What is Education? The meaning and interpretation of the word obrazovanie, the definition of the term

1) Education- - English. education; German Bildung. 1. The totality of systematized knowledge, skills and abilities acquired by an individual independently or in the process of learning in special educational institutions. Depending on the volume and nature of knowledge, primary, basic, secondary, higher education, general and special (professional) education are distinguished; by content - technical, humanitarian, natural science, social. O. - one of the indicators of social. status of the individual and one of the factors of change and reproduction of social. structure of society. 2. Social an institution that performs the functions of preparing and including an individual in various spheres of the life of society, introducing him to the culture of this society. See KNOWLEDGE, QUALIFICATION, EDUCATION.

2) Education- - 1. The totality of systematized knowledge, skills and abilities acquired by an individual independently or in the process of learning in special educational institutions; distinguish: primary, basic, secondary, higher, general and special (professional) O.; technical, humanitarian, natural sciences. O. - one of the indicators of social. status of the individual and one of the factors of change and reproduction of social. about-va structures. 2. Social in-t, which performs the functions of preparing and including the individual in various. spheres of life about-va, familiarizing it with the culture of this about-va.

3) Education- - an institutionalized process on the basis of which values, skills and knowledge are transferred from one person, group, community to others.

4) Education- - one of the most significant means of social reproduction of society and a person, at the same time the process and result of the assimilation by people, primarily children, adolescents and youth, of systematized knowledge, skills and abilities, a necessary condition for preparing a person for an independent life, for work, functioning in as a specific social institution interacting with the main subsystems of society - economic, social, political, spiritual.

5) Education- - an institutionalized process on the basis of which values, skills and knowledge are transferred from one person, group, community to others.

6) Education - - the function of society, which ensures the reproduction and development of the society itself and systems of activity. This function is realized through the processes of culture translation and the implementation of cultural norms in changing historical situations, on the basis of new material of social relations, continuously replacing each other by generations of people. As a function, O. is distributed throughout the entire system of human relations, but as an organized process, O. is carried out by special social institutions. For some institutions, O. acts as the ultimate and exhaustive framework for their existence, defining the goals, values, subculture, and self-determination of people: the school of all levels, the teaching profession. For other institutions, the meaning of their existence is not limited to the implementation of the function of the O., but they are inconceivable without it: the family, the state, the church. The localization of the O. function exclusively in the institutions responsible for its implementation reduces the adaptability and viability of the social system as a whole, limits its development, and can lead to cultural decline, regression, and degradation. In viable and dynamic societies, all structures, institutions, and social subjects are involved in one form or another in the implementation of the O. function. O.'s problems become the defining theme of social communication at turning points in the life of society, in crisis situations, when the direction of development changes. In the 20th century developed and dynamic societies adopt the paradigm of continuous O. (1960-1980s) or O. throughout life (1990s), thereby making almost every person a participant in the implementation of the O. O. function is realized as a social human activity. The system of educational activity is represented differently in knowledge for different participants in the learning process and is described in different ways in different approaches. Within a single process and one generalized function, it is necessary to single out and analyze at least five separate functions and processes: 1) O. in the narrow sense - the function of laying the foundation and foundations of culture with a focus on the current state of culture and activity; 2) personnel training - a function of combining and tying at educational institutions the requirements of developing and reproducing technologies; 3) learning is a function of technologization of epistemic activity; 4) education - a function of preserving cultural diversity, regional uniqueness, reproduction and ecology of economic structures, natural landscapes, national traditions, etc.; 5) literacy is a function of ensuring equal initial rights and opportunities for all groups and strata in society, the technologization of a way of life. In education, as a sphere of sociocultural practice, the basic educational processes are implemented through the cooperative interaction of the functional, methodological, scientific, design, program, research, and organizational positions of its representatives. The source of the problematic and paradoxical nature of both the O. practice itself and the reflection of educational activity, its theoretical descriptions, interpretations and understanding is an event in the unified practice of the activity of two ontologically disproportionate subjects - normative culture and society, personified in the figure of a teacher, on the one hand, and the spontaneous, arbitrary, creative individuality of the student, on the other hand. Phenomenally, this coexistence of two activities appears either as cooperation and cooperation, or as a struggle or a game - confrontation. Mutual violence and suppression of freedom and will, love and creative upsurge, dogmatic adherence to the canon and destructive heresy are intertwined in the interaction and coexistence of a teacher and a student (society and individuality). The result of O. is the personality of the student with its properties, abilities and characteristics, however, this result is achieved as a compromise between the interaction of two parties, one of which - culture and society in the face of the teacher - needs, obliges, requires, while the other, in the person of the student, can only but either he wants to or he doesn't want to. Thus, the state of culture and society, their development, their future are in the hands of individuality, they are completely dependent on a capricious, self-willed, creative student. O.'s history is a history of victories and defeats, agreements and compromises between two participants in the educational process. Reflection and comprehension of this interaction accompany the entire history of philosophy. One of the questions prompting Socrates to philosophize was the question of the transmission of virtue. If virtue is the main attribute of a politician, of which Pericles was a model, why are the children of Pericles deprived of this attribute? Apparently, virtue is not automatically inherited, neither in the natural sense of inheritance (by blood, by birth, genetically), nor in the social sense (inheritance rights, birthright, etc.). Such doubts disqualify traditional social foundations, the hereditary aristocracy is deprived of the grounds for its existence, and the ability of the democratic polis to survive is also problematized. The problem does not lend itself to a speculative resolution on the move, therefore, in parallel, Socrates practically deals with it (his student Alcibiades), but even here he does not achieve success, as with his own children. Ancient philosophy is characterized by a narrowing of the understanding of educational issues in theoretical terms, due to the model set by Socrates for dividing educational practice into a holistic one - in relation to a specially selected student, and into a reduced one - in relation to the teaching of philosophy. Philosophy was taught in a public exoteric form (Socratic talks on the Agora, Plato's Academy, Aristotle's Lyceum), and a holistic educational practice was a private matter and clothed in an esoteric form (Socrates - Alcibiades, Plato - Dionysius the Younger, Aristotle - Alexander the Great). Chinese philosophy developed differently, where the attitude was rather the opposite: the reflection of educational practice was formalized in exoteric texts for public use, and, conversely, the philosophical teaching itself was often passed on to close students as esoteric knowledge. In ancient China, two opposite versions of educational practice developed within the framework of understanding the problematic nature of learning and the dependence of culture and society on the opportunities, arbitrariness, and activity of the student's individuality. Confucius considered the child and the student as a savage to be cultivated by any available means. The ritual is valuable as the quintessence of culture, and it should be broadcast forever, it is better to encourage the student to master the ritual with humanity than with violence. Ritual and humanity are becoming the main principles of Confucian educational practice, which allows preserving and broadcasting "Chinese ceremonies" for almost three thousand years, to the present day. Lao Tzu had a different axiological reflection of educational paradoxes. Be yourself, - the student is told - culture and society are strong and powerful with their rituals and ceremonies, they seek to suppress you. In order to successfully resist them, the path of Tao (Tao Te Ching), the path of self-valuable individuality, capable of resisting culture and society, is being developed. In traditional societies, three main educational paradigms can be distinguished. Natural Pedagogy. It is typical for societies that have not developed to the stage of statehood. This educational practice is based on a rigid separation between the world of adults and the world of children. The former are admitted to rituals, bear all the duties and enjoy all the rights available in a given culture, the latter are deprived of all this. The boundary between the worlds is set by the ritual of initiation. In the period of life before initiation, the child in natural functions masters everything necessary for adult life, having passed the tests, having accomplished all the necessary feats in the rite of initiation, he is admitted to the world of adults. The entire content of this educational practice can be expressed by an oriental proverb, which differs only in variants in many cultures: "up to 7 years, the child is a king, up to 15 - a slave, after 15 - a friend." Esoteric Pedagogy (Pedagogy of the Ideal). It is common in the practice of preparing neophytes for complex and rare activities (priests, scientists, philosophers, artists, rare and sacralized crafts). O. in this practice is based on the hypermotivation of the neophyte student, which arises through the idealization of the teacher, and on the imitation of the teacher in everything without exception, without distinguishing between important and unimportant aspects, since neither the teacher nor the student can distinguish what is important and what is not. important in complex and sacralized activities. Teaching in this paradigm is accompanied by vivid catarctic and ecstatic experiences, which, on the one hand, presupposes, and, on the other hand, forms in the student a peculiar character and a pronounced individuality. Pedagogy of mass socialization and cultivation. It is represented in any traditional society by a system of norms and rules governing acceptable and unacceptable behavior. Schematically, such an educational practice is very simple - some actions and deeds are encouraged, others are punished, the teacher points out the correct behavior and actions, or demonstrates them himself, the student imitates. Sometimes permissible and encouraged actions are complex, require special knowledge, skills, and then the desire to master them is specially encouraged. Encouraged and permissible behavior can vary greatly for different social groups and strata, therefore, education and education become social signs, giving rise to qualitative inequality. Individual originality and creative impulses in this pedagogy are punishable actions. The ability to "be like everyone else", typical average behavior, the implementation of ritual, protocol, decency is encouraged. In modern Europe, with the destruction of traditional forms of life, there is a need for a new understanding of O.'s activity and the entire complex of social relations associated with it. There is an institution of personality. An autonomous and free person needs education and education to overcome social inequality and for self-realization. Two new educational paradigms emerge and develop: egalitarian and elitist pedagogy. egalitarian pedagogy. It arises in the era of the Reformation in Protestant communities (in Belarus and in fraternal schools of Orthodox communities). The greatest importance for the development of O. New time and egalitarian pedagogy has the theoretical and practical activities of the Bishop of the Anabaptist community of Moravian brothers J.A. Comenius. Personal self-realization, according to Comenius, is determined by reading the Bible and faith unmediated by the church. Not only the initiates, and not even anyone who wants to, but every person should be able to read the Bible. Moreover, it differs - must be able to read the Bible, and must read it. "To read or not to read" the individual determines herself, but to provide her with the ability to read is the duty of society. Therefore, the pedagogy of Comenius arises on the basis of the reformed Christian imperative, but as a secular one. The requirement for everyone to be able to read the Bible suggests continued O., since special skills for reading the Bible are taught in universities. Comenius solves all these problems in a holistic organization of the educational process, linking into a single complex the mass provision of literacy for all, the possibility of continuing education according to linked programs from elementary school to university. Comenius designed the school through the standardization of educational material at all stages of education, creating the first humanitarian technology. The adaptability of O., according to Comenius, implies equal opportunities for all students, allows for the interchangeability and consistency of the main technological elements of activity: teachers who are trained in the same way, textbooks, programs, and educational institutions. The student gets the opportunity to continue O., changing school or city, missing a year or more, from the same place where he left off. The practical implementation of egalitarian pedagogy required the unfolding of a large program of work that stretched over three hundred years and was completed only in the 20th century, when illiteracy was completely eliminated in all developed countries and schooling became widespread. A unified technologized activity is productive and stable, but conservative and non-adaptive. Therefore, the implementation of egalitarian pedagogy is accompanied by regular crises in the national systems of education, which are repeated in the 19th and 20th centuries. every 15-20 years, and after the Second World War in developed countries, one can observe a permanent reformation of both the O. system and its content. Elite Pedagogy. The technologization and standardization of the sphere of education naturally creates problems for non-standard educational demands and needs, no matter what this non-standard may be motivated: whether by the interests of students, or specific social needs, or philosophical attitudes (J. Locke, J.-J. Russo, James Mill). Elite pedagogy arises as a compensation for the shortcomings of O.'s mass humanitarian technology, never itself becoming a technology, striving to solve its specific tasks by specific means. The latter, however, do not differ in great variety, most often these are various options for home O. and self-education. Pedagogical practices that borrow the technological principles of Comenius's pedagogy, but implement them in local situations, are another matter: for a special contingent of students (oligophrenic pedagogy for people with mental retardation, deaf-blind-mute pedagogy, Makarenko's pedagogy for dilinquent adolescents, etc.), for broadcasting other content (Waldorf pedagogy based on Steiner's anthroposophy, project method based on Dewey's instrumentalism and Peirce's pragmatism). In the 19th and 20th centuries with the growth of scientific knowledge and the diversification of scientific and philosophical approaches, new pedagogical paradigms arise (psychological - Mannheim (from Mannheim) system with an emphasis on testing abilities, cybernetic - programmed learning), but do not go beyond experimental ones. Periodic crises in O. always end in palliative solutions, and permanent reform is extremely inconsistent. This is due to the unresolved many problems of the ontological and moral-ethical order. Ontological: problems of the concept, nature or creatureliness of man, problems of the content of O. and problems of the method of activity. Moral and ethical: problems of axiology and problems of law. The idea of ​​a man. The interpretation of the concept of O. depends on the approach to the idea of ​​a person. Although the possibility of O. as a practice itself already dictates a certain approach to the idea of ​​man. In the etymology of the term O. there is an image (Belarusian adukatsia - Greek eidos, German bildung - bild, English building), bringing under the image, giving the image. That is, if O. is possible, then it is understood as work with the form, human entelechy. But does this affect the content, essence, nature of man? - this is one of the main questions of the philosophy of O. If in the process of O. the nature of a person is not affected, then the variety of educational practices is determined only by cultural and historical ideas about the image or model under which the person being formed is brought. In this case, discussions unfold either around the interpretation of concepts such as: a harmoniously developed personality, kalokagatiya, jun-tzu (Ch. "noble husband"), "true Aryan", etc., or around the comprehension of specific samples (the image and likeness of God, "make life with comrade Dzerzhinsky", Che Guevara and beyond ad infinitum). If O. is able to influence human nature, then educational practice becomes anthropotechnics (Anthropotechnics) and falls into the zone of action of the moral law and the categorical imperative. The Soviet and Chinese cultural revolutions with the task of educating (creating) a new person, F. Galton's eugenics and its totalitarian variants become possible. Christian theology puts forward two opposing principles: traditionalism, a one-time act of creating a person by God, followed by the reproduction of what was created once, and creationism, which implies the creation by God of each human soul anew. Creationism (Augustine of the Blessed, Calvin) is accepted in Protestantism and in principle would allow radical interference in human nature if it were not limited by the dogma of predestination. Comenius' pedagogical technology is based on Protestant theology and the ontology of man. This allows a radical intervention in the formation of a person, since it does not affect his soul (essence, destiny), the existence of which is predetermined by God. The latter, in turn, continues to create the soul (determine the fate and essence of a person), but this is carried out in the sphere of religious practice outside O.. In particular, for the Anabaptists (re-baptists), a current in Protestantism to which Comenius belonged, a radical rebirth of a person occurs at the moment of baptism (re-baptism) of adults, and in less radical forms in the rite of confirmation of adolescents, dating back to the ancient rites of initiation. The secularization of Comenius' pedagogical technology violates its integrity and organicity; therefore, the problematization of the foundations of egalitarian technology is periodically repeated with one or another sharpness over the course of three centuries of the implementation of Comenius' program. The non-theological version, which admits the createdness of man and the incompleteness of his creation, is presented in the activity approach, in particular, in the cultural-historical concept of Vygotsky. The main premise here is the non-identity of a person to himself in natural history (phylogenesis), social history (ontogenesis) and in individual history (biography or actual genesis). The non-identity of a person to himself in the processes of his formation denies the predestination of his development, makes it impossible to unequivocally predict the stages of development, and in a certain sense, diagnostics, in the form that it acquires in contemporary Vygotsky psychology, pedology and pedagogy. Without forecasting and diagnosing, the technologized activity of mass O is impossible. In the cultural-historical concept, this obstacle is eliminated by introducing the concept of the zone of proximal development (student, child, person), which is projected in the co-existence of the interaction between the teacher and the student through anticipation, the formulation of individual development tasks and joint solution of these problems. Thus, the ontological problem of man is translated into the problem of method, and is already resolved by methodological means, and not by philosophical speculations about the essence of man. The content of O. The most acute problem of the content of O. is manifested in the opposition of the activity and naturalistic approaches (Approach). In the pedagogy of Comenius, the content of O. was determined sensationally. The student was introduced into the world of sensible things. One of the main principles of Comenius' didactics was the principle of visibility, which is a reinterpretation for educational activity of the thesis "esse est percipi" - "the content mastered in O. can be that which is introduced through sensation." For Comenius himself, as well as for Berkeley, sensationalism was not a problem, since O. was supplemented by the study of the Bible, the content of which is obviously not sensual. But with the complete secularization of the school, transcendental intelligible objects practically disappear from the content of O.. Even the ideal objects of mathematics are broadcast as visual images. The content of O. is set in a fundamentally different way in phenomenology, transcendental idealism, and in the activity approach. But until now, if this content is transmitted to the O., in rare cases it becomes the property of individual education, then it is outside school practice, outside educational institutions. In the professional thinking of teachers, the content of knowledge is understood as knowledge, skills, and habits (the so-called ZUNs) in their sensationalistic interpretation. Intra-professional criticism does not rise to a fundamental statement of the problem of the content of O., but is limited to substituting other objective or rational categories in place of ZUNs, for example, abilities, an individual mode of activity, or personal knowledge. The problem of the content of O. is localized in the institutional system of mass education, since O. with a different ontological content (religious, activity, philosophical, esoteric, etc.) coexists simultaneously with the mass school. Methods of O. The problems of methods of O. are connected with the difficulties of categorizing the activity of different participants in the educational process and the ontological status of their interaction and coexistence. Attempts are made to categorize the integral process of learning through the individual activity of the participants (the teacher teaches, the student learns) in subject-object schemes. Both the student and the teacher act as active subjects, and their activity is directed to objects outside of them: nature, knowledge, texts, etc. In addition, for the teacher, the student himself is the object of his activity. This approach encounters resistance from supporters of subject-subject interaction schemes. Here, activity cannot be considered as an individual, or labor transformative activity, which can be reduced to a system of individual activities, but only as a collectively distributed one (V.V. Davydov, V.P. Rubtsov). Such educational activity is understood as a game or communication, which in principle cannot be individualized. The recategorization of O.'s activity in terms of play and communication creates more problems than it solves. In a game with many participants, or in communication (which is unthinkable with less than two subjects), there is not and cannot be an a priori external result. This means that the result of O. and education can no longer be controlled by the teacher and the society that he personifies, the society loses control over the state of culture and the status quo of the society itself. The individuality of the student and society with the entire world culture represented by the teacher are equal in shaping the result of O. and education. But this leads to the absurdization of the pedagogical technology of Comenius (and most other pedagogies that claim to be technologically advanced). Egalitarian pedagogy guarantees equal rights for all students, but there can be no question of equality between teacher and student. The first knows, the second can only potentially know, or should know. The idea of ​​O. as a game or communication (dialogue, communication) requires a revision of all ideas about society and culture. This means the rejection of the rigorous rhetorical (S. Averintsev -) version of culture, the rejection of historicism (K. Popper -) in the interpretation of history and social development. Only a fundamentally open society (A. Bergson, Popper, J. Soros -) is able to assimilate the activity of O. as a game and dialogue, to accept for itself a completely different function of O. in the version of development of itself, and not reproduction and conservation. Thus, the problem of O.'s methods rests on the development of a philosophy and methodology for the development of society. The actual professional pedagogical formulation of the problem of O. methods requires systematic and methodological research and development in the field of heterogeneous, heteronomous, heterochronous and heterarched systems of activity, and modern O. appears to be such. for pedagogical thinking. However, such developments and research cannot be carried out by the means of pedagogy itself. Axiology O. The pluralism of modern societies creates in the sphere of O. a plurality of proposals for goals and patterns of human development. Even traditional societies offered new generations of O. different types of education, albeit in a limited set of samples and standards. But in O., characteristic of traditional societies, a person, a student, a child were limited in their ability to choose from the options offered. The choice was predetermined, dictated by the origin, abilities, stability of the institutional forms of the traditional school. A modern student is much freer in choosing the type of education that society can offer him. It is less bound by origin, due to the social dynamics and mobility of individuals, it is less bound by the limitations of its own abilities, due to high technology and a variety of teaching methods adapted to a wide range of abilities, it is less dependent on the native language and ethnicity, due to globalization and standardization O. and the internationalization of languages ​​of culture. To the extent that a student can choose options for O. and education, they are limited only by his orientation in the world of values. Moreover, these restrictions are encountered by a student at a very early age when choosing a school or even a kindergarten. And any choice not only expands the possibilities, but also narrows them. Choosing a bad school can predetermine your entire future biography and career. When egalitarian pedagogy is set to provide equal opportunities and rights to all students, pedagogy itself and the institutionalized education system are unable to ensure its implementation. Orientation in the world of modern values ​​becomes an independent task of educational activity in the modern world, in contrast to past historical situations, when values ​​were broadcast and transmitted in the process of learning itself. But the provision of such orientation in the world of values ​​is achieved outside the institutional school: in the family, by the media , in contacts with peers, etc. When one of the most important tasks of education is removed from the sphere of responsibility of education institutions, it becomes necessary to transform the entire society into an educational society, where everyone - both students and teachers - is for each other, and not bound by professional ethics, parental responsibility and authority, moral and political censorship. Previously, the child and the student received dosed, measured information from society, the dosage was carried out by the social circle, the home library, the school curriculum, and the customs of the community. The Internet has removed the last obstacles to the exchange of information between everyone and everyone, the freedom of choice has become unlimited. The axiological problem in its modern form is not in limiting the freedom of choice in the variety of values, but in the ability to use it. Most of the social institutions and groups, professional, ethnic and confessional communities, not to mention individuals, are not ready for such a situation. For some communities and subcultures, this unpreparedness is fraught with complete loss of world communication. Entire peoples, communities and professional communities turn out to be functionally illiterate, because they cannot orient themselves in the system of values ​​of the modern world, develop and adopt a modern educational policy and doctrine. A group of eternally "developing" countries has emerged on the planet, forced to constantly catch up with the "developed" countries, with no chance of ever finishing this modernization race. Rights of participants in the process A. Legal issues in educational relations between people are extremely diverse. It stood sharply in ancient times in the context of natural pedagogy (above), which is characterized by the complete lack of rights of children. Parents controlled the whole life of the child. Only in societies that have achieved statehood have norms appeared prohibiting the killing of children by parents. But the sale of children into slavery, forced marriages, and corporal punishment are still cultivated in many countries and subcultures. The rejection of traditional natural pedagogy in Europe in modern times opened up the world of childhood. In the 18th century proper children's clothing appeared (even Renaissance and Baroque paintings depict children either naked or in adult clothes, adjusted in size only in the wealthy strata of society). In the 19th century children's literature appeared in the 20th century. - children's folklore was opened. Until the 20th century children's rights were governed exclusively by family law. At the end of the 20th century the Declaration on the Rights of the Child appeared, the adult community assumed the obligation to guarantee the rights of children as such, and not just the rights of individuals of childhood as potential adults. A different formulation of legal problems in egalitarian pedagogy, where we are talking about equal rights (opportunities) for O. for all. In the process of unfolding the Comenius program in egalitarian pedagogy, the question of equal rights rises each time at a new level. Initially, equal rights are only spoken of in relation to those who attend school. After the adoption in the late 19th - early 20th century. In most countries, the obligation of primary education is exacerbated by the property status of the parents, the abilities of the children themselves, and their level of development. The methodological progress of pedagogy removed this problem in developed countries, but it reappeared during the transition to universal secondary, and then to higher education. In the USA, there are specific problems with the education of disabled people and children with mental retardation, who are legally guaranteed the right to study in ordinary schools, moreover, the disadvantaged party in the exercise of this right can be both ordinary students and the school, which can be sued for the poor quality of education. In professional education, the problem of students' rights receives a specific refraction. If preparation for a profession begins early, at a low level of education, then this limits the possibilities of continuing O. to a greater extent than expands them. This problem is more acute in countries with a multivariate system of vocational training. In Belarus, with its secondary vocational schools inherited from the USSR, there are no problems with the right to continue education at higher levels, but there are problems with the quality of both vocational training and general education, which leads to the problem of functional illiteracy (Functional Literacy). O. globalization implies the possibility and the right to receive and continue O. in any country of the world, and this cannot be ensured without the coordinated standardization of national O. systems and international agreements on the conversion and recognition of O. certificates and diplomas (Lisbon Convention). O.'s standardization causes legitimate concern in some countries regarding the loss of cultural identity and national specificity. Another proper ethical aspect of the legal problem in O. concerns the right of the teacher and the entire system of O. to impose on students a picture of the world, a worldview, a model of a person, which constitute the content of O. in each particular school. When declaring the freedom to choose options for education and education, this freedom cannot be provided by each particular school. School activity is organized and technologized for a very specific content of O., in a certain sense, the school zombifies, enchants the student, imposing a picture of the world on him. Therefore, studying in a specific school (school of a certain type) closes the possibility of mastering a different content, following other patterns. Most of the pedagogical community is forced to put up with this ethical problem as a necessary evil, but options for its solution are also proposed. The solution to this problem lies on the path of O. formalization, to teach not knowledge about the world, but to teach to learn, to master any knowledge. Although such a solution simply transfers the problem from the ethical plane to the methodological sphere (the methodological opposition of formal and real or material O.), but unlike ethical problems, methodological problems are fundamentally solvable. And, finally, the last aspect of legal issues in O. is the preservation of the sovereignty of national states regarding O. systems of each specific country in the context of O. globalization and the widespread spread of the Internet. Historically, the problem is not new. The globalization of O. began with the advent of world religions and has always met with resistance from traditional societies in various historical forms of fundamentalism. For the modern era, Islamic and Orthodox fundamentalism becomes problematic. The problem is resolved only through national self-determination. This can be traced in the succession of historical programs for the renewal of O. in Belarus. Apostolic program of Christianization (10th-14th centuries). The adoption of Christianity introduces peoples into the ecumenical community, which inherits, in addition to Christianity itself, the entire ancient tradition. Culture is supplemented by writing, literature, and its own history. The Apostolic Educational Program opens the history of O. in Belarus. The peculiarity of the Christianization of Belarus in the co-presence of two options: the Cyril and Methodius program, which made the Polotsk and Turov-Pinsk principalities the periphery of the Byzantine civilization, the missionary Catholic program in the lands of ancient Lithuania. The competition between the two programs has formed a complex linguistic, confessional, political and anthropological context for the self-determination of the Litvins (Mindovg, Skirgaila and Vitovt were baptized both according to the Byzantine and Roman rites, while reconciling or even patronizing paganism throughout the entire territory west of Pinsk - Minsk - Vitebsk) . The consequences of this competition are still being manifested, sometimes taking the form of cultural catastrophes, with the separate existence of people and languages, sometimes rising to a dialogue of cultures. Reformation program (16th-18th centuries). It originated in autochthonous forms in the "fraternal schools" (secular schools of Orthodox communities - brotherhoods) of modernizing Lithuanian Orthodoxy. The practice of "brotherly schools" was supplemented and enriched by the intensive spread of Calvinism, Anabaptism, and antitrinitarianism, in which O. was one of the main components of missionary activity. An egalitarian pedagogy was taking shape, in many respects anticipating Comenius' program. The cultural consequences of the implementation of this program were: widespread literacy and printing, urbanization and autonomy of urban and small-town communities, the Bible in vernacular languages, the phenomenon of polemical literature, a unique legal system, fiction and poetry, integration into European culture and cultural expansion to the east, stopped destructive wars with Russia, which dragged on intermittently throughout the 17th century. Program of the Counter-Reformation (16th-19th centuries). The extensive dissemination of orthodoxy was one of the responses of Catholicism to the challenge of the Reformation. The most active in this were the orders of the Jesuits and the Basilians (a Uniate order created under the influence and control of the Jesuits). Lagging behind the Protestants in the mass dissemination of education and literacy, the Jesuits countered this with the quality of education, the status and prestige of education. In a short period, more than 80 collegiums and gymnasiums and two universities (Vilna and Polotsk academies) were organized. The emergence of philosophy and science in Belarus (albeit in archaic neoscholastic forms), the spread of libraries, museums, pharmacies, hospitals, school theaters, etc. can be considered optional results of this program. Apostolic Christianization, the Reformation and the Counter-Reformation were accompanied by educational programs of a globalization and integration nature. But large historical educational programs may have a different focus. Elimination of O. in the lands of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania (19th century). The liquidation of all educational institutions was an integral part of the Russification of the population of the Lithuanian provinces. The deportation of the Jesuits and the liquidation of the Basilian order led to the massive closure of colleges and the weakening of universities. The modernized Lithuanian Orthodoxy and union were destroyed, and the clergy and believers were subordinated to the Russian Orthodox Church, together with the liquidation of city self-government (Magdeburg Law), this undermined the basis of egalitarian pedagogy (community and city schools). Both universities were closed, laboratories, libraries, archives were taken to Moscow and St. Petersburg, professors and students either emigrated or were sent deep into Russia. Of the entire system of higher and secondary education, only a few educational institutions have survived (for example, the Slutsk Protestant Gymnasium and the Gory-Gorytsk Agricultural School). Higher O. was resumed in Lithuania and Belarus only after the First World War. Soviet educational program (20th century). O. was built on the basis of the technology of egalitarian pedagogy, which was implemented in the USSR most consistently and effectively. But any technology is meaningless. And Soviet pedagogy approached the content of O. through the pragmatics of industrialization and the cultural revolution. O.'s technology and content are synergistically linked. In order to increase the efficiency and productivity of the humanitarian technology of Comenius, the properties of a mega-machine organization were attached. The nationalization of the entire school was accompanied by etatism in the content of O. The mechanization of activity led to the dehumanization of the content of the activity itself and the content of O., although the inverse dependence of the organization of activity on the humanitarian, quasi-scientific theory and philosophy of Marxism is no less significant. From the O. system, which functioned as a whole, formal, classical, and humanitarian O. were removed or replaced by ersatz. cultural layer (both in the sense of people and in the sense of things of culture: archives, museums, monuments, libraries), which found itself without a historical capital, machine-like Soviet technology was implemented in the purest and most perfect forms. As a result, by the time of gaining independence in Belarus, there was practically no humanitarian knowledge about their country, an understanding of their country. The implementation of educational programs over the course of two centuries, the first of which consisted in the full-scale elimination of the national O. system, and the second consisted in the accelerated creation of an effective, high-tech, but reduced and one-sided O. system, led to the loss of the nation's ability to self-survival, reproduction and development. O. renewal program for an open society. The acute need for a radical renewal of the national O. system in Belarus in the last decade of the 20th century. coincides arises against the background of O.'s globalization all over the world. Analysis and conceptualization of a complex of multidirectional tendencies that are only outlined in the general globalization of tourism, supplemented by criticism and analysis of the national problems and development needs of the country, form the basis of the program for the renewal of tourism in Belarus. One of the components of the development of this program is the multi-volume project "Humanitarian Encyclopedia" of the Minsk School of Philosophy. V.V. Matskevich

7) Education- - see Sociology of education.

Education

English education; German Bildung. 1. The totality of systematized knowledge, skills and abilities acquired by an individual independently or in the process of learning in special educational institutions. Depending on the volume and nature of knowledge, primary, basic, secondary, higher education, general and special (professional) education are distinguished; by content - technical, humanitarian, natural science, social. O. - one of the indicators of social. status of the individual and one of the factors of change and reproduction of social. structure of society. 2. Social an institution that performs the functions of preparing and including an individual in various spheres of the life of society, introducing him to the culture of this society. See KNOWLEDGE, QUALIFICATION, EDUCATION.

1. The totality of systematized knowledge, skills and abilities acquired by an individual independently or in the process of learning in special educational institutions; distinguish: primary, basic, secondary, higher, general and special (professional) O.; technical, humanitarian, natural sciences. O. - one of the indicators of social. status of the individual and one of the factors of change and reproduction of social. about-va structures. 2. Social in-t, which performs the functions of preparing and including the individual in various. spheres of life about-va, familiarizing it with the culture of this about-va.

An institutionalized process through which values, skills, and knowledge are transferred from one person, group, or community to another.

One of the most significant means of social reproduction of society and a person, at the same time the process and result of the assimilation by people, primarily children, adolescents and youth, of systematized knowledge, skills and abilities, a necessary condition for preparing a person for independent life, for work, functioning as a specific social institution interacting with the main subsystems of society - economic, social, political, spiritual.

- an institutionalized process on the basis of which values, skills and knowledge are transferred from one person, group, community to others.

The function of society, which ensures the reproduction and development of the society itself and systems of activity. This function is realized through the processes of culture translation and the implementation of cultural norms in changing historical situations, on the basis of new material of social relations, continuously replacing each other by generations of people. As a function, O. is distributed throughout the entire system of human relations, but as an organized process, O. is carried out by special social institutions. For some institutions, O. acts as the ultimate and exhaustive framework for their existence, defining the goals, values, subculture, and self-determination of people: the school of all levels, the teaching profession. For other institutions, the meaning of their existence is not limited to the implementation of the function of the O., but they are inconceivable without it: the family, the state, the church. The localization of the O. function exclusively in the institutions responsible for its implementation reduces the adaptability and viability of the social system as a whole, limits its development, and can lead to cultural decline, regression, and degradation. In viable and dynamic societies, all structures, institutions, and social subjects are involved in one form or another in the implementation of the O. function. O.'s problems become the defining theme of social communication at turning points in the life of society, in crisis situations, when the direction of development changes. In the 20th century developed and dynamic societies adopt the paradigm of continuous O. (1960-1980s) or O. throughout life (1990s), thereby making almost every person a participant in the implementation of the O. O. function is realized as a social human activity. The system of educational activity is represented differently in knowledge for different participants in the learning process and is described in different ways in different approaches. Within a single process and one generalized function, it is necessary to single out and analyze at least five separate functions and processes: 1) O. in the narrow sense - the function of laying the foundation and foundations of culture with a focus on the current state of culture and activity; 2) personnel training - a function of combining and tying at educational institutions the requirements of developing and reproducing technologies; 3) learning is a function of technologization of epistemic activity; 4) education - a function of preserving cultural diversity, regional uniqueness, reproduction and ecology of economic structures, natural landscapes, national traditions, etc.; 5) literacy is a function of ensuring equal initial rights and opportunities for all groups and strata in society, the technologization of a way of life. In education, as a sphere of sociocultural practice, the basic educational processes are implemented through the cooperative interaction of the functional, methodological, scientific, design, program, research, and organizational positions of its representatives. The source of the problematic and paradoxical nature of both the O. practice itself and the reflection of educational activity, its theoretical descriptions, interpretations and understanding is an event in the unified practice of the activity of two ontologically disproportionate subjects - normative culture and society, personified in the figure of a teacher, on the one hand, and the spontaneous, arbitrary, creative individuality of the student, on the other hand. Phenomenally, this coexistence of two activities appears either as cooperation and cooperation, or as a struggle or a game - confrontation. Mutual violence and suppression of freedom and will, love and creative upsurge, dogmatic adherence to the canon and destructive heresy are intertwined in the interaction and coexistence of a teacher and a student (society and individuality). The result of O. is the personality of the student with its properties, abilities and characteristics, however, this result is achieved as a compromise between the interaction of two parties, one of which - culture and society in the face of the teacher - needs, obliges, requires, while the other, in the person of the student, can only but either he wants to or he doesn't want to. Thus, the state of culture and society, their development, their future are in the hands of individuality, they are completely dependent on a capricious, self-willed, creative student. O.'s history is a history of victories and defeats, agreements and compromises between two participants in the educational process. Reflection and comprehension of this interaction accompany the entire history of philosophy. One of the questions prompting Socrates to philosophize was the question of the transmission of virtue. If virtue is the main attribute of a politician, of which Pericles was a model, why are the children of Pericles deprived of this attribute? Apparently, virtue is not automatically inherited, neither in the natural sense of inheritance (by blood, by birth, genetically), nor in the social sense (inheritance rights, birthright, etc.). Such doubts disqualify traditional social foundations, the hereditary aristocracy is deprived of the grounds for its existence, and the ability of the democratic polis to survive is also problematized. The problem does not lend itself to a speculative resolution on the move, therefore, in parallel, Socrates practically deals with it (his student Alcibiades), but even here he does not achieve success, as with his own children. Ancient philosophy is characterized by a narrowing of the understanding of educational issues in theoretical terms, due to the model set by Socrates for dividing educational practice into a holistic one - in relation to a specially selected student, and into a reduced one - in relation to the teaching of philosophy. Philosophy was taught in a public exoteric form (Socratic talks on the Agora, Plato's Academy, Aristotle's Lyceum), and a holistic educational practice was a private matter and clothed in an esoteric form (Socrates - Alcibiades, Plato - Dionysius the Younger, Aristotle - Alexander the Great). Chinese philosophy developed differently, where the attitude was rather the opposite: the reflection of educational practice was formalized in exoteric texts for public use, and, conversely, the philosophical teaching itself was often passed on to close students as esoteric knowledge. In ancient China, two opposite versions of educational practice developed within the framework of understanding the problematic nature of learning and the dependence of culture and society on the opportunities, arbitrariness, and activity of the student's individuality. Confucius considered the child and the student as a savage to be cultivated by any available means. The ritual is valuable as the quintessence of culture, and it should be broadcast forever, it is better to encourage the student to master the ritual with humanity than with violence. Ritual and humanity are becoming the main principles of Confucian educational practice, which allows preserving and broadcasting "Chinese ceremonies" for almost three thousand years, to the present day. Lao Tzu had a different axiological reflection of educational paradoxes. Be yourself, - the student is told - culture and society are strong and powerful with their rituals and ceremonies, they seek to suppress you. In order to successfully resist them, the path of Tao (Tao Te Ching), the path of self-valuable individuality, capable of resisting culture and society, is being developed. In traditional societies, three main educational paradigms can be distinguished. Natural Pedagogy. It is typical for societies that have not developed to the stage of statehood. This educational practice is based on a rigid separation between the world of adults and the world of children. The former are admitted to rituals, bear all the duties and enjoy all the rights available in a given culture, the latter are deprived of all this. The boundary between the worlds is set by the ritual of initiation. In the period of life before initiation, the child in natural functions masters everything necessary for adult life, having passed the tests, having accomplished all the necessary feats in the rite of initiation, he is admitted to the world of adults. The entire content of this educational practice can be expressed by an oriental proverb, which differs only in variants in many cultures: "up to 7 years, the child is a king, up to 15 - a slave, after 15 - a friend." Esoteric Pedagogy (Pedagogy of the Ideal). It is common in the practice of preparing neophytes for complex and rare activities (priests, scientists, philosophers, artists, rare and sacralized crafts). O. in this practice is based on the hypermotivation of the neophyte student, which arises through the idealization of the teacher, and on the imitation of the teacher in everything without exception, without distinguishing between important and unimportant aspects, since neither the teacher nor the student can distinguish what is important and what is not. important in complex and sacralized activities. Teaching in this paradigm is accompanied by vivid catarctic and ecstatic experiences, which, on the one hand, presupposes, and, on the other hand, forms in the student a peculiar character and a pronounced individuality. Pedagogy of mass socialization and cultivation. It is represented in any traditional society by a system of norms and rules governing acceptable and unacceptable behavior. Schematically, such an educational practice is very simple - some actions and deeds are encouraged, others are punished, the teacher points out the correct behavior and actions, or demonstrates them himself, the student imitates. Sometimes permissible and encouraged actions are complex, require special knowledge, skills, and then the desire to master them is specially encouraged. Encouraged and permissible behavior can vary greatly for different social groups and strata, therefore, education and education become social signs, giving rise to qualitative inequality. Individual originality and creative impulses in this pedagogy are punishable actions. The ability to "be like everyone else", typical average behavior, the implementation of ritual, protocol, decency is encouraged. In modern Europe, with the destruction of traditional forms of life, there is a need for a new understanding of O.'s activity and the entire complex of social relations associated with it. There is an institution of personality. An autonomous and free person needs education and education to overcome social inequality and for self-realization. Two new educational paradigms emerge and develop: egalitarian and elitist pedagogy. egalitarian pedagogy. It arises in the era of the Reformation in Protestant communities (in Belarus and in fraternal schools of Orthodox communities). The greatest importance for the development of O. New time and egalitarian pedagogy has the theoretical and practical activities of the Bishop of the Anabaptist community of Moravian brothers J.A. Comenius. Personal self-realization, according to Comenius, is determined by reading the Bible and faith unmediated by the church. Not only the initiates, and not even anyone who wants to, but every person should be able to read the Bible. Moreover, it differs - must be able to read the Bible, and must read it. "To read or not to read" the individual determines herself, but to provide her with the ability to read is the duty of society. Therefore, the pedagogy of Comenius arises on the basis of the reformed Christian imperative, but as a secular one. The requirement for everyone to be able to read the Bible suggests continued O., since special skills for reading the Bible are taught in universities. Comenius solves all these problems in a holistic organization of the educational process, linking into a single complex the mass provision of literacy for all, the possibility of continuing education according to linked programs from elementary school to university. Comenius designed the school through the standardization of educational material at all stages of education, creating the first humanitarian technology. The adaptability of O., according to Comenius, implies equal opportunities for all students, allows for the interchangeability and consistency of the main technological elements of activity: teachers who are trained in the same way, textbooks, programs, and educational institutions. The student gets the opportunity to continue O., changing school or city, missing a year or more, from the same place where he left off. The practical implementation of egalitarian pedagogy required the unfolding of a large program of work that stretched over three hundred years and was completed only in the 20th century, when illiteracy was completely eliminated in all developed countries and schooling became widespread. A unified technologized activity is productive and stable, but conservative and non-adaptive. Therefore, the implementation of egalitarian pedagogy is accompanied by regular crises in the national systems of education, which are repeated in the 19th and 20th centuries. every 15-20 years, and after the Second World War in developed countries, one can observe a permanent reformation of both the O. system and its content. Elite Pedagogy. The technologization and standardization of the sphere of education naturally creates problems for non-standard educational demands and needs, no matter what this non-standard may be motivated: whether by the interests of students, or specific social needs, or philosophical attitudes (J. Locke, J.-J. Russo, James Mill). Elite pedagogy arises as a compensation for the shortcomings of O.'s mass humanitarian technology, never itself becoming a technology, striving to solve its specific tasks by specific means. The latter, however, do not differ in great variety, most often these are various options for home O. and self-education. Pedagogical practices that borrow the technological principles of Comenius's pedagogy, but implement them in local situations, are another matter: for a special contingent of students (oligophrenic pedagogy for people with mental retardation, deaf-blind-mute pedagogy, Makarenko's pedagogy for dilinquent adolescents, etc.), for broadcasting other content (Waldorf pedagogy based on Steiner's anthroposophy, project method based on Dewey's instrumentalism and Peirce's pragmatism). In the 19th and 20th centuries with the growth of scientific knowledge and the diversification of scientific and philosophical approaches, new pedagogical paradigms arise (psychological - Mannheim (from Mannheim) system with an emphasis on testing abilities, cybernetic - programmed learning), but do not go beyond experimental ones. Periodic crises in O. always end in palliative solutions, and permanent reform is extremely inconsistent. This is due to the unresolved many problems of the ontological and moral-ethical order. Ontological: problems of the concept, nature or creatureliness of man, problems of the content of O. and problems of the method of activity. Moral and ethical: problems of axiology and problems of law. The idea of ​​a man. The interpretation of the concept of O. depends on the approach to the idea of ​​a person. Although the possibility of O. as a practice itself already dictates a certain approach to the idea of ​​man. In the etymology of the term O. there is an image (Belarusian adukatsia - Greek eidos, German bildung - bild, English building), bringing under the image, giving the image. That is, if O. is possible, then it is understood as work with the form, human entelechy. But does this affect the content, essence, nature of man? - this is one of the main questions of the philosophy of O. If in the process of O. the nature of a person is not affected, then the variety of educational practices is determined only by cultural and historical ideas about the image or model under which the person being formed is brought. In this case, discussions unfold either around the interpretation of concepts such as: a harmoniously developed personality, kalokagatiya, jun-tzu (Ch. "noble husband"), "true Aryan", etc., or around the comprehension of specific samples (the image and likeness of God, "make life with comrade Dzerzhinsky", Che Guevara and beyond ad infinitum). If O. is able to influence human nature, then educational practice becomes anthropotechnics (Anthropotechnics) and falls into the zone of action of the moral law and the categorical imperative. The Soviet and Chinese cultural revolutions with the task of educating (creating) a new person, F. Galton's eugenics and its totalitarian variants become possible. Christian theology puts forward two opposing principles: traditionalism, a one-time act of creating a person by God, followed by the reproduction of what was created once, and creationism, which implies the creation by God of each human soul anew. Creationism (Augustine of the Blessed, Calvin) is accepted in Protestantism and in principle would allow radical interference in human nature if it were not limited by the dogma of predestination. Comenius' pedagogical technology is based on Protestant theology and the ontology of man. This allows a radical intervention in the formation of a person, since it does not affect his soul (essence, destiny), the existence of which is predetermined by God. The latter, in turn, continues to create the soul (determine the fate and essence of a person), but this is carried out in the sphere of religious practice outside O.. In particular, for the Anabaptists (re-baptists), a current in Protestantism to which Comenius belonged, a radical rebirth of a person occurs at the moment of baptism (re-baptism) of adults, and in less radical forms in the rite of confirmation of adolescents, dating back to the ancient rites of initiation. The secularization of Comenius' pedagogical technology violates its integrity and organicity; therefore, the problematization of the foundations of egalitarian technology is periodically repeated with one or another sharpness over the course of three centuries of the implementation of Comenius' program. The non-theological version, which admits the createdness of man and the incompleteness of his creation, is presented in the activity approach, in particular, in the cultural-historical concept of Vygotsky. The main premise here is the non-identity of a person to himself in natural history (phylogenesis), social history (ontogenesis) and in individual history (biography or actual genesis). The non-identity of a person to himself in the processes of his formation denies the predestination of his development, makes it impossible to unequivocally predict the stages of development, and in a certain sense, diagnostics, in the form that it acquires in contemporary Vygotsky psychology, pedology and pedagogy. Without forecasting and diagnosing, the technologized activity of mass O is impossible. In the cultural-historical concept, this obstacle is eliminated by introducing the concept of the zone of proximal development (student, child, person), which is projected in the co-existence of the interaction between the teacher and the student through anticipation, the formulation of individual development tasks and joint solution of these problems. Thus, the ontological problem of man is translated into the problem of method, and is already resolved by methodological means, and not by philosophical speculations about the essence of man. The content of O. The most acute problem of the content of O. is manifested in the opposition of the activity and naturalistic approaches (Approach). In the pedagogy of Comenius, the content of O. was determined sensationally. The student was introduced into the world of sensible things. One of the main principles of Comenius' didactics was the principle of visibility, which is a reinterpretation for educational activity of the thesis "esse est percipi" - "the content mastered in O. can be that which is introduced through sensation." For Comenius himself, as well as for Berkeley, sensationalism was not a problem, since O. was supplemented by the study of the Bible, the content of which is obviously not sensual. But with the complete secularization of the school, transcendental intelligible objects practically disappear from the content of O.. Even the ideal objects of mathematics are broadcast as visual images. The content of O. is set in a fundamentally different way in phenomenology, transcendental idealism, and in the activity approach. But until now, if this content is transmitted to the O., in rare cases it becomes the property of individual education, then it is outside school practice, outside educational institutions. In the professional thinking of teachers, the content of knowledge is understood as knowledge, skills, and habits (the so-called ZUNs) in their sensationalistic interpretation. Intra-professional criticism does not rise to a fundamental statement of the problem of the content of O., but is limited to substituting other objective or rational categories in place of ZUNs, for example, abilities, an individual mode of activity, or personal knowledge. The problem of the content of O. is localized in the institutional system of mass education, since O. with a different ontological content (religious, activity, philosophical, esoteric, etc.) coexists simultaneously with the mass school. Methods of O. The problems of methods of O. are connected with the difficulties of categorizing the activity of different participants in the educational process and the ontological status of their interaction and coexistence. Attempts are made to categorize the integral process of learning through the individual activity of the participants (the teacher teaches, the student learns) in subject-object schemes. Both the student and the teacher act as active subjects, and their activity is directed to objects outside of them: nature, knowledge, texts, etc. In addition, for the teacher, the student himself is the object of his activity. This approach encounters resistance from supporters of subject-subject interaction schemes. Here, activity cannot be considered as an individual, or labor transformative activity, which can be reduced to a system of individual activities, but only as a collectively distributed one (V.V. Davydov, V.P. Rubtsov). Such educational activity is understood as a game or communication, which in principle cannot be individualized. The recategorization of O.'s activity in terms of play and communication creates more problems than it solves. In a game with many participants, or in communication (which is unthinkable with less than two subjects), there is not and cannot be an a priori external result. This means that the result of O. and education can no longer be controlled by the teacher and the society that he personifies, the society loses control over the state of culture and the status quo of the society itself. The individuality of the student and society with the entire world culture represented by the teacher are equal in shaping the result of O. and education. But this leads to the absurdization of the pedagogical technology of Comenius (and most other pedagogies that claim to be technologically advanced). Egalitarian pedagogy guarantees equal rights for all students, but there can be no question of equality between teacher and student. The first knows, the second can only potentially know, or should know. The idea of ​​O. as a game or communication (dialogue, communication) requires a revision of all ideas about society and culture. This means the rejection of the rigorous rhetorical (S. Averintsev -) version of culture, the rejection of historicism (K. Popper -) in the interpretation of history and social development. Only a fundamentally open society (A. Bergson, Popper, J. Soros -) is able to assimilate the activity of O. as a game and dialogue, to accept for itself a completely different function of O. in the version of development of itself, and not reproduction and conservation. Thus, the problem of O.'s methods rests on the development of a philosophy and methodology for the development of society. The actual professional pedagogical formulation of the problem of O. methods requires systematic and methodological research and development in the field of heterogeneous, heteronomous, heterochronous and heterarched systems of activity, and modern O. appears to be such. for pedagogical thinking. However, such developments and research cannot be carried out by the means of pedagogy itself. Axiology O. The pluralism of modern societies creates in the sphere of O. a plurality of proposals for goals and patterns of human development. Even traditional societies offered new generations of O. different types of education, albeit in a limited set of samples and standards. But in O., characteristic of traditional societies, a person, a student, a child were limited in their ability to choose from the options offered. The choice was predetermined, dictated by the origin, abilities, stability of the institutional forms of the traditional school. A modern student is much freer in choosing the type of education that society can offer him. It is less bound by origin, due to the social dynamics and mobility of individuals, it is less bound by the limitations of its own abilities, due to high technology and a variety of teaching methods adapted to a wide range of abilities, it is less dependent on the native language and ethnicity, due to globalization and standardization O. and the internationalization of languages ​​of culture. To the extent that a student can choose options for O. and education, they are limited only by his orientation in the world of values. Moreover, these restrictions are encountered by a student at a very early age when choosing a school or even a kindergarten. And any choice not only expands the possibilities, but also narrows them. Choosing a bad school can predetermine your entire future biography and career. When egalitarian pedagogy is set to provide equal opportunities and rights to all students, pedagogy itself and the institutionalized education system are unable to ensure its implementation. Orientation in the world of modern values ​​becomes an independent task of educational activity in the modern world, in contrast to past historical situations, when values ​​were broadcast and transmitted in the process of learning itself. But the provision of such orientation in the world of values ​​is achieved outside the institutional school: in the family, by the media , in contacts with peers, etc. When one of the most important tasks of education is removed from the sphere of responsibility of education institutions, it becomes necessary to transform the entire society into an educational society, where everyone - both students and teachers - is for each other, and not bound by professional ethics, parental responsibility and authority, moral and political censorship. Previously, the child and the student received dosed, measured information from society, the dosage was carried out by the social circle, the home library, the school curriculum, and the customs of the community. The Internet has removed the last obstacles to the exchange of information between everyone and everyone, the freedom of choice has become unlimited. The axiological problem in its modern form is not in limiting the freedom of choice in the variety of values, but in the ability to use it. Most of the social institutions and groups, professional, ethnic and confessional communities, not to mention individuals, are not ready for such a situation. For some communities and subcultures, this unpreparedness is fraught with complete loss of world communication. Entire peoples, communities and professional communities turn out to be functionally illiterate, because they cannot orient themselves in the system of values ​​of the modern world, develop and adopt a modern educational policy and doctrine. A group of eternally "developing" countries has emerged on the planet, forced to constantly catch up with the "developed" countries, with no chance of ever finishing this modernization race. Rights of participants in the process A. Legal issues in educational relations between people are extremely diverse. It stood sharply in ancient times in the context of natural pedagogy (above), which is characterized by the complete lack of rights of children. Parents controlled the whole life of the child. Only in societies that have achieved statehood have norms appeared prohibiting the killing of children by parents. But the sale of children into slavery, forced marriages, and corporal punishment are still cultivated in many countries and subcultures. The rejection of traditional natural pedagogy in Europe in modern times opened up the world of childhood. In the 18th century proper children's clothing appeared (even Renaissance and Baroque paintings depict children either naked or in adult clothes, adjusted in size only in the wealthy strata of society). In the 19th century children's literature appeared in the 20th century. - children's folklore was opened. Until the 20th century children's rights were governed exclusively by family law. At the end of the 20th century the Declaration on the Rights of the Child appeared, the adult community assumed the obligation to guarantee the rights of children as such, and not just the rights of individuals of childhood as potential adults. A different formulation of legal problems in egalitarian pedagogy, where we are talking about equal rights (opportunities) for O. for all. In the process of unfolding the Comenius program in egalitarian pedagogy, the question of equal rights rises each time at a new level. Initially, equal rights are only spoken of in relation to those who attend school. After the adoption in the late 19th - early 20th century. In most countries, the obligation of primary education is exacerbated by the property status of the parents, the abilities of the children themselves, and their level of development. The methodological progress of pedagogy removed this problem in developed countries, but it reappeared during the transition to universal secondary, and then to higher education. In the USA, there are specific problems with the education of disabled people and children with mental retardation, who are legally guaranteed the right to study in ordinary schools, moreover, the disadvantaged party in the exercise of this right can be both ordinary students and the school, which can be sued for the poor quality of education. In professional education, the problem of students' rights receives a specific refraction. If preparation for a profession begins early, at a low level of education, then this limits the possibilities of continuing O. to a greater extent than expands them. This problem is more acute in countries with a multivariate system of vocational training. In Belarus, with its secondary vocational schools inherited from the USSR, there are no problems with the right to continue education at higher levels, but there are problems with the quality of both vocational training and general education, which leads to the problem of functional illiteracy (Functional Literacy). O. globalization implies the possibility and the right to receive and continue O. in any country of the world, and this cannot be ensured without the coordinated standardization of national O. systems and international agreements on the conversion and recognition of O. certificates and diplomas (Lisbon Convention). O.'s standardization causes legitimate concern in some countries regarding the loss of cultural identity and national specificity. Another proper ethical aspect of the legal problem in O. concerns the right of the teacher and the entire system of O. to impose on students a picture of the world, a worldview, a model of a person, which constitute the content of O. in each particular school. When declaring the freedom to choose options for education and education, this freedom cannot be provided by each particular school. School activity is organized and technologized for a very specific content of O., in a certain sense, the school zombifies, enchants the student, imposing a picture of the world on him. Therefore, studying in a specific school (school of a certain type) closes the possibility of mastering a different content, following other patterns. Most of the pedagogical community is forced to put up with this ethical problem as a necessary evil, but options for its solution are also proposed. The solution to this problem lies on the path of O. formalization, to teach not knowledge about the world, but to teach to learn, to master any knowledge. Although such a solution simply transfers the problem from the ethical plane to the methodological sphere (the methodological opposition of formal and real or material O.), but unlike ethical problems, methodological problems are fundamentally solvable. And, finally, the last aspect of legal issues in O. is the preservation of the sovereignty of national states regarding O. systems of each specific country in the context of O. globalization and the widespread spread of the Internet. Historically, the problem is not new. The globalization of O. began with the advent of world religions and has always met with resistance from traditional societies in various historical forms of fundamentalism. For the modern era, Islamic and Orthodox fundamentalism becomes problematic. The problem is resolved only through national self-determination. This can be traced in the succession of historical programs for the renewal of O. in Belarus. Apostolic program of Christianization (10th-14th centuries). The adoption of Christianity introduces peoples into the ecumenical community, which inherits, in addition to Christianity itself, the entire ancient tradition. Culture is supplemented by writing, literature, and its own history. The Apostolic Educational Program opens the history of O. in Belarus. The peculiarity of the Christianization of Belarus in the co-presence of two options: the Cyril and Methodius program, which made the Polotsk and Turov-Pinsk principalities the periphery of the Byzantine civilization, the missionary Catholic program in the lands of ancient Lithuania. The competition between the two programs has formed a complex linguistic, confessional, political and anthropological context for the self-determination of the Litvins (Mindovg, Skirgaila and Vitovt were baptized both according to the Byzantine and Roman rites, while reconciling or even patronizing paganism throughout the entire territory west of Pinsk - Minsk - Vitebsk) . The consequences of this competition are still being manifested, sometimes taking the form of cultural catastrophes, with the separate existence of people and languages, sometimes rising to a dialogue of cultures. Reformation program (16th-18th centuries). It originated in autochthonous forms in the "fraternal schools" (secular schools of Orthodox communities - brotherhoods) of modernizing Lithuanian Orthodoxy. The practice of "brotherly schools" was supplemented and enriched by the intensive spread of Calvinism, Anabaptism, and antitrinitarianism, in which O. was one of the main components of missionary activity. An egalitarian pedagogy was taking shape, in many respects anticipating Comenius' program. The cultural consequences of the implementation of this program were: widespread literacy and printing, urbanization and autonomy of urban and small-town communities, the Bible in vernacular languages, the phenomenon of polemical literature, a unique legal system, fiction and poetry, integration into European culture and cultural expansion to the east, stopped destructive wars with Russia, which dragged on intermittently throughout the 17th century. Program of the Counter-Reformation (16th-19th centuries). The extensive dissemination of orthodoxy was one of the responses of Catholicism to the challenge of the Reformation. The most active in this were the orders of the Jesuits and the Basilians (a Uniate order created under the influence and control of the Jesuits). Lagging behind the Protestants in the mass dissemination of education and literacy, the Jesuits countered this with the quality of education, the status and prestige of education. In a short period, more than 80 collegiums and gymnasiums and two universities (Vilna and Polotsk academies) were organized. The emergence of philosophy and science in Belarus (albeit in archaic neoscholastic forms), the spread of libraries, museums, pharmacies, hospitals, school theaters, etc. can be considered optional results of this program. Apostolic Christianization, the Reformation and the Counter-Reformation were accompanied by educational programs of a globalization and integration nature. But large historical educational programs may have a different focus. Elimination of O. in the lands of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania (19th century). The liquidation of all educational institutions was an integral part of the Russification of the population of the Lithuanian provinces. The deportation of the Jesuits and the liquidation of the Basilian order led to the massive closure of colleges and the weakening of universities. The modernized Lithuanian Orthodoxy and union were destroyed, and the clergy and believers were subordinated to the Russian Orthodox Church, together with the liquidation of city self-government (Magdeburg Law), this undermined the basis of egalitarian pedagogy (community and city schools). Both universities were closed, laboratories, libraries, archives were taken to Moscow and St. Petersburg, professors and students either emigrated or were sent deep into Russia. Of the entire system of higher and secondary education, only a few educational institutions have survived (for example, the Slutsk Protestant Gymnasium and the Gory-Gorytsk Agricultural School). Higher O. was resumed in Lithuania and Belarus only after the First World War. Soviet educational program (20th century). O. was built on the basis of the technology of egalitarian pedagogy, which was implemented in the USSR most consistently and effectively. But any technology is meaningless. And Soviet pedagogy approached the content of O. through the pragmatics of industrialization and the cultural revolution. O.'s technology and content are synergistically linked. In order to increase the efficiency and productivity of the humanitarian technology of Comenius, the properties of a mega-machine organization were attached. The nationalization of the entire school was accompanied by etatism in the content of O. The mechanization of activity led to the dehumanization of the content of the activity itself and the content of O., although the inverse dependence of the organization of activity on the humanitarian, quasi-scientific theory and philosophy of Marxism is no less significant. From the O. system, which functioned as a whole, formal, classical, and humanitarian O. were removed or replaced by ersatz. cultural layer (both in the sense of people and in the sense of things of culture: archives, museums, monuments, libraries), which found itself without a historical capital, machine-like Soviet technology was implemented in the purest and most perfect forms. As a result, by the time of gaining independence in Belarus, there was practically no humanitarian knowledge about their country, an understanding of their country. The implementation of educational programs over the course of two centuries, the first of which consisted in the full-scale elimination of the national O. system, and the second consisted in the accelerated creation of an effective, high-tech, but reduced and one-sided O. system, led to the loss of the nation's ability to self-survival, reproduction and development. O. renewal program for an open society. The acute need for a radical renewal of the national O. system in Belarus in the last decade of the 20th century. coincides arises against the background of O.'s globalization all over the world. Analysis and conceptualization of a complex of multidirectional tendencies that are only outlined in the general globalization of tourism, supplemented by criticism and analysis of the national problems and development needs of the country, form the basis of the program for the renewal of tourism in Belarus. One of the components of the development of this program is the multi-volume project "Humanitarian Encyclopedia" of the Minsk School of Philosophy. V.V. Matskevich

Plan

1.1. Pedagogy as a science, its subject and tasks.

1.2. Fundamental categories of pedagogy (upbringing, training, education).

1.3. The structure of pedagogical science.

The study of any discipline requires the concept of general theoretical provisions underlying this branch of knowledge. That is why the Department of Vocational and Pedagogical Training of the Agrarian University was the first to publish the educational and methodological manual "Introduction to Professional Pedagogical Activities", and then prepared this educational and methodological complex. The study of pedagogy, like any other science, requires familiarity with the history of the development of science, its subject of study.

Pedagogy is the science of the laws of upbringing and education of a person, it studies the patterns of successful transfer of the social experience of the older generation to the younger. It exists in order to indicate in practice the easiest ways to achieve pedagogical goals and objectives, ways to implement the laws of education and teaching methods.

In ancient Greece, a slave assigned to a student, whose functions were to accompany him to school, to serve in the classroom, was called a teacher. The teacher is a derivative of the Greek words "peida" - a child, "goges" to lead, literally "schoolmaster", "children's guide".

The modern science of "pedagogy" literally translated from Greek means "children's guidance". The root cause of the emergence of all scientific fields is the need for life. There came a time in people's lives when education began to play a big role.

It was noted that the success of the development of civilization largely depends on the upbringing and education of individual generations. There is a need to generalize the experience of education, the first attempts to generalize were made in the most developed states of the Ancient World - China, India, Egypt, Greece, when education begins to play an important role in people's lives.

As a separate science, pedagogy appears much later. The prerequisites for the emergence of any science are the following provisions:

• formed under the influence of the needs of society;
• Any branch develops into a science only when the subject of its research is clearly identified.

Giving a more specific definition of pedagogy, we can say that this is the science of the laws and patterns of upbringing, education, training, socialization and creative self-development of a person.

Pedagogy in a broad sense - the influence of all external influences of the natural and social environment.

In a narrow sense pedagogy- purposeful activity of educators in the system of educational institutions.

Based on this definition, the subject of pedagogy research will be an integral system of upbringing, education, training, socialization and creative self-development of a person.

Research methods– ways of solving scientific and pedagogical problems.

An object pedagogy is a person.

A.S. Makarenko, a scientist and practitioner who can hardly be accused of promoting "childless" pedagogy, in 1922 formulated the idea of ​​the specifics of the object of pedagogical science. He wrote that many consider the child to be the object of pedagogical research, but this is not true. The object of research of scientific pedagogy is "pedagogical fact (phenomenon)". In this case, the child, the person is not excluded from the attention of the researcher. On the contrary, being one of the sciences about a person, pedagogy studies purposeful activities for the development and formation of his personality.

Consequently, pedagogy has as its object not the individual, his psyche (this is the object of psychology), but a system of pedagogical phenomena associated with his development. So object of pedagogy are those phenomena of reality that determine the development of the human individual in the process of purposeful activity of society. These phenomena are called education. It is that part of the objective world that pedagogy studies.

Thing pedagogy is education as a real holistic pedagogical process purposefully organized in special social institutions(family, educational and cultural institutions).

Pedagogy in this case is a science that studies the essence, patterns, trends and prospects for the development of the pedagogical process (education) as a factor and means of human development throughout his life. On this basis, pedagogy develops the theory and technology of its organization, forms and methods for improving the activities of the teacher (pedagogical activity) and various types of student activities, as well as strategies and methods for their interaction.

The system of pedagogical knowledge- interrelated theoretical knowledge about the laws and principles of education and upbringing, about the facts of pedagogical practice, about knowledge of pedagogical theory.

Functions of pedagogical theory(according to Kononenko I., Mikhaleva L.):

1. Theoretical functions:
   • enrichment, systematization of scientific knowledge;
   • generalization of practical experience;
   • revealing regularities in pedagogical phenomena.
2. Practical Features:
   • improving the quality of education;
   • creation of new pedagogical technologies;
   • introduction of the results of pedagogical research into practice.
3. Forecasting:
   • scientific foresight in the social sphere is associated with goal setting.

Tasks of Pedagogy:

1. Scientific substantiation of the development of education systems, the content of education and upbringing.
2. Study of the essence, structure, functions of the pedagogical process.
3. Revealing patterns and formulating the principles of the process of teaching and educating people.
4. Development of effective forms of organization of the pedagogical process and methods for its implementation.
5. Development of the content and methods of self-education and self-education of people.
6. Study of the features and content of the teacher's activity and ways of forming the development of his professional skills.
7. Development of methodological problems of pedagogy, methods of its research, generalization, dissemination and implementation of teaching and upbringing experience.

Categories- these are the most capacious and general concepts about the essence and properties of science. Pedagogical categories are the main pedagogical concepts expressing scientific generalizations. The main pedagogical categories are upbringing, education, education. Our science also widely operates with general scientific categories, such as "development" and "formation". Among the main pedagogical categories, some researchers propose to include such fairly general concepts as "pedagogical process", "self-education", "self-education", "self-development", "products of pedagogical activity", etc.

Upbringing occupies a unique place in human development. Today in pedagogical science there is no more differently defined term.

In a broad social sense:
- this is the process of transferring socio-historical experience to a new generation in order to prepare for life (education, training, development);

In a narrow social sense:
- this is a directed influence on a person by public institutions with the aim of forming in him certain knowledge, attitudes and beliefs, moral values, political orientation, preparation for life (family, religious, school education).

In a broad pedagogical sense:
- a specially organized, purposeful and controlled impact of the team, educators on the educated person in order to form the given qualities in him, carried out in educational institutions and covering the entire educational process (physical, moral, labor, aesthetic, patriotic education);

In a narrow (local) pedagogical sense:
- this is the process and result of educational work aimed at solving specific educational tasks (education of certain character traits, cognitive, creative activity, etc.).

Education

Education as a term, it is most often considered as a verbal noun from the verb "to form" and has the meaning "to create", "to form", "to grow", "to develop mentally", "to give a look, an image" (V. Dahl), to create something new, whole .

The concept of "education" was first introduced into pedagogical science by I.G. Pestalozzi (1746-1827), he understood his essence as the formation of an image.

For a long time, the concept of "education" was used as a synonym for the concept of "education" in a broad sense.

In Soviet pedagogy, this concept was narrowed down and began to be understood as the process of equipping students with a system of scientific knowledge, practical skills and abilities.

Today education is understood as:

• the value of a developing person and society;
• the process of training and education of a person;
• as a result of the latter;
• as a system (a network of educational institutions of various types and levels)

Education is a process and a result (with a focus on performance) assimilation by a person of the experience of generations in the form of a system of knowledge, skills, attitudes obtained as a result of training and self-education (this is the process and result of training and education).

Education in the literal sense means the creation of an image, a certain completeness of education in accordance with a certain age level. An ancient aphorism says: "Education is what remains when everything learned is forgotten."

Education is associated with the formation of human abilities, the development of general abilities: intelligence, creativity, learning.

The main criterion for education- systematic knowledge and systematic thinking, the ability to independently restore the missing links in the knowledge system.

In education, processes are distinguished that directly designate the act of transferring and receiving the experience of generations. This is the core of education – learning.

Education

Education- a specific type of pedagogical process, during which, under the guidance of a specially trained person, the socially determined tasks of educating a person are realized in close connection with its upbringing and development.

Learning is a process of direct transmission and reception of the experience of generations in the interaction of a teacher and a student..

At the beginning of the 20th century, the concept of learning began to include two main components - teaching and learning.

teaching- transfer (transformation) of the system of knowledge, skills, experience;

Doctrine- the assimilation of experience through its perception, comprehension, transformation and use.

There is a point of view that education- this is a characteristic of the pedagogical process from the side of the teacher's activity, and doctrine- from the student's point of view.

Education is a special type of pedagogical activity (a specially organized, purposeful, controlled process) in which typical teacher-student relationships arise, the result of this activity is the enrichment of the student with knowledge, cultural achievements, skills and abilities. In the learning process, controlled cognition occurs.

Modern requirements are such that the school must teach to think, to develop students in all respects. In the modern sense, learning is characterized by the following signs:

• bilateral character;
• joint activity of student and teacher;
• teacher guidance;
• special organization and management;
• integrity and unity;
• compliance with the laws of age development of students;
• management of development and education of students.

Development

Development- this is an objective process and the result of an internal consistent quantitative and qualitative change in the physical and spiritual forces of a person (physical development, mental, social, spiritual);

This change, which is a transition of quality from simple to more complex, from lower to higher; a process in which the gradual accumulation of quantitative changes leads to the onset of qualitative ones. Being a process of renewal, the birth of the new and the withering away of the old, development is the opposite of regression and degradation.

Development is different from any other changes in the object. An object can change, but not evolve.

“Development and education cannot be given or communicated to any person. Anyone who wants to partake of them must achieve this by their own activity, their own strength, their own effort. From the outside, he can only get excited ... ”(Adolf Disterverg)

The source and internal content of development is the presence of contradictions between the old and the new.

L.S. Vygotsky identified two levels of development of children:

• the level of actual development - reflects the present features of the child's mental functions that have developed today;
• zone of proximal development - a zone of immature, but maturing mental processes, which reflects the possibilities of a child's achievements in conditions of cooperation with adults.

Teachers should see the future of the child's development: what he can do today with the help of adults, tomorrow he must do it himself.

Formation

Formation is the process of becoming a person as a social being under the influence of certain factors: social, economic, psychological, ideological, upbringing, etc. The social essence of a person is a personality.

Man- a creature that has thinking, speech, the ability to work and learn.

Personality- the subject and object of social relations, aware of their attitude to the environment and endowed with individual psychological characteristics.

Pedagogy today is the fundamental science of education and upbringing. Without the skillful use of the theoretical and methodological ideas of pedagogy, it is impossible to complete the educational reform and improve the activities of educational institutions. In turn, the development of pedagogy is influenced by ideology, politics and the objective needs of society in the upbringing and education of young people.

Secondary influence on the development of pedagogy is exerted by:

• connection of pedagogy with other sciences;
• study of pedagogical processes and phenomena;
• innovative enrichment of pedagogical methods.

The structure of pedagogical science

1. History of Pedagogy– studies the development of pedagogical ideas, theories and systems of education.
2. General Pedagogy- explores the main patterns of education as a specially organized pedagogical process and forms the basis for the development of all branches of pedagogical knowledge: the general foundations of pedagogy; didactics (learning theory); theory of education, school science (the theory of management and management of school affairs).
3. Age Pedagogy- studies the features and patterns of human development of different ages: pre-preschool; preschool; school; andragogy (adult education); gerontogogy (pedagogy of old age).
4. Professional Pedagogy– explores the problems of vocational education: pedagogy of PU; secondary vocational schools; high school; labor pedagogy.
5. Branch Pedagogy- studies the patterns of special training of people for certain types of activities (pedagogical, engineering, military, legal, etc.).
6. social pedagogy- develops the problems of out-of-school education, the influence of society on the formation and development of the individual: family pedagogy; pedagogy of labor collectives; re-education.
7. Correctional Pedagogy(special) - studies the education and upbringing of children with physical and psychophysiological developmental disabilities: defectology (work with children with mental retardation); speech therapy (work to correct speech defects); deaf pedagogy (work with hearing-impaired children); typhlopedagogy (work with visually impaired and blind children); oligophrenopedagogy (work with mentally retarded children).
8. Ethnopedagogy– explores the patterns and features of folk, ethnic education.
9. Comparative Pedagogy- reveals the features of the organization of education in various countries of the world.
10. Private (subject) methods– explore the patterns of teaching and studying specific academic disciplines in all types of educational institutions.
11. Philosophy of education / upbringing- a section of pedagogy that studies the role of philosophical teachings for understanding the essence of education, defining the ideology of education and upbringing, analyzing the main conceptual approaches to determining the goals of education and ways to implement them.

Folk pedagogy, having arisen as a response to an objective social need for education, due to the development of people's labor activity, of course, cannot replace school, teachers, books, and science. But it is older than pedagogical science, education as a social institution, and originally existed independently of them.

However, pedagogical science, in contrast to everyday knowledge in the field of education and training, generalizes disparate facts, establishes causal relationships between phenomena. She does not so much describe them as explains, answers the questions why and what changes occur in human development under the influence of training and education. This knowledge is necessary to anticipate and manage the process of personal development. At one time, the great Russian teacher K.D. Ushinsky warned against empiricism in pedagogy, he correlated pedagogical practice without theory with quackery in medicine.

Nowadays it has become very prestigious to have a higher education. It not only opens the way for you in life, but also gives you the opportunity to establish yourself as an interesting person with whom there is something to talk about. Let's see what education is today.

Education in the modern world

Education is a set of systematized skills, abilities and knowledge acquired by a person in the process of studying in special institutions or self-acquisition of knowledge. Depending on the nature and volume of knowledge, it is possible to distinguish primary, general and special (professional), as well as higher education. According to the content, natural science, humanitarian and social education are distinguished.

What is education in the modern world and is it essential, what to do after receiving an education? This question often arises among many schoolchildren, students and workers who have not yet found their place in life. Education is only an impetus to success, because, as you know, if a person does not set himself the goal of reaching the top, then neither the advice of teachers, nor the mountains of books read will help him in this. First of all, among the many advantages that education provides, we can single out the following: self-confidence and tomorrow, an incentive to develop and conquer new heights, move forward with your head held high, feeling confident and worthy. Today, education is one of the indicators of a person's social status, as well as one of the factors in the reproduction and change in the social structure of society.

Education is a well-established process of processing and obtaining knowledge, due to the centralized systematic training of a group of people over a certain period of time. Thanks to education, people for many centuries adopt the vast experience of skills and knowledge accumulated by civilization over the entire period of its existence. Cognitive purposeful activity of people to obtain and improve skills and knowledge is the main driving force of scientific and technological progress.

What is the education system?

Do you know what the education system is? It is a model that brings together various institutional structures, such as schools, universities, preschools and colleges, with one common goal - to educate the people who study in them. In each country, the education system has a number of its own characteristics, but, in general, it guarantees the possibility of high-quality, timely, and sometimes free education.

An educational institution is an institution that carries out the educational process and implements one or more educational programs. Its state status (kind, type and category) is determined in accordance with the direction and level of the educational programs it implements. The status is established during its state accreditation.

The process and result of a person's assimilation of skills, abilities and theoretical knowledge. The word "form" has two meanings. Firstly, it means "to set a pattern and establish prescriptions," and secondly, "to form the inclinations that already exist." The knowledge that enters O. is not separated from the cognizer as an object lying outside him, but he is directly affected by what he cognizes. Any kind of technical knowledge can be learned, and even by one's own choice Moral knowledge, as an indispensable component of morality, is not directly learned by a person and cannot be unlearned either. O. is an internal process, the process of creating "images" and / or "patterns" that a person follows in his life. The result of O. is not presented as a technical intention, but stems from the internal process of formation and O. and therefore is constantly in a state of continuation and development. O. cannot be the goal itself, it is a kind of self-increasing process. This is its difference from the mere cultivation of inclinations from which it originated. The cultivation of inclinations is the development of something given; here the means to achieve the goal are exercise and diligence, which have become a habit. In the process of O., on the contrary, that on which and thanks to which one receives O., must be assimilated entirely and completely. In this respect, O. includes everything that it touches, but all this does not enter as a means that loses its functions. On the contrary, in the O. received nothing disappears, but everything is preserved. "is a truly historical concept, and it is precisely this historical character of "preservation" that should be discussed in order to understand the essence of the humanities" (G. Gadamer). Historically, the formation of the O. phenomenon proceeded in the process of the formation of mechanisms for the preservation and transmission of socially significant content from generation to generation. For the first time, it was Plato in European culture in the dialogue "Protagoras" who raised the question of the possibility of transmitting virtue to subsequent generations. What Eastern sage and teacher could doubt that he should teach the skills of "living together"? On the contrary, he taught and demanded an unambiguous perception of his knowledge. "Let not this book of the law depart from thy mouth," says the Old Testament. And the Platonic Socrates doubted that Protagoras could teach the young man Hippocrates something. In the course of the discussion, Socrates comes to the conclusion: in order for the state to “be”, there must be something united in which everyone is involved - this is virtue. And by the highest virtue, he meant knowledge, for there is nothing higher than the knowledge of what is bad and what is good. If virtue is knowledge, then it can be learned. For the first time the concept of O., according to M. Heidegger, was essentially thought out by Plato in the "State". Heidegger believes that Plato's "Parable of the Cave" is intended to reveal what the Greeks understood as paideia, i.e. O. The parable tells how the prisoner, freeing himself from the shackles, leaves the cave, where he saw only the shadows of things in the flickering of the behind the back of the fire, and gains knowledge of the truly existing when passing to the surface. The narration unfolds in a chain of images passing into each other, embodying the meaning of O. The cave-like room in the parable is an image of the daily residence of people; the fire in the cave is an image of the vault of heaven, under which people live, surrounded by imaginary things, but which they perceive as true reality. Those things named in the parable, which are revealed to the eye outside the cave, are, on the contrary, an image of that in which the actual being of all that exists consists. The transitions from the cave into daylight and from there back into the cave require each time a change in the habit of the eyes from darkness to light and from light to darkness. And just as the bodily eye only slowly and gradually gets used to either light or darkness, so the soul also does not immediately, and only in the appropriate sequence of steps, get used to the realm of being. Such habituation requires that the whole soul turn in the main direction of its aspiration, just as the eye can look correctly only when the body has assumed the appropriate position. This "transition" serves as a symbolic expression of the change that must take place in the unfolding of what is already inherent in the human being. Such retraining and accustoming a human being to one or another area allotted to him, Heidegger notes, is the essence of what Plato calls paideia. Paideia means a guide to change the whole person in his being. Heidegger believes that the word "education" comes closest to paideia. First, it is O. in the sense of an unfolding formation. Such a "formation," on the other hand, "forms," ​​proceeding all the time from an anticipatory proportion with a determinant species, which is therefore called a prototype. O. is, at the same time, both the formation and guidance of a certain pattern. "The Parable of the Cave" does not end with a description of the achievement of the highest level of ascent from the cave, but tells of the descent of the liberated back into the cave, because the constant overcoming of ignorance belongs to the essential moment of O.. The parable names the sun, towards which the prisoner is directed, as an image for the idea of ​​goodness. Good among the Greeks was not understood narrowly morally, it is "that which for something makes another fit for something." After Nietzsche, this concept can be understood as what is the "highest value" for people. According to M. Foucault, Plato's ascent to virtue was closely connected with self-care: "I am obliged to take care of myself in order to become able to manage other people and the policy." Therefore, self-care must become an art. Self-care is impossible without a mentor. And the position of the mentor himself is determined by the concern for what care his ward shows about himself. Showing disinterested love for the young man, the mentor gives the principle and model of the care that the young man should exercise in relation to himself as a subject. "Self-care" takes its form and completion, firstly, in self-knowledge, and secondly, by the fact that self-knowledge as the highest and independent expression of one's "I" provides access to the truth; finally, the comprehension of truth allows at the same time to recognize the existence of the divine principle in oneself. "Taking care of yourself" leads to self-realization, which becomes necessary against the background of mistakes, against the background of bad habits, against the background of all kinds of deformations. Thus, we are talking here, rather, about correction, about liberation, rather than about the formation of knowledge. It is in this direction that self-realization will develop in the future, which seems significant. Further, if a person has not succeeded in "correcting" in his youth, this can always be achieved in a more mature age. To become what a person has never been before is the main theme of self-realization. For the implementation of the latter, the existence of another is required. Ignorance cannot go beyond its own limits, and memory is needed to make the transition from ignorance to knowledge (a transition that is always made through another person). According to Foucault, there are three types of relation to the other that are necessary for the formation of a young person. 1. Leading by example: the example of great men and power traditions form a pattern of behavior. 2. Instruction with knowledge: the transfer of knowledge, manners and principles, 3. Instruction in difficulties: the skill of getting out of a difficult situation (Socratic art). From now on, the mentor (philosopher) acts as an executor of the transformation of the individual in his formation as a subject. Foucault distinguishes between pedagogy and psychogogy. By pedagogy he understands the transmission of such a truth, the function of which is to supply the subject with some kind of relationship, abilities, knowledge that he did not have before and which he will have to receive by the end of the pedagogical relationship. From this point on, psychogogy could be called the transmission of such a truth, the function of which would not be to provide a person with any kind of relationship, but rather to change the mode of existence of the subject. In Christianity, in the light of what has been said, the scheme of relations between knowledge and self-care consists, firstly, in the constant turning from the truth of the text to self-knowledge, secondly, in the interpretation of the method of interpretation as a way of self-knowledge, and, finally, in the position of the goal, which is self-denial. In this regard, there is a gap between psychogogy and pedagogy, since the soul under psychological influence, that is, the guided soul, is required to speak the truth that only it alone can say, which it alone possesses. In Christian spirituality, the guided subject must be present within the true judgment as the object of its own true judgment. In the judgment of the follower, the subject of the utterance must be the referent of the utterance. The modern discourse of O. was finally formed by the 18th century. - during the Age of Enlightenment. The very concept of O. acquired a categorical status and dissociated itself from such concepts as "natural formation" or "mountain building". From now on, O. became closely associated with the concept of culture and began to designate a specific human way of transforming natural inclinations and capabilities. The final processing of the concept, stimulated by Herder (understanding O. "growth towards humanity"), was completed in the period between Kant and Hegel. Kant does not yet use the word "education" in the sense indicated above, but speaks of a "culture of abilities" (or "natural inclinations"), which in this capacity represents an act of freedom of the acting subject. O., according to Kant, concerns the formation of morality and refers to practical education, in contrast to school O. or training (giving the acquisition of skills) and pragmatic education (serving to achieve rationality). Among Kant's moral obligations is the stimulation of one's talent. This requirement in relation to oneself in Hegel already arises in line with judgments about self-education and education, which ceases to be equivalent to "culture", that is, the development of abilities or talents; O. includes the concept of "image", which has two-sidedness, because, as we have seen, it simultaneously carries the meanings of a reflection, cast, and sample. According to Hegel, who completes the formation of the concept under consideration, the distinctive ability of the subject is that he breaks with the immediate and natural, and this is required of him by the spiritual side of his being. And therefore he needs O., in the ascent to the universal. The ascent to the universal does not mean only theoretical O., but also includes practical, and embraces the essential definition of human intelligence as a whole. The general essence of human O. lies in the fact that a person makes himself a spiritual being in all respects. It requires sacrificing the general to the particular, which implies the curbing of drives and thereby freedom from their objects and freedom for one's own objectivity. O., according to Hegel, includes reconciliation with oneself and recognition of oneself in otherness. Each individual, rising from his natural essence into the sphere of the spirit, finds in the language, customs, social structure of his people a given substance that he wants to master. The essence of O. is not alienation as such, but a return to oneself, the premise of which, however, is alienation. At the same time, O. should be understood not only as the result of the ascent of the spirit into the realm of the universal, but at the same time as the element in which an educated person resides. But O. should lead, as Hegel believes, to the complete mastery of substance, to separation from all objective entities, which is achievable only in absolute philosophical knowledge. Thus, the real historical essence of O. eludes Hegel, for it is not so much the last phase of development as the basis for a harmonious movement in the future. The relationship of O. and common sense is presented by A. Bergson. According to Bergson, the absolute is comprehensible only through intuitive experience, and not through rational constructions abstracted from life. Only ordinary consciousness is able to comprehend the essence of phenomena, providing direct penetration into the "principle of life." Common sense is an obligatory accessory, the basis of ordinary consciousness. It acts as a social feeling that allows us to imagine the consequences of our actions, even rather to anticipate them, to be able to choose the essential. "Common sense is the very attention paid to life." But if common sense is the basis and essence of the spirit, then perhaps it is innate and independent of education? "It seems that it would be so if everything were alive in the soul and in society, if we were not doomed to carry a dead weight of vices and prejudices with us." Ideas obscure life itself from us and force us to think not about things, but about words. And it is precisely in the classical O. Bergson that he finds the power capable of "breaking the ice of words and revealing the free flow of thought beneath it." The classical teaches not to be deceived by words, relieves automatism and frees ideas from the yoke of verbal forms. It calls for "abandoning symbols and learning to see." In the modern era, Foucault believes, truth is no longer able to serve as the salvation of the subject, as it was in ancient times. Knowledge is accumulated in an objective social process. The subject affects the truth, but the truth no longer affects the subject. The connection between access to truth and the demand for the transformation of man and his being himself was finally broken, and truth became an autonomous development of knowledge. "Postmodernity", according to J. Baudrillard, is losing the two-century domination of the social. The Enlightenment, which gave rise to O.'s discourse, was based on the principle of rational communication. At its core was the imperative of moralizing the message: to inform better, to socialize better, and to create more and more consciousness. But the current era is characterized by a drop in the demand for consciousness, and therefore there is nothing to socialize. In place of the "society" come the "masses", absorbing information without even digesting it. At the same time, the death of the subject as a carrier of cognition takes place. body activity. The reason for this process was the spread of new mass media. Does the totality of awareness deprive? ability to distinguish truth from fiction, and reality from simulation. Similarities, images are ahead of reality as simulacra in such a way that reality turns out to be only a simulation of simulacra. At the same time, the content of the message loses its significance, which leads to the atrophy of consciousness. S. A. Azarenko

one of the social institutions in the system of social division of labor, focused on the fulfillment of two specific tasks: to turn the social and cultural experience available in society into the property of all its members to the extent that they need it for a full and satisfying life; to form in a person the ability to enrich the existing experience with his own contribution. The term O. is used in four different meanings: 1) a set of institutions that perform certain parts of the above tasks and form the education system; 2) transfer, development and enrichment of socio-cultural experience, embodied in the educational process; 3) education, embodied in the attitudes, knowledge, skills and understanding that have developed in the course of educational activities and are considered from the perspective of their application to perform cognitive and practical tasks; 4) the level of education, confirmed by the availability of a document confirming the completion of an elementary, secondary or higher educational institution. According to the nature of knowledge, general O. and professional O. are distinguished. Depending on the amount of knowledge and skills, general and vocational education can be of different levels. In the Russian Federation, the following levels of education (educational qualifications) are legally established: 1) basic general education; 2) secondary (complete) general education; 3) initial vocational education; 4) secondary vocational education; 5) higher professional education; 6) postgraduate professional education. The receipt by a citizen of education (and a certain educational qualification) is certified by an appropriate document (certificate, diploma, certificate, etc.). Education is the image of one's "I", colleagues, the world around, the image of a Person, his face, Personality / d. psycho. Sciences V.P. Zinchenko/. Adult education is a process of purposeful educational and educational influence on citizens, which forms their competence, ability and willingness to act as a subject of activity.

O. in accordance with the interests and abilities of the individual is one of the fundamental human rights. General significance of culture and morals. landmarks of human activity and behavior make O. a subject of interest not only for the individual, but also for society and the state, which actively influence O., supporting one or another form. institutions, certain models of uch.-educate. process. See also Education system.

The peculiarity of cultural continuity is that the socially valuable qualities of a person are not spontaneously formed, but purposefully brought up and developed. The variety of industries and areas of human activity in society, the intellectual saturation of modern skilled labor and the complexity of the layers of culture being mastered require an appropriate organization of O.

In O. directly. human being is connected with culture, comprehended and ordered in the system of art. images, morals. categories and scientific concepts, socially approved patterns of behavior, etc. A developing personality is able to acquire and rebuild experience, knowledge, and activity skills. Classification of species is formed. practice is carried out according to the criteria of abilities formed and developed in the education system (general and special or professional education) and according to the levels and complexity of programs (preschool, basic school, secondary, higher, etc.). Ideas about O., his theoretical. comprehension are historical and depend on a number of goal-setting aspects, including ethical, socio-philosophical. and pedagogical. Accordingly, O. acts as an important category of a number of sciences. This category is of fundamental importance for pedagogy.

O.'s goals are correlated with the historically and socially varied ideals of the individual and the educated person. Society goals and student goals are linked; the less educated a growing person is, the more his spontaneous goals diverge from social and pedagogical ones. The removal of this contradiction presupposes a gradual convergence and, in the final analysis, the coincidence of the personal meanings of the activities of the parties involved in the O..

In modern ped. science overcomes the attitude to knowledge, skills and abilities as the goals of O. They, as its most important means, ensure the full development of the individual and its inclusion in socially valuable activities that involve decomp. opportunities for self-education.

In O. it is necessary to correlate ped. leadership of a growing person with his activity and independence in overcoming the gradually growing and nevertheless feasible difficulties of training and education. Formation and maintenance of education. personal motives - one of the main. tasks of teachers and psychologists. underestimation of motivation. factors, the manipulation of interpersonal relationships in O. can not only slow down the development of students, harm their physical. health, but also to form a distorted picture of the world, to cause an aversion to intellectual activity and science, which will inevitably have a negative impact on the behavioral attitudes of young people and harm the socio-economic. development of society and state-va.

Teaching and upbringing are sides of a single process O. Teaching involves the assimilation of knowledge, skills and habits that allow the one who teaches and the one who learns to speak the same language of objective meanings of the elements of culture. Education involves the assimilation of morals. values ​​and norms of societies. behavior. But such assimilation is impossible without training. Semiotic and axiological beginnings are necessarily present in all education. processes.

The motivation of students is manifested in their interests and inclinations, providing attention to the content of education and the ways of acquiring it. But O. develops in a person the necessary ability for self-criticism of thinking, reflective verification and self-correction. These processes are essential for the development of creativity. attitudes of the individual, driving not only individual, but also general cultural development.

Answering diff. age structure of needs and abilities, the content of education unfolds from ideas that are predominantly emotionally experienced by children to a reflectively and actively mastered system of knowledge about the world and relationships with people, which expands into educational education. process concentrically and linearly.

Pedagogically sound selection and presentation of such material are carried out according to the criteria of completeness and systematic nature of the activities necessary for the development of intellect - cognitive, emotional-value, volitional and physical. personality traits, and corresponding to these types of activities of cultural content for decomp. difficulty levels.

In the perspective of human development, the maintenance of O. is designed to provide a full-fledged "accommodation" of the department. age stages (childhood, adolescence, etc.), a psychologically based sequence of assimilation of the components of culture and activities, as well as for the development of decomp. abilities for the purpose of self-determination of individuals in the world of work, interpersonal and societies. relations.

Organizational O.'s system is designed to provide access to O. to all who are able to learn it. O.'s differentiation can be based only on the abilities of the individual unfolding in time.

In modern Russia is approved by personal-guidelines. model O., which denies the manipulative approach to students. O. focuses on the democratization of its institutions, on the humanization of education. process, return to nat. and world cultural-ist. traditions.

On the eve of the 21st century continuity, etc. O.'s multiculturalism becomes the main. principles of education. politicians. O. is not limited to the walls of the account. institutions, assuming the fusion of study with the work and leisure of people. Early childhood education is organized in a flexible manner so that the family and the community share in it and share the necessary costs. Education at the beginning and cf. The school is becoming more complex, more and more aimed at providing young people and adults with broad general training, which makes it possible to master various. specialties (see Continuing education, Differentiation of education). The development of O. systems is planned taking into account the opportunities provided by new information. technologies (see Informatization of Education) and technical teaching aids.

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