and duration of such attention are directly determined by the intensity and duration of the emotional states associated with the object of attention. T. Ribot outlined the main role of movements in the act of attention as follows. Movement physiologically supports and enhances this state of consciousness. For the sense organs - vision and hearing - attention means the concentration and delay of movements associated with their adjustment and control. The effort we make to focus and keep our attention on something always has a physical basis. It corresponds to a feeling of muscle tension, and subsequent distractions are associated with muscle fatigue in the corresponding motor parts of the receiving systems.

The motor effect of attention, according to T. Ribot, is that some sensations, thoughts, memories receive special intensity and clarity compared to others due to the fact that all motor activity is focused on them. The secret of voluntary attention lies in the ability to control movements. Arbitrarily restoring movements associated with something, we thereby draw our attention to it.

Thus, T. Ribot proposed the so-called motor theory of attention, according to which movements play a major role in the processes of attention. Thanks to their selective and purposeful activation, attention is concentrated and intensified on the subject, and attention is also maintained on this subject for a certain time.

A. A. Ukhtomsky, who considers the dominant focus of excitation to be the physiological basis of attention, spoke similarly about the physiological mechanism of attention, and I. P. Pavlov’s idea also fits well with these ideas.

T. Ribot also pointed out that the highest forms of attention (he called them artificial ) arise only in society, as a result of education, on the basis of attention natural venous, or involuntary. Education is carried out not only by people, but also by “things” - objects of material culture that contain the history of mankind.

Cut out.

To purchase the full version of the work, go to link.

On the stages of organized, or habitual, attention it
called and supported by "habit" - the prevailing persistent attraction to a certain occupation, or "love of work", which until then seemed unattractive. Mindfulness becomes, as it were, a second nature of a person, which means that special efforts are no longer needed to maintain it. Therefore, the subjective experience of effort at this stage of development of attention may be absent.

Thus, arbitrary attention, on the one hand, is a product of civilization, and on the other hand, its condition, in other words, both a consequence and a cause at the same time. That is why the education of attention seems to T. Ribot to be such an important task.

5. Theoretical concept of attention P. Ya. Galperin

Among modern domestic psychologists, P. Ya. Galperin proposed an original interpretation of attention, formulating it as theory of planned step-by-step formation of mental actions. P. Ya. Galperin considers attention as one of such mental actions - actions mental control behind the progress of other activities. The planned gradual formation of attention acts as a way to reveal the mechanisms of this phenomenon - one of the most complex and closed to scientific analysis.

In any human activity, P. Ya. Galperin proposes to distinguish between indicative and executive parts. If we turn to the analysis of the executive part, then it is also possible to single out the actual objective content and the mental action directed to this content. The last component is needed to control the action based on the comparison of the original task and its progress. That's what it is control action for the implementation of current activities. It is this action, as it becomes a mental action, that is transformed into act of attention .

However, any extended external objective activity of control is simply an activity of control, and not attention. For example, when a worker in a factory performs quality control, comparing each product with a sample and evaluating it according to certain parameters, his activity requires attention, but is not limited to it. As P.Ya. Galperin, "not all control is attention, but all attention means control" .

But why does attention as a control improve activity, and not just keep its course within the given limits? After all, it is in this "improvement" that the positive effects of attention consist. According to P. Ya. Galperin, it is possible because control is always carried out with the help of criteria or sample("foreshadowing"). This idea of ​​P.Ya.Galperin echoes the concept of "preperception" by W. James, who proposed to develop the child's attention by forming in him "anticipatory images" that are adequate to the tasks that the world around him sets for the child.

Cut out.

To purchase the full version of the work, go to link.

Then the training was continued on the material of other tasks. As an example, one of the well-known tools for diagnosing attention can be cited - the Bourdon test, which consists in underlining or deleting a certain letter in rows of randomly selected letters. Among other tasks were the search for errors in graphic patterns, the identification of semantic inconsistencies in stories and pictures, etc. As a result, schoolchildren really became attentive (and control over the solution of the listed tasks was ideal, folded, automated and generalized), and P. Ya. Galperin considered this practical result the most important confirmation of his theoretical position.

Thus, we can formulate the main concepts of this theory:

Attention is one of the moments of orienting-research activity. It is a psychological action aimed at the content of an image, thought, another phenomenon that a person has at a given moment in time.

In its function, attention is the control over this content. In every human action there is an indicative, performing and control part. This latter is what appears to be attention as such.

Unlike other activities that produce a specific product, the activity of control, or attention, does not have a separate, particular result.

Attention as an independent, concrete act is singled out only when the action becomes not only mental, but also reduced. Not all control should be considered as attention. Control only evaluates the action, while attention contributes to its improvement.

In attention, control is carried out using a criterion, measure, sample, which creates the possibility of comparing the results of an action and clarifying it.

Voluntary attention is planned attention, i.e. a form of control carried out according to a predetermined plan, sample.

In order to form a new method of voluntary attention, we must, along with the main activity, offer a task to a person to check its progress and results, develop and implement an appropriate plan.

All known acts of attention that perform the function of controlling both voluntary and involuntary are the result of the formation of new mental actions.

6. The theory of attention L. S. Vygotsky

L. S. Vygotsky tried to trace the history of the development of attention, as well as many other mental functions, in line with his cultural and historical concept of their formation. He wrote that the history of a child's attention is the history of the development of the organization of its delivery, that the key to the genetic understanding of attention should be sought not inside, but outside the child's personality.

Voluntary attention arises from the fact that the people around the child “begin, with the help of a number of stimuli and means, to direct the attention of the child, to direct his attention, to subordinate him to their power, and thereby put in the hands of the child the means by which he subsequently seizes his own attention. ". The cultural development of attention consists in the fact that, with the help of an adult, the child learns a number of artificial stimuli-means (signs), through which he further directs his own behavior and attention. With age, the child's attention improves, but the development of externally mediated attention is much faster than its development as a whole, especially natural attention. At the same time, a turning point in development occurs at school age, which is characterized by the fact that initially externally mediated attention gradually turns into internally mediated, and with time this last form of attention probably occupies the main place among all its types.

Cut out.

To purchase the full version of the work, go to link.

Along with the gradual mastery of active speech, the child begins to control the primary process of his own attention, and first in relation to other people, orienting their own attention with the word addressed to them in the right direction, and then in relation to himself.

The general sequence of the cultural development of attention according to L. S. Vygotsky is as follows: “First, people act in relation to the child, then he himself interacts with others, finally, he begins to act on others, and only at the end begins to act on himself .. At first, an adult directs his attention with words to the things around him and thus develops powerful stimuli-indications from words; then the child begins to actively participate in this indication and himself begins to use the word and sound as a means of indicating, that is, to draw the attention of adults to the subject of interest to him.

The word used by an adult when addressing a child appears initially in the role of a pointer, highlighting for the child certain features in the object, drawing his attention to these features. When learning, the word is more and more directed towards the allocation of abstract relations and leads to the formation of abstract concepts. L. S. Vygotsky believed that the use of language as a means of directing attention and a pointer to the formation of ideas is of great importance for pedagogy, since with the help of words the child enters the sphere of interpersonal communication, where scope for personal development opens up. Initially, the processes of voluntary attention, directed by the speech of an adult, are for the child rather processes of his external discipline than self-regulation. Gradually, using the same means of mastering attention in relation to himself, the child passes to self-control of behavior, i.e. to random attention.

7. The problem of education of attention in the works of N. F. Dobrynin

N. F. Dobrynin attached great importance to the education of attention, who connected the development of attention with the education personalities and its gradual increase activity . Another outstanding representative of Russian psychology, S. L. Rubinshtein, agrees with him. He was convinced that attention "is connected with the aspirations and desires of the individual, as well as with the goals that she sets for herself" .

N. F. Dobrynin, following E. Titchener, identified three stages in the development of attention: involuntary, arbitrary and post-voluntary Attention.

Cut out.

To purchase the full version of the work, go to link.

Conclusion

Genius, W. James noted, is attention, the ability (or doom) to focus on what a contemporary passes by without hesitation. But isn't any professional gifted in a special way with focused and structured attention: a teacher, a psychologist, a lawyer, a doctor - everyone will see the same subject in their own way, will closely study its different sides. Moreover, attentiveness characteristic of a person can be considered as a necessary feature not only of cognitive activity, but also of the personality as a whole, its orientation: one is immersed in the worries of the vain world, the other is striving for an idea, the third is concentrated on work, the fourth easily jumps from one interest to another without stopping anywhere. It is clear that these manifestations are closely related to the whole variety of real conditions for the course of mental activity associated with psychophysiological parameters, age-related capabilities, etc.

In the classical theories of attention, a number of problems and areas of research are outlined, which are still relevant for psychologists.

The motor theories of attention proposed by T. Ribot and N. N. Lange did not leave their mark on the psychology and physiology of attention, although they remained in oblivion for quite a long time. The synthesis of psychology and neurophysiology in the study of attention, outlined in the works of W. James and fully realized by N. N. Lange, in recent years seems to researchers to be more and more productive. Thanks to him, new facts appear that echo the assumptions of the classics. A special place among the theories of attention is occupied by physiological approaches to understanding its brain mechanisms, which are based on the concepts of "dominant" and "orienting reflex".

Beginning with the works of the classics of the psychology of consciousness, psychologists distinguish a number of properties of attention.

Some properties characterize attention as a state at some given point in time. This is the volume of attention, its degree and direction, reflected in the classical metaphors of the "visual field" by W. Wundt, "waves of attention" by E. Titchener and "stream of consciousness" by W. James. The concentration of attention is directly proportional to its degree and inversely proportional to the volume.

Other properties that characterize attention as a process are derived from the properties of attention as a state and describe their dynamics over time. These are distribution, stability and switchability of attention. To assess these properties of attention, a number of methods have been developed that are widely used in school, professional, and clinical diagnostics, as well as in diagnosing child development.

The formation of higher forms of attention is considered in two directions.

First, it can be represented as upbringing attention, based on the education of volitional qualities of the individual. This line of research is represented by the works of T. Ribot and N. F. Dobrynin.

Secondly, the development of attention can act as its formation- the construction of a mental action with the required characteristics (P. Ya. Galperin) or the development of a higher mental function (L. S. Vygotsky). The views of L. S. Vygotsky were continued in modern psychology in research joint attention as a higher mental function, divided among several people. These studies are of applied importance in robotics, in the organization of work in small groups, as well as in the prevention and correction of mental disorders of the autism spectrum in childhood.

However, the problem of correction of attention disorders concerns not only early childhood autism. In modern psychological practice, a significant place is occupied by the neuropsychological correction of attention, which is necessary in the event of a slowdown or violations in the maturation of its brain mechanisms, as well as the correction of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. In preschool and primary school education, exercises for the development of attention and its individual properties are widespread.

Bibliography

1. Vygotsky L. S. The development of higher forms of attention in childhood / / Reader on attention. - M .: Education, 1976.

2. Galperin P. Ya. To the problem of attention / / Reports of the APN of the RSFSR. - 1958. - No. 3. - p. thirty.

3. Galperin P. Ya., Kabylnitskaya S. L. Experimental formation of attention. - M.: Nauka, 1974.

4. Galperin P. Ya. Four lectures on general psychology. - M., 2000, p. fifteen.

5. Gippenreiter Yu.B., Introduction to general psychology. Lecture course. – M.: Nauka, 1997.

6. Dobrynin N. F. On the theory and education of attention / / Soviet pedagogy. - 1958. - No. 8. - P. 34.

7. Kolominsky, Man: psychology. – M.: Enlightenment, 1986.

8. Lange N. N. Psychological research: The law of perception. The theory of volitional attention. - M .: Nauka, 1967.

9. Leontiev A. N. Lectures on general psychology. - M.: Academy, 2000.

10. Leontiev A. N. Activity, consciousness, personality. - M., 2000.

11. Maklanov A.G., General psychology. - St. Petersburg: Peter, 2002.

12. Nemov R.S., Psychology, in 3 volumes, v.1. - M., 1998.

13. Nemov R.S., Psychology: Proc. For stud. Higher ped. Proc. Institutions: in 3 books: book 3: Experimental pedagogical psychology and psychodiagnostics. - M .: Education: VLADOS, 1995.

14. General psychology, ed. Petrovsky A.V. – M.: Enlightenment, 1986.

15. Workshop on General, Experimental and Applied Psychology / A.A. Krylova, S.A. Manichev. - St. Petersburg: Peter, 2000.

16. Psychology of attention. Reader in psychology / Yu.B. Gippenreiter, V.L. Romanova. - M., 2000.

17. Romanov V.Ya., Dormashev Yu.B Statement and development of the problem
attention from the standpoint of the theory of activity // Vestn. Moscow university
Ser. 14 "Psychology". 1993. No. 2, p. 51-62.

18. Rubinstein S.L. Fundamentals of General Psychology., M., 2001.

19. Strakhov I.V., Attention and personality structure., Saratov, 1969.

20. Ukhtomsky A. A. Dominant. - St. Petersburg: Peter, 2002.

21. Falikman M. V. General psychology. T. 4.- M.: Academy, 2006.

22. Shults D.P., Shults S.E. History of modern psychology. - St. Petersburg, 1998.

23. Worden F. G. Attention and auditory electrophysiology// Progress in Physiological psychology. Vol. 1.- N.Y.: Academic Press, 1966.

Worden F. G. Attention and auditory electrophysiology// Progress in Physiological psychology. Vol. 1.- N.Y.: Academic Press, 1966, p. 49.

Vygotsky L. S. The development of higher forms of attention in childhood. Reader for Attention.- M., 1976.- S. 205.

Dobrynin N. F. On the theory and education of attention / / Soviet Pedagogy. - 1958. - No. 8. - 34- 49.

Rubinshtein S. L. Fundamentals of General Psychology.- M., 1976, p. 447.

Attention is a mental cognitive process aimed at reflecting the mental properties, states of an object, which ensures the concentration of consciousness. Such a focus on certain subjects has a selective focus and contributes to the formation of an individual attitude towards them.

As objects attention can be both other persons and inanimate objects. Phenomena of nature, objects of art and science are also often in the field of attention of the subject. It must be admitted that only those objects that arouse significant interest in him, or are due to the social need for study, fall into the zone of human attention. The development of attention directly depends on such factors as the age of a person, the purposefulness of his aspirations, interest in the subject or phenomenon being studied, the regularity of performing special exercises.

Types of attention

involuntary attention

It is characterized by the absence of a conscious choice of a person. It occurs when an influencing stimulus appears, which makes you momentarily distract from everyday affairs and switch your mental energy. This type of attention is difficult to manage, since it is directly related to the internal attitudes of the individual. In other words, we are always attracted only by what is of significant interest, what excites and makes the feelings, the emotional sphere “move”.

The objects of involuntary attention can be: unexpected noise on the street or in the room, a new person or a phenomenon that appeared before the eyes, any moving objects, the mental state of a person, individual mood.

Involuntary attention is valuable for its immediacy and naturalness of occurrence, which always provides a lively emotional response. But, at the same time, it can distract a person from performing urgent tasks, solving significant problems.

As a rule, in preschool children, involuntary attention predominates. Educators of children's institutions, of course, will agree that their attention can only be attracted by bright, interesting images and events. That is why classes in kindergarten are so replete with beautiful characters, attractive tasks, and a huge scope for imagination and creativity.

Arbitrary attention

It is characterized by conscious retention of concentration on the object. Arbitrary attention begins when motivation appears, that is, a person understands and consciously focuses his attention on something. Stability and perseverance are its essential attributes. In order for the necessary action to be performed, a person is required to make an effort of will, come into a state of tension, and activate mental activity.

For example, a student before an exam tries his best to focus on the material being studied. And even if he is not entirely interested in what he will have to tell the teacher, his attention is maintained due to serious motivation. The need to close the semester, to come home as soon as possible, sometimes adds a powerful incentive in order to stretch a little, put aside all entertainment and travel.

However, it should be remembered that prolonged concentration of voluntary attention leads to a state of fatigue, even severe overwork. Therefore, between serious intellectual work, it is recommended to take reasonable breaks: go outside to breathe fresh air, do simple physical exercises, exercises. But you don’t need to read books on abstract topics: the head will not have time to rest, in addition, the presence of excess information can provoke further unwillingness to return to business. It has been noticed that a strong interest induces activity, activates the work of the brain, and this can and should be strived for.

Post-voluntary attention

It is characterized by the absence of tension in the subject of activity when performing a task. In this case, the motivation and desire to achieve a specific goal is strong enough. This type of attention differs from the previous one in that internal motivation prevails over external. That is, a person, his consciousness is guided not by social necessity, but by an individual need for action. Such attention has a very productive effect on any activity, gives significant results.

Basic properties of attention

The properties of attention in psychology are a number of significant characteristics that are closely related to the components of the activity of the individual.

• Concentration- this is a deliberate focus on the object of activity. Attention retention occurs due to strong motivation and the desire of the subject to perform the action as best as possible. The intensity of concentration on the subject of interest is controlled by the consciousness of the individual. If the concentration is high enough, then the result will not be long in coming. On average, without a break, a person can focus attention for 30 to 40 minutes, but a lot can be done during this time. It should be remembered that when working at a computer, you should take short breaks of 5 to 10 minutes for yourself to rest your eyes.
• Volume is the number of objects that consciousness can hold simultaneously in its field of vision. In other words, the volume is measured in the mutual ratio of objects and the degree of stability of attention to them. If a person is able to maintain focus on objects for a sufficiently long time and their number is large, then we can talk about a high amount of attention.
• Sustainability. Stability is the ability to keep attention on one object for a long time and not switch to another. If there was a distraction, then they usually talk about lability. Sustainability of attention is characterized by the ability to discover new things in familiar things: to discover relationships and aspects that were not previously noticed and not studied, to see prospects for further development and movement.
• switchability. Switchability is a meaningful purposeful change in the direction of the focus of attention. This property is characterized by the conditionality of external circumstances or phenomena. If the switching of attention does not occur under the influence of a more significant object and does not differ in special intentionality, then one speaks of simple distractibility. It must be admitted that it is difficult to switch attention from one object to another due to strong concentration. Then it even happens that a person moves on to another activity, but mentally continues to concentrate on the previous one: he thinks over the details, analyzes, and emotionally worries. Switching attention is needed to relax after intense mental work, to be included in a new activity.
• Distribution. Distribution is the ability of consciousness to simultaneously focus attention on several objects, which, in terms of importance, are approximately in the same position. The ratio of objects among themselves, of course, has an impact on how this distribution occurs: the transition from one object to another. At the same time, a person often experiences a state of fatigue, caused by the need to be in one focus point to constantly remember about other existing ones.

Features of the development of attention

The development of human attention is necessarily associated with the ability to focus on one or more objects for a certain period of time without any distraction. This is not as easy as it might seem at first glance. After all, in order to focus on something, you need to be sufficiently interested in your business. So, for the development of involuntary attention, only an interesting object is required, on which one could focus the gaze. Arbitrary attention, however, requires a serious approach: purposefulness of actions, strong-willed effort, the ability to control one's feelings in order to prevent distraction at the most inopportune moment are needed. Post-voluntary attention is the most productive of all, as it does not require overcoming and additional efforts.

Attention Development Methods

At the moment, there are a variety of techniques for developing attention that allow you to achieve high results and learn how to control attention.

Development of concentration

It is recommended to choose an object for observation, and for a certain period of time try to focus your attention on it. Moreover, the simpler this subject, the better. For example, you can put a book on the table and imagine what it is written about, what are the main characters. One can only think of a book as an object made of paper and cardboard, imagine how many trees it took to make it. In the end, you can just pay attention to its color and shape. Which direction to choose is up to you. This exercise perfectly trains the focus of attention itself, allows you to develop the duration of concentration on one object.

If you wish, you can try to practice holding two or more objects in your field of vision. Then, to all of the above, it is necessary to add the development of the ability to switch attention from one object to another, memorizing and noting the significant features of each of them.

Development of visual attention

Exercises should be aimed at expanding the ability of the individual to focus on the object. For example, you can put an object in front and set yourself the task of looking at it for 3 to 5 minutes, highlighting as many details as possible. First, you will begin to develop a general idea of ​​​​the subject: its color and shape, size and height. However, gradually, the more you concentrate, the more clearly new details will begin to appear: small details, minor adaptations, etc. They, too, must be seen and noted to yourself.

Development of auditory attention

To improve this type of attention, you need to set yourself the goal of concentrating on the sounding voice for no more than ten minutes. It is best if it is meaningful human speech, however, if you want to relax, you can include birds singing here or any melody that meets the requirements of relaxing music.

If human speech sounds, while listening, it is important to note the speed with which the lecturer speaks, the degree of emotionality of the presentation of the material, the subjective usefulness of the information. It is also quite acceptable to listen to fairy tales, stories in the recording, and then try to remember and reproduce their content. In the case of listening to music, it is important to capture the levels of vibration of the sound wave, try to "connect" to the reproduced emotions and imagine the details of something.

How to manage attention?

Many people who want to increase their level of attention face constant difficulties. Some may not be able to concentrate on the details, others have difficulty with when to perceive the subject as a whole. In this case, I would like to advise you to train at different facilities in all directions and do it every day. Agree, it’s not difficult to spend 5-10 minutes a day working on yourself.

Thus, the problems of developing attention are quite multifaceted and deep. It is impossible to consider this type of cognitive processes only as a component of activity. We must also remember that attention is always necessary for us in everyday life, therefore it is important to be able to focus on simple things, to notice even small details.

There are five properties of attention: focus, stability, volume, distribution and switching. These properties of attention can be manifested in all types of attention - in involuntary, voluntary and post-voluntary.

attention span- this is keeping attention on one object or one activity while distracting from everything else. Concentration of attention is usually associated with a deep, active interest in an activity, some event or fact.

Sustainability of attention- this is a long-term retention of attention on an object or any activity. From the point of view of physiology, this means that the focus of optimal excitation is sufficiently stable. The question arises: how long can attention be continuously maintained on one object? Everything depends on two circumstances: firstly, on whether the object itself is mobile or not, whether the object itself changes or not, and secondly, on whether the person plays an active or passive role in this. On a stationary, unchanging object, passive attention is maintained for about 5 seconds, after which it begins to be distracted.

If a person is actively working with an object, then steady attention can be maintained for 15-20 minutes. Short-term distractions may follow, allowing a small break in concentration. It turns out a short and necessary rest, it is invisible and does not destroy the stability of attention, but allows you to maintain attention to this activity for up to 45 minutes or more.

Frequent involuntary deviation of attention from the necessary activity to foreign objects is called attention instability. Instability of attention can arise from unbearable, excessively extensive, as well as from uninteresting and useless work, mechanical activity.

attention span- this is the number of objects that are perceived simultaneously with sufficient clarity, i.e. captured attention at the same time. Pointing to simultaneity is important here because our attention can usually move very quickly from one object to another, which creates the illusion of a large amount of attention.

Experiments have shown that the amount of attention of an adult is from 4 to 6 objects, of a schoolchild - from 2 to 5 objects. This is provided that they show separate, unrelated letters. If short words are shown in the tachiostoscope, then for a literate person the object of attention will no longer be a letter, but a whole word. Formally, the amount of attention will remain the same, but a person will no longer perceive 4-6 letters, but up to 16, i.e. practically the amount of attention will increase. This shows how important it is to be able to combine objects into one whole, to perceive them as whole complexes.

Distribution of attention- this is the simultaneous attention to two or more objects while simultaneously performing an action with them or observing them. In other words, it is the ability to simultaneously perform two or more different activities.

Physiologists explain the distribution of attention by the fact that habitual activities that do not cause any particular difficulties can be controlled, as I.P. Pavlov, areas of the cortex, which are in a certain degree of inhibition.

In an action that requires great and complete concentration, other actions are usually impossible. An untrained person was asked to walk on a balance beam, maintaining balance and stability, and at the same time solve a simple arithmetic problem. It was not possible to combine these two actions. When solving a problem, a person lost his balance and fell off a log, and while maintaining his balance, he could not solve the problem. However, an experienced gymnast - a master of sports - will freely perform such a task.

Switching attention- this is the movement of attention from one object to another or from one activity to another in connection with the formulation of a new task. It is difficult to name an activity that would not require such a switch. After all, the amount of human attention is not very large. And only the ability to switch attention gives him the opportunity to learn the world around him in all its diversity.

In switching attention, the individual characteristics of a person are clearly manifested - some people can quickly move from one activity to another, while others - slowly and with difficulty. A person with a weak ability to switch attention is said to have a "hard", "sticky" attention.

Physiologically, the switching of attention is the movement of an area with optimal excitability along the cerebral cortex. The ability to quickly switch attention depends on the mobility of nervous processes, i.e. in the end on the type of nervous system.

There is such a lack of attention - distraction . Absent-mindedness is called completely different, in a sense, even opposite shortcomings of attention.

The first type of absent-mindedness is frequent involuntary distractibility from the main activity. A person cannot concentrate on anything, is distracted all the time, even interesting activities are sometimes interrupted due to the instability of attention. Distracted people of this type, as they say, have "sliding", "fluttering" attention.

The second type of absent-mindedness is a consequence of a person's excessive focus on work, when, apart from his work, he does not notice anything and sometimes is not aware of the surrounding events. This kind of absent-mindedness is observed in people who are passionate about work, covered by strong feelings - among scientists, creative workers in the field of art.

These two types of absent-mindedness are indeed opposite in nature. The first type of absent-mindedness is the weakness of voluntary attention, the inability to concentrate. The second type is excessively strong attention and strong concentration. In the first case, there is no strong and stable focus of optimal excitation in the cortex; in the second case, there is a very strong and stable focus.

Attention- psychophysiological process, a state that characterizes the dynamic features of cognitive activity. They are expressed in its concentration on a relatively narrow area of ​​external or internal activity, which at a given moment in time become conscious and concentrate on themselves the mental and physical forces of a person for a certain period of time.

Attention- this is the process of conscious or unconscious (semi-conscious) selection of one information coming through the senses, and ignoring the other. (21)

A person cannot simultaneously think about different things and do a variety of jobs. A striking example of the impact of particularly relevant information is a fact called "party effect", studied in 1953 by Cherry. For example, in a friendly company, at first we hear only the general noise of the voices of those who are talking. However, it is enough for someone to suddenly turn to us so that, despite the ongoing conversation around us, we immediately begin to perceive what is being said to us. It is the high significance of the signal (and not its intensity) that determines the direction of human attention. (21)

Attention is usually expressed in facial expressions, in posture, in movements. It is easy to distinguish an attentive listener from an inattentive one. But sometimes attention is directed not to the surrounding objects, but to the thoughts and images that are in the mind of a person. In this case, one speaks of intellectual attention, which is somewhat different from external attention. All this indicates that attention does not have its own cognitive content and only serves the activity of other cognitive processes.

Probably the broadest and most adequate is the definition of the concept of attention given by N.F. Dobrynin. Attention - is the focus and concentration of mental activity .

Direction refers to the selective nature of this activity and its preservation, and concentration refers to deepening into this activity and distracting from the rest. From this definition it follows that attention does not have its own product, it only improves the result of other mental processes. Attention cannot be studied “in its pure form”, it does not exist as a separate phenomenon and is inseparable from other mental processes and states.

N.F. Dobrynin, when determining attention, uses the concept of "significance" - emotions, interest, needs: attention - this is the direction of mental activity and its focus on an object that has a stable or situational significance for the individual.

Types of attention

W. James highlights the following types of attention based on three principles:

1) sensuous(touch) and mental(intellectual);

2) immediate if the object is interesting in itself, and derivative ( indirect);

3) involuntary, or passive, effortless, and arbitrary(active), accompanied by a sense of effort. It is the latter approach that has proved particularly popular.

Another classification (not common) that highlights individual and collective. The latter is, in particular, the most important condition for the effectiveness of the educational and training process (B.I. Strakhov). It is formed in a group of jointly employed performers of a single activity, while the attention of one member of the group affects the attention of others.

involuntary attention, the most simple and genetically original, is also called passive, forced, since it arises and is maintained regardless of the goals facing a person. Activity captures a person by itself, because of its fascination, entertainment or surprise. A person involuntarily surrenders to the objects that affect him, the phenomena of the activity performed. The emergence of involuntary attention is associated with various physical, psychophysiological and mental causes. These reasons can be divided into three groups:

1. The nature and quality of the stimulus. Here it is necessary to include, first of all, its strength or intensity. An important role in this is played not so much by the absolute as by the relative strength of the stimulus. Of particular importance is the contrast between stimuli. The same applies to the duration of the stimulus, as well as to the spatial magnitude and shape of the object.

2. The second group of causes includes those external stimuli that correspond to the internal state of a person, and, above all, to his needs. So, a full and a hungry person will react differently to a conversation about food.

3. The third group of reasons is connected with the general orientation of the personality. For example, walking along the same street, a janitor will pay attention to garbage, a policeman - to an incorrectly parked car, an architect - to the beauty of an old building.

Unlike involuntary voluntary attention driven by conscious purpose. Arbitrary attention is usually associated with the struggle of motives and motives, the presence of strong, oppositely directed and competing interests, each of which in itself is able to attract and hold attention. In this case, a person makes a conscious choice of a goal and, by an effort of will, suppresses one of the interests, directing all his attention to satisfying the other. (24)

natural attention given to a person from his very birth in the form of an innate ability to selectively respond to certain external or internal stimuli that carry elements of informational novelty. The main mechanism that ensures the work of such attention is called the orientation reflex. (24)

socially conditioned attention develops for life as a result of training and education, is associated with volitional regulation of behavior, with a conscious selective response to objects.

immediate attention is not controlled by anything other than the object to which it is directed and which corresponds to the actual interests and needs of a person.

mediated attention regulated by special means, such as gestures, words, signs, objects.

Sensual and intellectual attention. The first is predominantly associated with emotions and the selective work of the senses, and the second - with the concentration and direction of thought. In sensory attention, a sensory impression is at the center of consciousness, while in intellectual attention, the object of interest is a thought.(24)