Current division of the offer

o The division of the sentence in a specific communicative situation into the original part of the message (topic) and the new part of the message (rheme).

o Czech linguist V. Mathesius (1882-1945).

Update

o Actualization (Sh.Bally) - the transformation of a linguistic sign in an act of communication into a meaningful one.

o The angle of view from which material information is presented.

o The same sentence, due to the communicative purpose of the speaker, may acquire a different meaning.

Up-to-date information in the offer

Transfer of up-to-date information

Up-to-date information is sent:

using a sequence of sentence elements,

Place of logical stress

division of the sentence into topic and rheme.

Topic and rheme The topic is what serves as the starting point of a sentence. A kind of springboard for deploying up-to-date information. Usually known to some extent to the addressee of the message. On Thursday I ... / Book I ... / On Thursday I ... /

Rheme - this is what is reported about the topic. It forms the core and main content of the statement.

... I'll give you a book.

... I'll give you on Thursday.

... I'll give you a book.

General means of actual organization of an utterance

Word order - the arrangement of the elements of the sentence structure in a certain linear sequence.

Intonation - as a means of actual articulation is manifested in oral speech.

Word order

· Neutral speech: Subject + rheme:

In St. Petersburg / a square of Viktor Tsoi will appear.

Expressive speech: rheme + topic:

Already very much in demand now / youth dance groups

Intonation

Its functions:

1. marks the boundary between the topic and the rheme;

2. phrasal stress marks the center of the rheme

Ways to Highlight a Topic

· Nominative themes:

Scientific potential. How to dispose of them?; Tours in Moscow. What do they mean?

Deliberative turnover:

As for…then; If we talk about ... then it is worth noting

Rheme selection methods

・Word order

· Particles: Autumn / just begun; The fact that the festival / takes place in Moscow / is symbolic

· Parceling: Everyone knows each other here. But capped

The division into topic and rheme is not related to grammatical division (into subject and predicate)

Order P - T as one of the ways of expressing subjective-modal meanings

Rheme before the Subject stands out due to the logical stress in the phrase.

Where is the hare?

In a hat (R.) / hare (T.).

Indivisible statements - those that are not divided into Theme and Rheme

Text structure

The structure of the text is determined by the nature of the connection between neighboring sentences, that is, how the theme and rheme of the subsequent sentence correlates with the theme and rheme of the previous one.

· There are 2 types of connection of sentences: a chain connection (I have a friend Vera. Vera / is a student. She loves to study / she loves) and a parallel connection (Vera is a student. Vera is interested in astronomy).

Parallel and sequential text structure

Т1 – Р1 / Т2(Р1) – Р2 / Т3(Р2) – Р3.

I have a friend Vera. She / loves cats very much. These animals / she has more than five.

Parallel link (parallel text structure):

T1-P1; T2 - P2; Т3 – Р3 + general theme

The sun / shines brightly, // and its rays / bathe in puddles with sparrows. / River / puffs up and gets dark.

Ways to implement a chain connection

Parallel Communication Components are not related, they are mapped. The sentences are semantically independent. The proposals are united by a common theme (topic). Parallel communication tends to be more descriptive.

Masha draws a Christmas tree. Igor is reading a book. Zina sings a song.

Our loyalty was tested with a red-hot iron. Our pride was tested by tanks.

Methods for Implementing Parallel Communication

Types of connection of sentences and the structure of the text Parallel connection - the text of a parallel system. Chain connection - the text of the sequential order. The real text is constantly moving from one structure of speech to another.

2. Practical part

sentence utterance linguist remastic

As a result of my analysis of the literary work of one of the contemporary writers, namely the story of Lyudmila Ulitskaya "Merry Funeral" and its translation into English by Cathy Porter, I can draw conclusions in accordance with this topic: between members of the proposal. When analyzing this work, I found a large number of inconsistencies between the original and its translation and a number of specific features in the construction of the theme-rhematic system, both in Russian and in English, among which the following can be distinguished:

1. Each language is unique in the way it is constructed and the emphasis on theme and rheme in a sentence. For the Russian language, this is, first of all, intonation, the logical emphasis falls on the rhematic element of the sentence in order to emphasize the importance of new information. For example:

Music drifted up from the street like the smell of drains. It was hot too.

Translation: From the street it carried music, as it carries garbage. Plus it was hot.

The word "heat" is a rheme in the second sentence.

2. In the following example, you can follow the whole process of how the author moves from known information to new information. this is the best way for the reader to perceive the literary text:

They stay together for 2 more years after that because they didnt know how to finish it, but the best part had ended that slap.

For another two years they were torn apart, everyone could not part, but all the best ended on this slap in the face.

3. The Russian language is characterized by the spread of thematic elements among rhematic ones, in contrast to English. For example:

I'm sorry about you, baby. God has many mansions.

Im sorry for you, Nina, I really am. Our Lord has many mansions.

Yes, he does not want, does not want, how many times have I told you!

He doesnt want it, how many times do I have to tell you, he doesnt want it!

4. When translating from English into Russian, the topic may be replaced by a personal pronoun or omitted altogether. For example:

And Marya Ignatyevna took up the teapot. She was the only person who could drink tea in this heat...

Maria Ignatevna busied herself in the kitchen making tea; she was the only one of them who could drink it in this heat…

The past is definitive & irreversible, but it has no power the future.

The past is final and irrevocable, but it has no power over the future.

Then all these still lifes were blown away by the wind, nothing remained. Somewhere in St. Petersburg, maybe they were kept by then friends or by the Kazantsevs in Moscow ... Lord, how they drank then. And they collected bottles. Ordinary ones were handed over for exchange, and foreign or old, colored glass, they kept.

All those paintings had been blown away in the wind; none were left, now apart from a few in Petersburg maybe, stored by his friends there, or by the Kazantsevs in Moscow. God, how, they used to drink in those days. They had collected the bottles, taking back the ordinary, but the foreign ones & the old ones of colored glass they kept.

They approached the table, moved away, dragged plates and glasses from corner to corner, moved, stuck together in groups and moved again. The world has never seen such a motley company.

People came and went from the table carrying plates and glasses, coming together in groups and moving away again. There had never been such a mixture of people.

Such cases are very common in this work, because. are an integral part of the structure of the text.

The thematic construction is excluded from the sentence (usually in conversation) so as not to burden the sentence, and only the rheme in the Russian version is transmitted (new information is more necessary for the reader).

5. In a Russian sentence, the rheme usually takes the final position, while in English it is built using certain constructions. For example:

Bab in the room was five.

There were five women in the bedroom.

The words "bab" and "five" are a rheme shared by the thematic construction. In this way, the author emphasizes the number of women in the room.

6. The rheme of the preceding sentence may become the subject of the following sentence:

In the cheap cloth suitcase she carried… and three Antonov apples which she was forbidden to import. The apples were intended for her American husband, who for some reason wasnt there to meet her.

Translation: In a checkered cloth suitcase lay ... and three Antonov apples, prohibited for import. The apples were intended for her American husband, who for some reason did not meet her.

7. In an English sentence, the presence of an indefinite article is a sign of a rheme, but not always. For example:

An old evil flame flared up in her...

An old flame of anger flickered inside her…

On the screen was a bearded man with glasses...

On the screen a bearded man in glasses…

8. In a sentence, the presence of negation is a sign of the presence of a rheme. For example:

She didn't seem to understand what was going on.

It seemed she still didnt understand what was happening.

The following example can be reduced to the relationship: question - topic, answer - rheme:

Will there be a war now? - asked quietly.

War? I don't think... Unfortunate country...

Translation: - Will there be a war in Russia? she asked him quietly.

War? dont think so. unhappy country.

9. In the following example, the translation of a sentence and its actual division depend on the context:

A suffering-denying young nation has developed entire schools - philosophical, psychological and medical - occupied with a single task: to save a person from suffering at any cost. This idea hardly fell on the Russian brains of Fima.

Translation: This young, suffering - denying nation had developed whole schools - psychological, psychological & medical - dedicated to the single problem of how to save people from suffering. Fimas Russian brain had difficulty in coping with this concept.

Here the subject is not the subject, but the object. Not always "psychological subject" and "psychological predicate" coincide with the grammatical members of the sentence, and this fact must be taken into account when translating.

10. A sign of a rheme in a sentence is the presence of a high contextual-semantic load:

Psychologists and psychoanalysts have built complex and very fantastic hypotheses about the nature of her strange behavior. They loved non-standard children, it was their bread.

Translation: The psychotherapists thought up far-fetched theories to explain her strange behavior; they loved unconventional children, they were there bread and butter.

The thematic construction is characterized by a lower contextual-semantic load:

There were a lot of people in the room too.

In the room (theme) there were also crowds of people.

11. In English, the theme and rheme are strongly opposed to each other, in contrast to the Russian sentence. For example:

- "Marya Ignatievna! I've been waiting for you (topic) for the third day (rheme)!"

- "Maria Ignatevna, over two days I've been waiting for you!"

12. In a sentence, a verb can be not only a topic, but also a rheme. For example:

The past was, of course, irrevocable. And what was there to cancel?

The past couldn't be cancelled. Well, why would anyone want to cancel it anyway?

In the first sentence, the verb "to cancel" is a rhematic construction, and in the second it is a thematic one.

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Methods for translating English proper names

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Lost letters of the Russian language

ACTUAL MEMBER OF STATEMENT

THEME AND RHEME IN A SENTENCE

In addition to the traditional theory of the division of a sentence into main and secondary members in the 20th century. the theory of “actual division” of the sentence arose (more precisely, statements, since the structure of the sentence itself does not play a role here) . According to this theory, the most important part is distinguished in the content of the sentence (denoted by the term "rheme", in English - rheme or focus) and a part that acts as a "background", the starting point for the main part of the message ("subject", eng. themes or topic). The rheme carries a logical emphasis and communicates some new information (for the sake of which the statement is pronounced), while the topic contains “old”, already known information. Yes, in the proposal John sentthosea post card (with phrasal stress on the last word) if it answers a question What did he send? the rheme is the direct object, the theme is the rest of the sentence. Highlighting other members of the sentence with logical stress, we can turn a prepositional object into a rheme, cf. John sent the post card to me (answer to question: To whom?) or subject, cf. John sent me the post card(Who!). In an affirmative sentence, as can be seen, the rheme is most easily identified by asking the question that the sentence answers. In a private interrogative sentence, the rheme is the interrogative word itself. (What where When!), in a general interrogative - a predicate.

To emphasize the rheme, in addition to logical stress, special emphatic constructions can be used. (It was John who sent me the post card; It was to me that John sent the post card), introduction of an auxiliary verb to emphasize the predicate (John did send me a post card), as well as the emphatic inversion necessary in the English sentence, when we put the logically accentuated member of the sentence in a place in the sentence that is not characteristic of it under normal conditions. The removal of a minor member at the beginning of a sentence is accompanied by a partial inversion: Only to me did John send a post card; Never before had he sent me a post card. Putting the subject in the final position is accompanied by a complete inversion: In the middle of the room stood a big table (answer to question What stood in the center!) in contrast to the non-inverse version The table stood in the middle of the room, answering a question Where!.

It is also possible to change the location of the members of the proposal, not related to the emphasis. Since the final position in a sentence is most common for phrasal stress, in stylistically “neutral” (non-emphatic) variants of a sentence, the rheme usually turns out to be the word at the end. Yes, proposal Notsent me this letter yesterday (with neutral intonation reading) answers the question When!, and the rheme in it is the circumstance of time. In the variant Yesterday he sentthosea post card the circumstance becomes the theme, while the rheme is represented either by the rest of the part (the answer to the question What happened yesterday!), or the last word (What he sent me yesterday!). The modus operandi normally follows the predicate if it is a rheme; cf. Notleft the room very quickly. However, if another member of the sentence is rematized, such a circumstance may be in preposition to the verb; cf. Notquickly left the room or Quickly, he rose and left the room, where the rheme is represented by the words to the right of the adverb (question: What did he do quickly?

It is the rheme of the statement that is always preserved in an incomplete sentence, since only thematic elements that name something already known from the previous context can be omitted: Where did Peter go? - (Peter went) To London ; Who went to London? - Peter; Did Peter go to London? - He did .

Consider semantic aspect of articulation into theme and rheme. In the question of type Where did Peter go? The rheme is represented by the interrogative pronoun, while the subject and predicate form the topic. Asking such a question, we, of course, know in advance that Peter has gone somewhere; this part of the sentence, therefore, is not covered by the interrogative modality (the fact of Peter's departure is not questioned, but is accepted as true). In other words, this message is a presupposition - some previously known statement, which we rely on as true and which we only repeat in the statement as a starting point for the main - new - message.

Thus, the rheme is that part of the sentence that is directly included in its modal frame (the interrogative, affirmative or negative modality of the statement extends to it), and the topic is the part that is outside the main modal frame, forming a presupposition. As you can see, this (simple in structure) sentence contains two statements with different modalities: the presupposititive, thematic part contains the statement (“As you know, Peter left somewhere”), and the rhematic part contains the actual interrogative statement (“Where?”) .

In the affirmative answer to this question Peter went to London the rheme is also represented by the circumstance; two statements are also hidden here: “As you know, Peter moved from here to some other place; that place is London.” Since in this case both statements have an affirmative modality, the opposition of topic and rheme is not as tangible here as in the question; that is why the division into theme and rheme in affirmative sentences is most easily made on the basis of the question to which such a sentence answers. In essence, the two statements hidden in such a sentence differ only in the time of their utterance: the topic is some previously made statement (“it is known that it was previously stated ...”), only repeated as a starting point, while in the rheme what is being stated is stated. At the moment.

Let us pay attention to the fact that thematic inclusions can be included in the rheme. Yes, in the proposal Peter went to the city of London The rheme is represented by a circumstance that includes the definite article and a proper name, which means that its content includes a presupposition (thematic information) about the existence of a city with that name. However, it is important that what is actually new in this sentence is not the message about the existence of London, but the message that “the place where Peter left, there is London, those. message about the identity of two spatial points. Thus, the conclusion of a number of authors that the rheme is not necessarily associated with the indefiniteness of the noun, and the theme with certainty, does not seem justified. In fact, the rheme really always carries new information, and in the absence of any additional presuppositions, the rhematic noun always has an indefinite determiner (Notcame to a big town ), however, it is important to separate thematic inclusions from the actual new message (cf. Notwent to London). Cases of the same type One day a little girl went to the wood, where, as it were, uncertainty enters the topic (highlighted in type), are associated with the multi-term nature of such sentences.

It is usually indicated that there may be non-segmented by topic and rheme, i.e. purely rhematic, statements: they include, for example, one-part sentences like It is cold; Winter; Winter has come; Cold; Winter; Winter came etc. Indeed, in them all lexically expressed information is a rheme, however, in these sentences there is also hidden, lexically unexpressed presuppositional information (theme). So, Cold means “it is cold at the moment in the place where the speaker is” (cf. “We cannot say “it is raining”, “it is snowing” without mentally imagining the environment in which the process takes place, no matter how obscure it may be) ). Consequently, in such sentences there is always hidden, presented as something known, information about the presence of the speaker, his act of speech, the time and place of the speech act. Apparently, in principle, there can be no sentences that would contain only new information that is not based on something already known in advance, i.e. not repeating this old information as a topic. Even in sentences like Has there ever been an event somewhere?, with the uncertainty of all components, there are undoubtedly hidden presuppositional elements: the past tense of the verb (It was) indicates the precedence of the moment of speech, and, therefore, the sentence includes a presupposition about the presence of an act of speech, a speaker, a moment of speech, a place where the speaker is, etc.

Let us consider the relations of derivation between sentences of different types of actual articulation. The presence of a presupposition in a sentence means that it includes some previous statement in its content, i.e. semantically derived from it. The most elementary (containing the smallest number of presuppositions) include sentences like Not really, reporting the existence of some phenomenon, So, in the sentence Are there students in the group who would have a deuce? the interrogative modality covers only the main part, while the subordinate modality is devoid of its own modality (it does not contain either a statement or a question, as indicated by the mood form) and, therefore, does not represent a presupposition (a repetition of an old statement). The same applies to the answer to this question: Yes, there are students in the group who have fives(with logical stress on the verb there is).

In a sentence with two equal logical stresses(with rising tone at the end of the first movement) There are students in the group who have deuces the main part contains the message “There are students in the group with a certain distinguishing feature”, while the subordinate clause is the second statement revealing this feature: “this distinguishing feature is the presence of two students in these students”. In such a complex sentence, there are two separate statements connected by a sequence and, therefore, two rhemes, and when moving to the second statement, the rheme of the first statement (“some students”) becomes the theme (presupposition) of the second (“these students” / “they”). An equivalent paraphrase of such a two-seme sentence is statements like Some students in the group have twos; indefinite pronoun indicates the rheme of the first hidden message (some students= “there is a certain number of students with a distinctive feature in the group”), which is further transformed into the topic of the second part (“these students”); the rheme of the second part will be the predicate group (“they have deuces”). Similarly, sentences with circumstances like one day, one day always two-belt, i.e. contain a hidden statement "there was such a day when..." and further - a statement revealing what exactly happened on that day.

Two-semantic sentences, in turn, serve as the basis for semantically more complex statements. Yes, pronoun question. (Who came?) and the answer to it (Peter arrived) contain the presupposition "it is known that someone has arrived", and, therefore, are derived from the described two-seme sentence with an indefinite pronoun. Likewise, sentences like Cold; Spring came answer the question What's happening? and, therefore, contain the presupposition "something is happening", again formed on the basis of a two-speech statement. Offer Peter broke the cup(as an answer to a question What happened?) is already a polynomial statement, in which the rheme of each statement turns into the theme of the next one: “(As you know, some event took place); (it lies in the fact that) someone broke something; (what was broken) there is a cup; (the one who broke) is Peter” (the presuppositions of each of the statements are marked in brackets). Of course, there are other thematic inclusions in such a statement, for example: “it is known that there is a man named Peter”, etc.

Speaking about the actual articulation of a structurally complex sentence, one should take into account in relation to which modal frame (to which utterance) the thematic-rhematic status of the parts is determined. The main part of the sentence Peter is sure that the book is interesting contains a statement in which the predicate is the rheme and the subject is the theme. The modality of "confidence (Peter)" given in the main part covers the predicate in the subordinate part interesting(rheme of the clause), whereas book represents the theme of this second statement, which relies on the presupposition of the existence of some pre-known book. There are cases when, in addition to the theme-rhematic articulation within each of the parts of the sentence, one of these parts as a whole represents the rheme (theme) of some third, latently expressed statement. So, Peter made a mistake only because he was inattentive is a multi-linear sentence containing a series of consecutive statements, and the rheme of each of them is in turn transformed into the subject of the following statement: “(A man named Peter) made a mistake; (this event) had only one cause; (this reason is that Peter) was inattentive.”

The main means of actual division of the sentence in oral speech:

word order(the topic is usually placed at the beginning of the phrase, and the rheme at the end), which is not only an indicator of the actual articulation, but and itself to a certain extent depends on it (if, for example, the topic is a circumstance, then the predicate precedes the subject);

intonation(it rises on the topic, decreases on the rheme);

pause.

Differences between theme and rheme.

by value :

themes - the given, the definite, is correlated with that element of the consituation, which seems to be already known, present and in the mind of the speaker, and (in his opinion) in the mind of the listener, which does not require special explanation;

rhemes - indefinite, new, i.e. something that has not yet been identified;

by way of expression :

themes- any words or phrases that name a fact, object, person, action, sign, etc., already mentioned in the pre-text or suggested by the consituation;

rhemes - the utterance is constructed to help the addressee, among the multitude of objects in general and objects of this class, find and identify the one that the interlocutor is going to talk about. In some languages, the definiteness of the object called a noun is expressed by the definite article;

in relation to the members of the proposal :

themes - correlates with the concepts of the subject (grammatical subject) and the logical subject, but the subject of the message can be the referent of any other constituent of the sentence. The subject may also be the predicate;

rhemes - correlates with the logical concept of a predicate, that is, a predicate;

place in the sentence :

themes - starting place in a sentence;

rhemes - any, except the first;

of necessity :

themes - can be "empty" and "formal" ("fictitious");

rhemes - act as the "center of attention";

drop if possible :

themes- it is allowed, then communicatively indivisible (i.e., in fact, rhematic) statements are obtained;

rhemes - not allowed;

by intonation :

themes - does not stand out especially in terms of intonation;

rhemes - can be marked with pauses, high tone and heavy stress.

Theming Test (or topicalization) - the ability of one or another component to take the first place in the proposal is checked(without changing the intonation contour, while maintaining the neutral nature of the statement - without emphasis, without expressive coloring).

Question-answer test (on the identification of a rheme): a rheme is that which serves as an answer to the question: What is reported about Anton!

Focus Contrast (prominence, isolation, rematization) - a phenomenon highlighting the new (rhemes) with the help of intonational means(especially emphatic stress), isolation in the initial position, split structures, particles.

empathy (Greek empatheia empathy, sympathy, English empathy sympathy, experience; the ability to put oneself in the place of another) or point of view - a phenomenon that implies the possibility of variation in the ways of packaging the transmitted semantic information. There cannot be two focuses of empathy in one sentence, otherwise the sentence becomes unmarked (wrong). The speaker can take an objective point of view (zero empathy).

In a normal situation, the speaker gives preference to himself (i.e., adheres to his own point of view), then to the listener, and only then to a third person. First preferred Human, after animated creature, and only then inanimate object. First, empathy is associated with data and theme, and then with new and rhema.

From a formal grammatical point of view, in a sentence, its structural components can be distinguished, i.e. members of the sentence (subject, predicate, definition, object and circumstance). Such division of the sentence is called syntactic. The skills of parsing a simple sentence are necessary in order to avoid grammatical errors in the construction of a sentence. Consider the syntactic analysis of a simple sentence. For example, in a sentence Yesterday, the Government of the Russian Federation at its meeting discussed the progress of tax reform there is a subject denoting the subject of speech (what is said in the sentence), - Government; predicate, expressing the action of the subject of speech, - discussed, definitions ( Government which? RF, reforms which? tax), addition ( discussed what? progress of the reform), circumstances of place and time ( discussed when? yesterday and discussed where? at its meeting).

An important role in the correct organization of the sentence is played by the order of the members of the sentence. Word order there is a syntactic sequence of arrangement of the components of a simple sentence, i.e. proposal members. The main function of word order is to indicate the development of thought from the known to the unknown, from the old to the new. Therefore, to understand the essence of word order in a sentence, it is necessary to understand actual division of the sentence.

Current division of the offer- this is its semantic division, division from the point of view of the communicative-speech situation, essential for the context or situation. Actual articulation organizes the sentence to convey relevant information, the content for which the given sentence was created to communicate. From the point of view of actual division, the sentence is divided into two parts in accordance with the communicative task - topic and bump. Subject- this is that part of the sentence that is usually known, obvious, predetermined by the corresponding context; it is the starting point, the starting point of the utterance; it is actually less significant than the rheme.

Rema- new, unknown, something for the sake of which the proposal is being built, i.e. the core of the utterance.

At the same time, in speech, each sentence (statement) is purposefully built in accordance with the tasks of communication. N.N. Ivakina gives such an example. A statement with the same grammatical composition can sound like and depending on what we want to report: where is Isaev's case or what the investigator is doing. If a question is asked where is Isaev's case?, then the famous (topic) here is Isaev's case and the speaker will answer: Isaev's case is now with the investigator. statement The investigator now has Isaev's case answers the question what is the investigator doing now?, so the rheme in this construction is Isaev's case(See: Ivakina N.N. Professional speech of a lawyer. P. 230).

In most sentences in Russian, the topic precedes the rheme, i.e. the given, the known precedes the new, the unknown, for example Lomov charged with a crime provided h. 2 Article. 206 of the Criminal Code of the Russian Federation. However, there are sentences in which the rheme precedes the topic: Grounds for initiating a criminal case served as material collected on the fact of the theft of property gr. Osov. From this we can conclude that the communicative articulation of the sentence, i.e. its division into topic and rheme does not always correspond to grammatical division and is inextricably linked with word order. The main means of expressing actual articulation are word order and intonation. In a literary language, phrasal stress usually falls at the end of a sentence, and in accordance with this, the order of word forms in a sentence is organized so that this stress highlights the topic.

The actual division of a sentence is the conditional division of a sentence into a topic and a rheme.

Where the topic is the original, originally given component or main point (what is considered known or can be easily understood).

Rheme is a new component approved by the speaker (what is reported about the starting point of the utterance).

For example: Students in the first year are good - stands out subject, first year students and rheme good, i.e. first-year students are reported to be good.

Theory of communicative dynamism

The problem of actual articulation is currently being actively developed within the framework of various theories of linguistic pragmatics. One of the theories of actual articulation - the theory of communicative dynamism - assumes not a binary division into topic and rheme, but a scalar one: the degree of communicative dynamism at the initial topic is minimal, and communicative dynamism increases with advancement towards the end of the sentence. The verb is assigned an average degree of communicative dynamism, i.e. it is understood as a transition between theme and rheme. This description applies only to sentences in which the topic is followed by a rheme and the verb is in the center.

The communicative goal of the speaker, putting his thought in the form of a declarative sentence, is to communicate something to the listener; therefore, the rheme can be considered as a constitutive communicative component of a message (i.e., a declarative sentence). The presence of a rheme in a declarative sentence distinguishes it, for example, from a question in which nothing is reported, cf.: What time is it? The question also has a constitutive - actually interrogative - and there may be a non-constituting (non-interrogative) communicative component.

The question of defining the boundary between theme and rheme

In order to find out where the boundary between the topic and the rheme passes in the sentence, it is necessary to determine the scope of each of these communicative components. Consider this question from the point of view of the plan of expression. Let us show that the volume of a communicative component - a topic, a rheme, a non-interrogative component, etc. - is expressed by the choice of its accent carrier, i.e. that communicative components of different volumes may have different accent carriers.

Consider two sentences with the same lexical-syntactic structure, but different division into topic and rheme: Short SKIRTS are in fashion (this may be a message from a fashion show commentator) and Short skirts are in FASHION. In the sentence Short skirts come into fashion, the fall is fixed on the word form of the skirt, and in the sentence with the same lexical and syntactic composition Short skirts come into fashion - on the word form fashion. In the first example, the entire statement as a whole is the subject of the message, i.e. before us is an undivided sentence, consisting of one rheme. In the second sentence, at least in one of its possible communicative interpretations, short skirts are said to be coming into fashion. Rema in it - a fragment come into fashion, and the theme - short skirts.

However, the choice of the accent carrier does not solve the problem of drawing boundaries between the topic and the rheme. Firstly, the topic does not have a uniform expression, in particular, in fluent speech, no movement of tone may be recorded on the topic. Secondly, even though the rheme is always expressed in a fall, the accents of the rhemes may coincide with different volumes. So, for components with different volumes - he writes poems and verses - there is only one accent carrier: this is the word form verses. Let's give an analogy from another area. It is known that the means of expressing case relations is the ending of the name. However, for many words, some case endings (dative and prepositional, nominative and accusative) coincide. There are also coincidences in the choice of accent carriers, and there are more coincidences than differences: homonymy in this area of ​​the language is very widespread. About many sentences, one can only say with certainty that there is a rheme in them.

So, the rheme and its accent carrier play a formative role in the declarative sentence: the accent carrier phonetically shapes the rheme, and the rheme makes the message a message.

Let's turn now to the content plan. The selection of the topic and rheme in the analysis of sentences is significantly influenced by the nature of the correlation of the components of the actual articulation with the components of the information structure of the discourse. The reported (rheme) usually refers to information that has not yet been discussed in the current discourse. It is natural to communicate what is new to the listener. And the topic usually includes what was just discussed. What has already been discussed is called activated (given, old) in the theory of discourse, and what is spoken about for the first time is called inactivated (new). Activation is relative: it fades as the current point of discourse moves away from activated entities, unless they are reactivated.

The natural correlation of the rheme with the non-activated, and themes with the activated or known, often leads in works on the theory of actual articulation and communicative structure to the substitution of the illocutionary meaning expressed by the rheme (message) with its informational correlates: non-activated and unknown. This is another controversial point in the theory of actual division.

Meanwhile, the rheme is not equal to the non-activated one, and the topic is not equal to the activated one, although they often correspond to the same sentence fragments. The rheme is the bearer of the illocutionary meaning, and the category of non-activated describes the listener's state of consciousness at a certain point in the discourse. An example of a mismatch between the topic and the activated one is the first sentence of the shortcrust pastry recipe: Pour one glass of sour milk into a deep bowl. In this sentence, information corresponding to a fragment in a deep bowl is drawn up as a starting point - a topic. Thus, the speaker - in this case the compiler of the cookbook - pretends that the listener always has deep dishes at hand, although it is mentioned for the first time. It is possible to give such examples, in which, on the contrary, activated rhema serves: I was offered a coat and a fur coat. I bought a fur coat. In the second sentence of the example, the word form shubu is included in the rheme and even serves as its accent, meanwhile, the fur coat was mentioned in the previous sentence. Another example: Pompey has no equal in loving HIMSELF. Here the fragment itself is also included in the rheme - despite the fact that it denotes Pompey, whose name serves as a theme.

So, the topic may not coincide with the activated one, and the rheme with the inactivated one. Therefore, the substitution of categories of actual articulation - themes and rhemes - by categories of informational articulation of the text or categories of description of the states of consciousness of the interlocutors is unlawful. The only function of the rheme is that it serves as a carrier of the illocutionary meaning.

Despite the substantive difference between the actual division of the sentence and the information one, one cannot but admit that activation and fame accompany the components of the actual division so naturally that they cannot but affect the distribution of information quanta by topics and rhemes when generating sentences. Activated information has little chance of being embodied in the reported component, i.e. in rhema. Therefore, when analyzing the actual division of a sentence, it is impossible not to take into account the information structure of the discourse.

Theme and rheme link options

Bundle: Several Rem are attached to the Topic.

For example:

Subject and Rheme, (Theme 1) is usually more than a word (Rheme 1), but less than a sentence (Rheme 2). Theme and Rheme (Theme 1) usually make up one sentence (Rheme 3).

In the text, two justifications for one thesis, two illustrations for one thesis, and so on can be combined in this way.

Alternation: The theme is continued by Rema, which becomes the Theme for the next Rema.

This logic (rheme 1 became topic 2) is not always visible and understandable (rheme 2).

Incomprehensible logic (rheme 2 became topic 3) sometimes needs to be restored (rheme 3). (this theme-rheme link is omitted).

Usually the thesis and the first substantiation, the substantiation and the illustration are connected in this way.

Repetition with new content: the theme-1 - Rheme 1 link is repeated in the next sentence, but not literally, supplemented with new semantic nuances.

for example

Detailing: some of the semantic building blocks, more often Rem, is revealed as a whole field of smaller Themes and Rem.

For example:

Read the text thoughtfully (topic 1) - always long (rheme 1). No matter how perfect you are in your text analysis skill (topic 1 review), it will still take you up to 10 minutes to write an interesting paragraph (rheme 1 review).

This entire paragraph is a disclosure, a detailing of Rheme 1 ("always long").

Enlargement: long bundles of Topics and Rems are taken as a new whole and become Topics-2 for the new Rems-2. So often the main text and the conclusion, the illustration and the conclusion from it are connected with each other.

for example

There are 6 paragraphs per page. Page - hour. A thin little book of 240 pages will then take you 10 full days without sleep. If you read continuously for 8 hours a day - a month ...

This whole long paragraph can be generally called one meaning: “to read a book for a long time”

And there are thousands of books you need.

The entire previous paragraph is perceived as a single topic, Rema is attached to it: "there are many necessary books."

In some texts, themes and rhemes are unrelated, or a rheme or theme is omitted. In this case, then the theme-rheme bundle needs to be guessed and restored

3) The text, if considered in the system of generalized functional categories, qualifies as the highest communication unit. This is an integral unit, consisting of communicative-functional elements, organized into a system for the implementation of the communicative intention of the author of the text, according to the speech situation.

If we accept that the text reflects a certain communicative event, then, therefore, the elements of the event must be correlated with individual components (or units) of the text. Therefore, the identification of text units and their hierarchy in the general structure of the text helps to reveal the essential characteristics of the text - meaningful, functional, communicative. At the same time, it should be borne in mind that the units of the text, presented, in particular, in the form of statements, reflect only the elements of the situation-event that are significant for the given text; the rest of the elements may be omitted because of their clarity, sufficient fame. That is, we are dealing with a certain discrepancy between the statement and the situation reflected in it. This raises the question of the semantic content of text units and its sufficiency or insufficiency within the framework of the whole text.

The text has its own micro- and macrosemantics, micro- and macrostructure . The semantics of the text is due to the communicative task of transmitting information (text is an informational whole); the structure of the text is determined by the peculiarities of the internal organization of text units and the patterns of the relationship of these units within the framework of an integral message (text) (text is a structural whole).

Text units per semantic-structural level are: an utterance (a realized sentence), inter-phrase unity (a number of statements combined semantically and syntactically into a single fragment). Interphrasal units, in turn, are combined into larger fragments-blocks that provide the text with integrity due to the implementation of distant and contact semantic and grammatical connections. At the compositional level, units of a qualitatively different plan are distinguished - paragraphs, paragraphs, chapters, sections, subchapters, etc.

Units of the semantic-grammatical (syntactic) and compositional levels are interconnected and interdependent, in a particular case they can even coincide in a “spatial” relation, overlapping each other, for example, inter-phrasal unity and a paragraph, although they retain their own distinctive features .

Its stylistic and stylistic characteristics are closely related to the semantic, grammatical and compositional structure of the text. Each text reveals a certain more or less pronounced functional and stylistic orientation (scientific text, fiction, etc.) and has stylistic qualities dictated by this orientation and, moreover, by the individuality of the author.

The stylistic qualities of the text are subject to the thematic and general stylistic dominant, which manifests itself throughout the entire text space.

The construction of the text is determined by the topic, the information expressed, the conditions of communication, the task of a particular message and the chosen style of presentation.

The text as a speech work consists of successively combined verbal means (utterances, interphrasal units). However, the meanings contained in the text are not always transmitted only by verbal means. There are also non-verbal means for this; within the framework of an utterance and interphrasal unity, this can be word order, juxtaposition of parts, punctuation marks; to emphasize meanings - means of highlighting (italics, spacing, etc.) For example, when combining statements The son went to school. Daughter – to a kindergarten the comparative meaning did not find a verbal expression for itself; besides, predicate went replaced with a dash. Within the framework of more complex text components, there may be much more such non-verbalized meanings. For example, the use of question and exclamation marks that replace entire replicas of the dialogue.

– Look how pretty he is! – Natasha brings me closer to the cage and puts her hand inside, which the baby immediately grabs and seems to shake. – Such beautiful cubs in orangutans – great rarity. Have you noticed how he looks like his mother?

In this sense, the following example is interesting:

And on a shaved, crimson face lost:

– «?»

– «!»

– «!?!»

Completely crazy!(A. Bely. Petersburg)

The image of pauses, hitches in speech, a sharp intonational change is carried out with the help of punctuation marks. Timbre, intensity, paralinguistic accompaniment of speech is usually depicted descriptively ( shouted, waving his arms; looked with narrowed eyes). However, such a verbal representation of facial expressions and gestures is not necessary. For example, a question, surprise, can only be conveyed by signs: So you saw him? – ???

Various default figures, also related to non-verbalized means, also serve to convey meanings in the text.

On the other hand, verbalization of "silent" languages ​​(sign languages, facial expressions) can be carried out in the text. This, in particular, is served by a variety of remarks in dramatic works or the author's descriptions of the corresponding gestures and facial expressions in prose works.

For example: He twists his mouth into a smile, tightens his throat and wheezes:

– And I, barin, tovo...son this week died.

(A. Chekhov. Longing);

After weeping, the young lady suddenly shuddered and shouted hysterically:

– Here again! – and suddenly sang in a trembling soprano:

– Glorious sea sacred Baikal...

The courier, who appeared on the stairs, shook his fist at someone and sang along with the young lady in an unvoiced, dull baritone:

– Glorious ship, omul barrel! ..

(M. Bulgakov. Master and Margarita)

The so-called silent languages ​​are a full-fledged means of communication in real life. However, they are widely presented in verbalized form and in the text - artistic, journalistic. When perceiving a textual description of gestures, it is necessary to take into account their significance within the framework of a given linguistic community. In addition, the reader and the creator of the text can be separated in time, which can also provoke inadequacy of perception. For example, a comment is required on the description of the gesture in the text of A. Chekhov's work "Thick and Thin": The fat man, wishing to part amicably, held out his hand, a Slim shook two fingers and giggled. Another example:

About the head of the department: «... I immediately noticed that he was a Freemason: if he gives someone his hand, he sticks out only two fingers » (N. Gogol. Notes of a madman). Misunderstandings can arise when reading a text by a foreign reader, since the "dumb" languages ​​of different peoples can vary significantly. For example, a nod in agreement in the Arab world is perceived as a sign of bad manners if it refers to a stranger or an older person.

One can also name such a way of transferring meanings in a text as an intrusion into a uniformly organized space of elements of other texts, “texts in a text” (Yu.M. Lotman). These can be direct inclusions - epigraphs, quotes, links. There may be retellings-inserts of other plots, appeals to legends, “foreign” stories, etc.