Increasing the intellectual level. Eat a healthy, balanced diet

The concept of human intelligence includes the ability of an individual to the process of cognition, learning, understanding, solving various problems, gaining experience and the ability to apply the acquired knowledge in practice.

Today, Piaget's theory is recognized as the leading theory explaining the formation of intelligence. He identified several stages in this process depending on age.

stage 1 sensorimotor- when the child has the first reflexes and skills. At the age of over 12 months, children begin to realize the reality of the world around them, they have their first concepts of their own. Goal setting and striving to achieve it. This behavior indicates that the first signs of intelligence appear.

Stage 2 is called "pre-operation". A child under the age of 7 already shows symbolic intuitive thinking, can build a solution to a specific problem without putting it into practice. Obvious concepts are formed about the surrounding world.

3 is the stage of concrete operations. Reaching the age of 7-12 years, the child begins to use his own knowledge about the world around him, develops the ability to perform clear operations with certain objects.

Stage 4 - the stage of formal operations. Children after 12 years of age form the ability to think abstractly and then formally, which is characteristic of a mature intellect. One's own image of the surrounding world is formed, information is accumulated.

Society undoubtedly has a significant impact on human intelligence through language, interpersonal relationships, and so on.

In addition to Piaget's theory, the concept of information processing was proposed. Any information after entering the human brain is processed, stored, converted. As they grow older, the ability to switch attention and solve abstract problems improves.

At the beginning of the 20th century, various tests were developed to assess intelligence. For children under 13 years old, the Simon-Binet test was used, later improved into the Stanford-Binet scale.

The German psychologist Stern proposed a method for determining the level of intelligence through the ratio of the child's intellectual age to his real age (IQ). One of the popular methods remains the method using Raven's progressive matrices.

These techniques have not lost their relevance today. It must be said that according to research, it is quite rare for people with high intelligence, determined with the help of tests, to be fully realized in life.

Structure of the intellect

Modern psychologists put forward different theories regarding the fact that mental abilities can be of different structures: some consider intelligence to be a complex of individual abilities of the brain, others adhere to the view that the basis of intelligence is a single general ability of the brain to mental activity.

An intermediate position is occupied by the theory of "fluid" and "crystallized intelligence", based on the fact that when solving various problems, one must either adapt to new conditions (fluid intelligence), or use skills and past experience (crystallized intelligence).

The first type of intelligence is genetically determined and decreases after 40 years, the second is formed under the influence of the environment and does not depend on age.

Research proves that the intelligence of an individual is not only genetically programmed, but also depends on many factors - the intellectual climate in the family, the profession of parents, race, gender, the vastness of social interactions in childhood, health and nutrition, methods of raising a child. Since the intellect is closely related to memory, the development of the latter forms the intellect.

Eysenck defined the following structure of intelligence: how intense are the intellectual operations performed by the individual, how much he seeks to find a mistake and his persistence in this process. These elements form the basis of the IQ assessment test.

Spearman believed that intelligence consists of a general factor (G), other group qualities - mechanical, verbal, computational and special abilities (S), which are determined by the profession. And Gardner put forward the theory of the plurality of intelligence, according to which it can have various manifestations (verbal, musical, logical, spatial, mathematical, bodily-kinesthetic, interpersonal).

Types of intelligence

Human intelligence has many types, each of which can be trained and developed throughout life.

The types of intelligence are logical, physical, verbal, creative spatial, emotional, musical, social, spiritual. Each of them is responsible for different processes and develops with the help of appropriate classes. The higher the intellect, the longer the working capacity and vitality are preserved.

Intelligence levels

As you know, the level of intellectual development of an individual is assessed using special IQ tests on a scale that has a maximum score of 160 points.

Approximately half of the world's population has an average intelligence, that is, the IQ coefficient is in the range from 90 to 110 points.

But with constant exercise, it can be raised by about 10 points. About a quarter of earthlings have a high intellectual level, that is, an IQ of more than 110 points, and the remaining 25% have a low intellectual level with an IQ of less than 90.

Of people with a high level of intelligence, about 14.5% score 110-120 points, 10% score 140 points, and only 0.5% of people are owners of intelligence above 140 points.

Since assessment tests are designed for different ages, an adult with a college education and a child can show the same IQ. The level of intelligence and its activity, according to the conclusions of psychologists, remains unchanged throughout life.

The intellectual development of children up to the age of 5 is identical, then spatial intelligence begins to predominate in boys, and verbal abilities in girls.

For example, there are many more famous male mathematicians than female mathematicians. The level of intelligence differs in different races. For representatives of the African American race, it averages 85, for Europeans 103, for Jews 113.

Thinking and intelligence

The concepts of thinking and intelligence are very close. Simply put, the concept of intelligence means "mind", that is, the property and abilities of a person, but the process of thinking is "understanding".

So, these determinants correspond to different aspects of a single phenomenon. Possessing intellect, you have a mental potential, and intellect is realized in the process of thinking. No wonder the human species is called "Homo sapiens" - reasonable man. And the loss of reason leads to the loss of the essence of man.

Intelligence Development

Since ancient times, people have come up with ways to develop intelligence. These are various games: puzzles, chess, puzzles, backgammon. In the 20th century, they became computer intellectual games that train memory and increase concentration.

Mathematics and exact sciences contribute significantly to the development of intelligence, helping to improve logical and abstract thinking, deductive and analytical abilities. Classes in the exact sciences accustom the brain to order, have a positive effect on the structuring of thinking. Enrichment with new knowledge, increasing erudition also stimulate the development of human intelligence.

How can intelligence be developed? There are several options. For example, according to the Japanese system, you need to solve simple mathematical problems for a while, read aloud. It is also very useful to participate in trainings, education, various group games.

In the modern world, the development of emotional intelligence is very important - the ability of a person to recognize and comprehend his emotions and the ability to generate them in such a way as to increase the intensity of thinking and intellectual growth.

These data are developed to improve the regulation of one's own emotional state, as well as the ability to influence the environment, which regulates the emotions of other people. This, in turn, is the key to success in human activity.

Mental activity distinguishes man from other living beings. Intelligence is one of such activities, which has levels and coefficient of its manifestation. It is necessary to engage in the development of intelligence so that it is at a sufficiently high level.

What is intelligence?

Intelligence is understood as a cognitive activity that allows you to accept, comprehend and solve any problems.

Thanks to the intellect, a person can acquire new experience, knowledge, and adapt to new circumstances. Human intellectual activity includes:

• Feeling.
• Perception.
• Memory.
• Performance.

Psychology of intelligence

At all times, people have been studying the intellect. However, the main teaching was the theory of Piaget, who divided the first directions in the adaptation of the child to the environment in the form of assimilation (explaining the situation with the help of existing knowledge) and accommodation (learning new information). In psychology, according to Piaget's theory, the following stages of intelligence development are distinguished:

1. Sensorimotor. It manifests itself in the first years of life, while the child is studying the world around him. The scientist called the appearance of his own judgments the first intellectual activity.
2. Prior to operations. The world is gradually becoming diverse for the child, but he is still able to solve simple problems and operate with elementary concepts.
3. specific operations. When a child begins to focus on their own judgments and perform specific actions.
4. formal operations. A teenager already has certain ideas about the world that enrich his spiritual world.

However, not all people develop intelligence evenly. There are tests developed by psychologists that show at what level of development a person is.

Intelligence level

To solve certain problems, a person resorts to such levels of intelligence as concrete and abstract.

1. Concrete intelligence allows you to perform everyday tasks using existing knowledge.
2. Abstract intelligence allows you to operate with concepts and words.

The level of intelligence can be measured using a special IQ test developed by G. Eysenck. The test is presented in the form of a scale, which is divided into divisions from 0 to 160. Most people have an average level of intelligence - this is 90-110. If you constantly engage in your development, you can increase the level by 10 points. Only 25% have high intelligence (more than 110 points). Among them, only 0.5% of the population reach the mark of more than 140 points. The remaining 25% have low intelligence - less than 90 points.

A low IQ is inherent in oligophrenics. The average coefficient is observed in most of the population. Geniuses have a high coefficient.

Intelligence, according to psychologists, always remains at the level of its development to which a person has come. A. Lazursky singled out 3 intellectual activities:

1. Low - the absolute unfitness of the individual.
2. Medium - good adaptation to the environment.
3. High - the desire to modify the environment.

IQ tests are very popular. However, their diversity is not always a good indicator. The more diverse the tasks in the test, the better, which allows you to test a person for the development of various types of intelligence.

IQ level is influenced by such factors:

• Inheritance and family. Here an important role is played by the prosperity of the family, food, education and quality communication between relatives.
• Gender and race. It is noted that after the age of 5, boys and girls differ in their development. It also affects race.
• Health.
• Country of Residence.
• social factors.

Types of intelligence

The intellect is the flexible part of the individual. It can be developed.

A person becomes harmonious if he develops all kinds of intelligence:

• Verbal - includes speech, writing, communication, reading. For its development, it is necessary to learn languages, read books, communicate, etc.
• Logical - logical thinking, reasoning, problem solving.
• Spatial - operating with visual images. Development occurs through drawing, modeling, finding exits from labyrinths.
• Physical - coordination of movements. Develops through dance, sports, yoga, etc.
• Musical - feeling the rhythm, understanding music, writing, singing, dancing.
• Social - understanding the actions of other people, establishing relationships with them, adapting to society.
• Emotional - understanding one's own and other people's emotions, the ability to manage and recognize them.
• Spiritual - self-improvement and self-motivation.
• Creative - the creation of a new, the production of ideas.

Intelligence Diagnostics

The issue of intelligence worried many psychologists, which allowed them to develop various tests to identify the levels and quality of intelligence development. As a diagnosis of intelligence are often used:

1. Raven's progressive matrices. It is necessary to establish a connection between the figures and choose the missing one among the proposed ones.
2. Amthauer intelligence test.
3. Goodenough-Harris test. It is proposed to draw a person. After that, obscure elements are discussed.
4. Free Cattell test

Thinking and intelligence

One of the types of intellectual activity is thinking. Here a person operates with concepts and judgments. He reflects, which allows him to see the solution of the tasks in the future.

Thinking is a continuous process that is constantly changing, depending on the available knowledge. It is purposeful and expedient. A person learns something new through what he already knows. Thus, thinking is mediated.

Intelligence allows you to solve problems in the mind, using the existing knowledge and skills. The relationship between these concepts is often merging. However, under the intellect is perceived the mind of a person, and under thinking - his ability to think. If intelligence is often understood as a person's knowledge, then thinking is his ability to use this knowledge and come to certain conclusions, judgments.

How to develop intelligence?

The intellect needs to be developed, since it is a flexible part, its intellectual activity. Development is influenced by genetic and hereditary factors, as well as the conditions in which a person lives.

From birth, certain inclinations are given, which a person then uses. If certain diseases are transmitted to the child during the development of the fetus or at the genetic level, then a low level of intelligence may develop. However, the birth of a healthy child allows him to have an average or high level of intelligence in the future.

Without the environment, a person will not be able to effectively develop. Without the participation of society, intelligence will remain at a low level, no matter what intellectual inclinations a person is endowed with. The family plays an important role in this: its material wealth, social status, atmosphere, attitude towards the child, quality of food, home improvement, etc. If parents do not take care of the child, then he cannot develop high intellectual abilities.

Also, the formation of intelligence is influenced by the personality of the person himself, which determines the direction of his mental development.

Usually, various games for logic, memory, thinking, etc. are used to develop intelligence. These are backgammon, rebuses, puzzles, riddles, chess, etc. Computer games with these directions are becoming popular today.

At school, the child learns mathematics and the exact sciences. This allows you to structure thinking, make it consistent, orderly. This process can be connected to the knowledge of something new. When a person receives new knowledge, then his intellect expands, becomes richer and more multifaceted.

While maintaining curiosity and the desire to improve oneself, a person contributes to his constant development. Although, according to some scientists, intelligence always remains at the same level, no matter how you develop it.

What is emotional intelligence?

To date, emotional intelligence has become a popular concept, which, according to some psychologists, plays a larger role than IQ. What it is? This is the ability of a person to recognize and understand their own emotions, manage them and direct them in the right direction. It also includes the ability of a person to understand the feelings of others, manage them and influence the mood of people. Developed emotional intelligence allows you to eliminate.

Almost everyone has some level of emotional intelligence. You can go through all the stages of development, or you can get stuck on one of them:

1. Understanding and expressing emotions.
2. Using emotions as intellectual motivation.
3. Awareness of one's own and others' emotions.
4. Emotion management.

What is social intelligence?

Social intelligence is understood as the ability of an individual to understand and manage other people's emotions, feel their state and influence it. The development of this skill depends on the social adaptation of a person.

J. Gilford identified 6 factors that allow the development of social intelligence:

1. Perception of behavioral signals.
2. Isolation of the main behavioral signals from the general flow.
3. Understanding relationships.
4. Understanding the motivation to exhibit a particular behavior.
5. Understanding how behavior changes depending on the situation.
6. Anticipation of another person's behavior.

The formation of social intelligence involves a person's life experience, cultural knowledge and study, existing knowledge and erudition.

child intelligence

Even in the womb, the development of intelligence begins, which depends on the lifestyle of a woman and the information that she perceives. The intellectual activity of a child depends on many factors: genes, nutrition, environment, family environment and others.

The main emphasis is on how parents communicate with the child, what exercises they offer to develop their intellect, how often certain phenomena are explained, how often they visit different places, etc. Intelligence does not develop by itself. At first, a lot depends on what and how the parents do with the child.

Outcome

Intelligence allows a person to become educated and socially adapted. Every year he begins to use his intellectual abilities more and more, which affect memory, thinking, attention and even speech. Their development is influenced by parents and the environment. The result depends on how favorable circumstances a person was surrounded from an early age.

Translated from the Latin "intellectus", it means knowledge or understanding, your personal ability to solve and comprehend various problems. You are able to see, feel, remember, and imagine. From your own experience, you try to adapt to new conditions, apply the knowledge you once gained and manage your behavior based on all this - you think.

Types of intelligence.

• Analytical;
• deductive;
• Logical;
• predictive;
• Critical;
• Abstract thinking;
• Creative thinking;
• Social;
• Emotional.

All these kinds of human intelligence able to start developing at any time in life and get smarter. Start right now and see results tomorrow. This will affect your life in general, self-respect and respect of others will appear, you will see new horizons that you never even dreamed of.

Your intelligence is an understanding of life, and the ability to adapt.

A small child at the beginning of life is not adapted, he is not adapted to the world. As they grow older, understanding and perception of surrounding things comes, the goals “I want this toy” gradually arise, but time passes and the scope of knowledge expands and an idea of ​​the world is created. There are first problems to be solved. With the first learned verses, the intellectual development of a person begins, the functions of cognition, skills and behavior are formed.

An infinite number of studies of human psychogenetics have proved that intelligence is a genetic concept. But, of course, the formation of a person's intellectual abilities depends to a large extent on the environment, the family, the environment in which he lives and works.

Levels of intelligence development.

High level of intelligence

There are quite a lot of people with a high level of intelligence. They easily cope with a large amount of information, feel easy in complex and multitasking matters, their world is much wider and higher than that of the others. They often annoy others, because they will not be silent if they hear or see a mistake. They are demanding of others as well as of themselves. Constantly analyzing and rethinking their own and other people's actions, they cannot come to terms with the simplicity and primitiveness of the thinking and actions of others. People with a high level of IQ usually do not give in to strong passions and emotions, controlling themselves. They will never say to themselves that they are smart, because they understand their tiny place in the incomprehensibility of the Universe.

Average level of intelligence.

People with an average level of intellectual development make up a quarter of the world's population. They are able to achieve certain heights, however, they lack the potential to reach higher levels. Although they are hardworking and do not stop there, constantly engaging in mental fitness. These people study well at school from childhood, then successfully graduate from universities, usually a career in management awaits them, without the requirements of special mental abilities. Among them are many creative people, actors, artists, musicians, as well as school teachers, cultural workers and many other professions.

Low level of intelligence.

Twenty percent of the entire population of the Earth is assigned to people with a low level of intelligence. These are people who successfully completed school, received a profession, but do not want to get a higher education. They, for the most part, are engaged in physical labor, in areas and industries where it is not at all necessary to use the abilities of the intellect. This also includes another tenth of the population who completed their basic education with difficulty, and possibly special schools that help to obtain it. Their field of activity is working professions and service personnel.

Mental retardation.

About nine percent of people on Earth have some degree of mental retardation. People with a severe degree cannot take care of themselves and live in special institutions.
A person lives in society, and apart from it he cannot develop. He must understand that it is possible to achieve certain heights in society only through his own development, through the development of his mental abilities.

How to develop your intellect.

You can develop your intellect in many ways, the main thing is that the lesson is not boring, but brings pleasure. Spend as much time exercising as you can.

Physical exercise.

This is a mandatory workout that engages and develops several muscle groups: squats, push-ups from the floor or table. You need to be outdoors more often. Any physical activity, such as running, skiing, cycling, swimming, will help blood flow to the brain, which means that the work of brain cells will increase significantly.

Intellectual and logic games.

This type of exercise trains the mind well, concentrates the memory. Many celebrities and great minds of the world have loved board games. Here is not only a manifestation of memory and ingenuity, there is also passion. Starting at an early age, offer your children educational games and puzzles. By yourself, not bad, learn to play chess, poker, backgammon, even dominoes, why not. There are wonderful sites with interesting exercises for the mind.

Reading books and fiction.

Read more and often. This develops emotional memory, broadens one's horizons, develops and contributes to the formation of good taste. Fiction should alternate with cognitive, then the effect is enhanced. Tell relatives and friends about the main idea of ​​the book, recommending individual works, try to remember the names of authors and main characters. Start learning poetry. It is better to start with famous and beloved authors, tell them at parties and holidays, family gatherings and at a meeting with friends. Do not be afraid to seem like an eccentric, I assure you, this will only add bonuses to you!

Exact sciences.

Start with math. Solve problems and exercises with your little sister or with your child. Make this a game of "Who can solve it faster?" It will energize both you and him. There are textbooks on logic. The exact sciences organize, put things in order in the head, put everything on the shelves, this will help the speed of thinking and develop memory. In such exercises, a wide range of qualities of your mind is developed: logic, analytics, deduction, abstract and predictive.

Learn to learn.

Keep learning, your brain has unlimited possibilities! After all, by learning, we gain life experience, the necessary information. We learn to master knowledge, unknown hitherto, which means we become more experienced and more interesting for others. Giving back the accumulated knowledge, our benefit to society increases. Our significance raises us in our own eyes, causes us to self-respect. No study has hurt anyone yet. Plus, it certainly leads to material benefits! Not bad, mastering penmanship with your non-dominant hand, the opposite hemisphere will get a good stimulation.

Learn foreign languages.

People with a high IQ tend to know several foreign languages. Why don't you take up the study of at least one? This will entail the development of memory, will allow you to think and reason with a good knowledge of the language, will reveal to you the primary sources of great writers, will ensure free communication in a foreign country, and again, will open up new, hitherto invisible horizons. Travel and discover the world and write down your impressions, shake up your brain and body!

Culture to the masses!

Visit exhibitions and theaters, concerts and cinema halls. Emotional development will give impetus to the understanding of beauty. Listen to classical music, teach your children to do it! Only by following all these recommendations, you can reach a new intellectual level.

Bad habits are the enemy of the intellect.

Everyone knows the harmful effects of alcohol and cigarettes on the brain. Therefore, if you want to start breaking into a new level of "game", you will have to give up bad habits.

Enjoy mental exercise. You have every right to increase the level of your intelligence! You deserve a better life, from birth God has given you this jewel - the ability to think!

Intelligence General mental ability to overcome difficulties in new situations.

Brief explanatory psychological and psychiatric dictionary. Ed. igisheva. 2008 .

Intelligence

(from lat. intellectus - understanding, understanding, comprehension) - a relatively stable structure of the individual's mental abilities. In a number of psychological concepts, I. is identified with a system of mental operations, with a style and strategy for solving problems, with the effectiveness of an individual approach to a situation that requires cognitive activity, with cognitive style and others. In modern Western psychology, the most common is the understanding of I. as a biopsychic adaptation to the current circumstances of life (V. Stern, J. Piaget, and others). An attempt to study the productive creative components of I. was made by representatives gestalt psychology(M. Wertheimer, W. Köhler), who developed the concept of insight. At the beginning of the twentieth century. French psychologists A. Binet and T. Simon proposed to determine the degree of mental giftedness through special tests (see). Their work laid the foundation for the pragmatist interpretation of I., which has been widely used to date, as the ability to cope with appropriate tasks, to be effectively included in sociocultural life, and to adapt successfully. At the same time, the idea is put forward of the existence of basic structures of I., regardless of cultural influences. In order to improve the method of diagnosing And. (see), were carried out (usually with the help of factor analysis) various studies of its structure. At the same time, different authors distinguish a different number of basic “factors of I.”: from 1–2 to 120. Such a fragmentation of I. into many components prevents understanding its integrity. Domestic psychology proceeds from the principle of the unity of I., its connection with the personality. Much attention is paid to the study of the relationship between practical and theoretical I., their dependence on the emotional and volitional characteristics of the individual. The meaningful definition of the I. itself and the features of the tools for its measurement depend on the nature of the corresponding socially significant activity of the individual's sphere (, production, politics, etc.). In connection with the success of the scientific and technological revolution - the development of cybernetics, information theory, computer technology - the term " artificial I.". AT comparative psychology I. animals are being investigated.

Brief psychological dictionary. - Rostov-on-Don: PHOENIX. L.A. Karpenko, A.V. Petrovsky, M. G. Yaroshevsky. 1998 .

Intelligence

This concept is defined quite heterogeneously, but in general terms, it refers to individual characteristics related to the cognitive sphere, primarily to thinking, memory, perception, attention, etc. A certain level of development of the mental activity of the individual is implied, providing the opportunity to acquire all new knowledge and to use them effectively in the course of life, - the ability to carry out the process of cognition and to effectively solve problems, in particular - when mastering a new range of life tasks. Intelligence is a relatively stable structure of the mental abilities of an individual. In a number of psychological concepts, it is identified:

1 ) with a system of mental operations;

2 ) with style and problem solving strategy;

3 ) with the effectiveness of an individual approach to a situation that requires cognitive activity;

4 ) with a cognitive style, etc.

There are a number of fundamentally different interpretations of intelligence:

1 ) in the structural-genetic approach of J. Piaget, intellect is interpreted as the highest way of balancing the subject with the environment, characterized by universality;

2 ) in the cognitivist approach, intelligence is considered as a set of cognitive operations;

3 ) with a factor-analytical approach, based on a set of test indicators, stable factors of intelligence are found (C. Spearman, L. Thurstone, X. Eysenck, S. Barth, D. Wexler, F. Vernoy). It is now generally accepted that there is a general intelligence as a universal mental ability, which can be based on the genetically determined property of the nervous system to process information with a certain speed and accuracy (X. Eysenck). In particular, psychogenetic studies have shown that the proportion of genetic factors calculated from the variance of the results of intellectual tests is quite large - this indicator has a value from 0.5 to 0.8. At the same time, verbal intelligence is especially genetically dependent. The main criteria by which the development of the intellect is assessed are the depth, generalization and mobility of knowledge, mastery of the methods of coding, recoding, integration and generalization of sensory experience at the level of representations and concepts. In the structure of the intellect, the importance of speech activity, and especially internal speech, is great. A special role belongs to observation, operations of abstraction, generalization and comparison, which create internal conditions for combining diverse information about the world of things and phenomena into a single system of views that determine the moral position of the individual, contribute to the formation of his orientation, abilities and character.

In Western psychology, the understanding of intelligence as a biopsychic adaptation to the current circumstances of life is especially widespread. An attempt to study the productive creative components of the intellect was made by representatives of Gestalt psychology, who developed the concept of insight. At the beginning of the XX century. French psychologists A. Binet and T. Simon proposed to determine the degree of mental giftedness through special intelligence tests; this was the beginning of the pragmatist interpretation of intelligence, which is still widespread today, as the ability to cope with the corresponding tasks, to be effectively included in sociocultural life, and to adapt successfully. This puts forward the idea of ​​the existence of basic structures of intelligence, independent of cultural influences. In order to improve the methodology for diagnosing intelligence, various studies of its structure were carried out (usually with the help of factorial analysis). At the same time, different authors single out a different number of basic "intelligence factors" from one or two to 120. Such a fragmentation of intelligence into many components hinders the understanding of its integrity. Domestic psychology proceeds from the principle of the unity of the intellect, its connection with the personality. Much attention is paid to the study of the relationship between practical and theoretical intelligence, their dependence on the emotional and volitional characteristics of the individual. The inconsistency of statements about the innate conditionality of differences in the level of intellectual development among representatives of various nations and social groups was shown. At the same time, the dependence of the abilities of an intellectual person on the socio-economic conditions of life is recognized. The meaningful definition of intelligence itself and the features of the tools for measuring it depend on the nature of the corresponding socially significant activity of the individual's sphere (production, politics, etc.). In connection with the success of the scientific and technological revolution, the term artificial intelligence has become widespread.

Dictionary of practical psychologist. - M.: AST, Harvest. S. Yu. Golovin. 1998 .

Intelligence Etymology.

Comes from lat. intellectus - mind.

Category.

The ability to learn and effectively solve problems, in particular when mastering a new range of life tasks.

Research.

There are a number of fundamentally different interpretations of intelligence.

In the structural-genetic approach of J. Piaget, intellect is interpreted as the highest way of balancing the subject with the environment, characterized by universality. In the cognitivist approach, intelligence is viewed as a set of cognitive operations. In the factor-analytical approach, based on a set of test indicators, stable factors are found (C. Spearman, L. Thurstone, H. Eysenck, S. Barth, D. Wexler, F. Vernon). Eysenck believed that there is a general intelligence as a universal ability, which may be based on the genetically determined property of an unequal system to process information with a certain speed and accuracy. Psychogenetic studies have shown that the proportion of genetic factors calculated from the variance of the results of intellectual tests is quite large, this indicator ranges from 0.5 to 0.8. At the same time, verbal intelligence turns out to be the most genetically dependent.

Psychological Dictionary. THEM. Kondakov. 2000 .

INTELLIGENCE

(English) intelligence; from lat. intellectus- understanding, knowledge) - 1) general to the knowledge and solution of problems, which determines the success of any activities and underlying other ability; 2) the system of all cognitive (cognitive) abilities of an individual: Feel,perception,memory, ,thinking,imagination; 3) the ability to solve problems without trial and error "in the mind" (see. ). The concept of I. as a general mental ability is used as a generalization of behavioral characteristics associated with successful adaptation to new life challenges.

R. Sternberg singled out 3 forms of intellectual behavior: 1) verbal I. (vocabulary, erudition, ability to understand what is read); 2) the ability to solve problems; 3) practical I. (the ability to achieve goals, etc.). In the beginning. 20th century I. was considered as the level of mental development achieved by a certain age, which manifests itself in the formation of cognitive functions, as well as in the degree of assimilation of mental skills and knowledge. Currently accepted in testology dispositional interpretation of I. as a mental property (): predisposition to act rationally in a new situation. There is also an operational interpretation of I., which goes back to BUT.Binet: I. is "what the tests measure."

I. is studied in various psychological disciplines: for example, in general, developmental, engineering and differential psychology, pathopsychology and neuropsychology, in psychogenetics, etc. There are several theoretical approaches to the study of I. and its development. Structural genetic approach based on ideas F.Piaget, who considered I. as the highest universal way of balancing the subject with the environment. Piaget singled out 4 types of forms of interaction between the subject and the environment: 1) lower-type forms formed by instinct and directly arising from the anatomical and physiological structure of the body; 2) integral forms formed skill and perception; 3) holistic irreversible forms of operating, formed by figurative (intuitive) pre-operational thinking; 4) mobile, reversible forms capable of being grouped into various complex complexes formed by "operational" I. Cognitivist approach based on the understanding of I. as a cognitive structure, the specificity of which is determined by the experience of the individual. Proponents of this direction analyze the main components of the implementation of traditional tests to reveal the role of these components in the determination of test results.

The most widespread factor-analytical approach, whose founder is English. psychologist Charles Spearman (1863-1945). He put forward the concept "general factor", g, considering I. as a general "mental energy", the level of which determines the success of any tests. This factor has the greatest influence when performing tests for the search for abstract relationships, and the least when performing sensory tests. C. Spearman also identified "group" factors of I. (mechanical, linguistic, mathematical), as well as "special" factors that determine the success of individual tests. Later L. Thurstone developed multifactorial model I., according to which there are 7 relatively independent primary intellectual abilities. However, studies by G. Eysenck and others have shown that there are close links between them, and when processing the data obtained by Thurstone himself, a common factor stands out.

Also gained fame hierarchical models S. Bart, D. Wexler and F. Vernon, in which intellectual factors are arranged in a hierarchy according to levels of generalization. Among the most common is also the concept of Amer. psychologist R. Cattell about 2 types of I. (corresponding to 2 factors he singled out): "fluid"(fluid) and "crystallized"(crystallized). This concept occupies, as it were, an intermediate position between views on I. as a single general ability and ideas about it as a set of mental abilities. According to Cattell, "fluid" I. appears in tasks, the solution of which requires adaptation to new situations; it depends on the factor heredity; “crystallized” I. appears in solving problems that clearly require an appeal to past experience ( knowledge,skills,skills), largely borrowed from the cultural environment. In addition to 2 general factors, Cattell also identified partial factors associated with the activity of individual analyzers (in particular, the visualization factor), as well as operation factors that correspond in content to Spearman's special factors. I.'s researches at advanced age confirm Cattell's model: with age (after 40-50 years) indicators of "fluid" I. decrease, and indicators of "crystallized" remain in norm almost unchanged.

No less popular is the Amer. psychologist J. Gilford, who singled out 3 “dimensions of I.”: mental operations; features of the material used in the tests; the resulting intellectual product. The combination of these elements ("the cube" of Guilford) gives 120-150 intellectual "factors", some of which have been identified in empirical studies. The merit of Guilford is the allocation of "social I." as a set of intellectual abilities that determine the success of interpersonal assessment, prediction and understanding of people's behavior. In addition, he highlighted the ability to divergent thinking(the ability to generate many original and non-standard solutions) as the basis creativity; this ability is opposed to the ability to convergent thinking, which is revealed in tasks that require a unique solution, found with the help of learned algorithms.

Today, despite attempts to identify all the new "elementary intellectual abilities", most researchers agree that the general I. exists as a universal mental ability. According to Eysenck, it is based on a genetically determined property of n. s., which determines the speed and accuracy information processing. In connection with the successes in the development of cybernetics, systems theory, information theory, artificial and. et al., there has been a tendency to understand I. as the cognitive activity of any complex systems capable of learning, purposeful processing of information, and self-regulation (see. ). The results of psychogenetic studies indicate that the proportion of genetically determined variance in the results of performing intellectual tests usually ranges from 0.5 to 0.8. The greatest genetic conditioning was found in verbal I., somewhat less in non-verbal. Non-verbal I. (“I. actions”) are more trainable. The individual level of development of I. is also determined by a number of environmental influences: the "intellectual age and climate" of the family, the profession of parents, the breadth of social contacts in early childhood, etc.

In ros. psychology of the 20th century. research I. developed in several directions: the study of psychophysiological makings general mental abilities(B.M.Teplov,AT.D.Nebylitsyn, E. A. Golubeva, V. M. Rusalov), emotional and motivational regulation of intellectual activity ( O. To.Tikhomirov), cognitive styles (M.A. Kholodnaya), “the ability to act in the mind” ( .BUT.Ponomarev). In recent years, new areas of research have been developed, such as "implicit"(or ordinary) theories of I. (R. Sternberg), regulatory structures (A. Pages), I. and creativity (E. Torrens), etc. (V. N. Druzhinin)

Big psychological dictionary. - M.: Prime-EVROZNAK. Ed. B.G. Meshcheryakova, acad. V.P. Zinchenko. 2003 .

Intelligence

   INTELLIGENCE (with. 269)

The scientific development of the problem of intelligence has a very short history and a long prehistory. Why is one person smart, and the other (no matter how sad it is to admit the supporters of universal equality) - alas, stupid? Is the mind a natural gift or the fruit of education? What is true wisdom and how does it manifest itself? From time immemorial, thinkers of all times and peoples have been looking for answers to these questions. However, in their research, they relied mainly on their own everyday observations, speculative reasoning, generalizations of everyday experience. For millennia, the task of a detailed scientific study of such subtle matter as the human mind was practically not even posed as in principle unsolvable. It is only in this century that psychologists have dared to approach it. And, it must be admitted, they have succeeded a lot in experimental and theoretical developments, in the production of hypotheses, models and definitions. Which, however, allowed them to get very close to the vague philosophical maxims of the past and rooted worldly ideas. Today there is no unified scientific theory of intelligence, but there is a kind of fan of contradictory tendencies, from which the most desperate eclecticists find it difficult to draw a vector. To this day, all attempts to enrich the theory come down to expanding the fan, leaving the practicing psychologist with a difficult choice: which of the tendencies to prefer in the absence of a unified theoretical platform.

The first real step from reasoning about the nature of the mind to its practical study was the creation in 1905 by A. Binet and T. Simon of a set of test tasks to assess the level of mental development. In 1916 L. Termen modified the Binet-Simon test, using the concept of the IQ - IQ, introduced three years earlier by V. Stern. Having not yet come to a consensus on what intelligence is, psychologists from different countries began to design their own tools for its quantitative measurement.

But very soon it became obvious that the use of seemingly similar, but somewhat dissimilar tools gives different results. This stimulated a lively (though somewhat belated) discussion about the very subject of measurement. In 1921, the American Journal of Educational Psychology published the most complete collection of definitions put forward by the participants of the correspondence symposium "Intelligence and Its Measurement" by that time. A cursory glance at the various proposed definitions was enough to understand that theorists approached their subject precisely from the positions of measurement, that is, not so much as psychologists, but as testologists. At the same time, voluntarily or unwittingly, an important fact was overlooked. The intelligence test is a diagnostic, not an exploratory technique; it is not aimed at revealing the nature of intelligence, but at a quantitative measurement of the degree of its severity. The basis for compiling the test is the idea of ​​its author about the nature of intelligence. And the results of using the test are designed to substantiate the theoretical concept. Thus, a vicious circle of interdependencies arises, completely determined by an arbitrarily formulated subjective idea. It turned out that the methodology, originally created to solve specific narrowly practical problems (and, by the way, preserved to this day in almost its original form), has outgrown the boundaries of its powers and has become a source of theoretical constructions in the field of the psychology of intelligence. This gave rise to E. Boring with frank sarcasm to derive his tautological definition: "Intelligence is what intelligence tests measure."

Of course, it would be an exaggeration to deny the psychology of intelligence any theoretical basis whatsoever. For example, E. Thorndike, in a frankly behavioristic manner, reduced intelligence to the ability to operate with life experience, that is, an acquired set of stimulus-reactive connections. However, this idea was supported by few. In contrast to his other, later idea of ​​the combination of verbal, communicative (social) and mechanical abilities in the intellect, which many followers find confirmation.

Until a certain time, the majority of testological research to some extent gravitated towards the theory proposed back in 1904 by C. Spearman. Spearman believed that any mental action, from boiling an egg to memorizing Latin declensions, requires the activation of some general ability. If a person is smart, then he is smart in every way. Therefore, it is not even very important with the help of which tasks this general ability, or G-factor, is revealed. This concept has been established for many years. For decades, psychologists have referred to intelligence, or mental ability, as Spearman's G-factor, which is essentially an amalgam of logical and verbal abilities as measured by IQ tests.

Until recently, this idea remained dominant, despite individual, often very impressive, attempts to decompose the intellect into the so-called basic factors. The most famous such attempts were made by JGilford and L. Thurstone, although their work does not exhaust the opposition to the G-factor. With the help of factor analysis in the structure of intelligence, different authors identified a different number of basic factors - from 2 to 120. It is easy to guess that this approach made practical diagnostics very difficult, making it too cumbersome.

One of the innovative approaches was the study of the so-called creativity, or creative abilities. A number of experiments have found that the ability to solve non-standard, creative problems correlates weakly with intelligence, as measured by IQ tests. On this basis, it has been suggested that general intelligence (G-factor) and creativity are relatively independent psychological phenomena. To "measure" creativity, a number of original tests were developed, consisting of tasks that required unexpected solutions. However, supporters of the traditional approach continued to insist, and quite reasonably (certain correlations were nevertheless identified), that creativity is nothing more than one of the characteristics of the good old G-factor. To date, it has been reliably established that creativity does not manifest itself with low IQ, however, high IQ does not serve as an unambiguous correlate of creative abilities. That is, a certain interdependence exists, but it is very difficult. Research in this direction is ongoing.

In a special direction, studies of the correlation of IQ and personal qualities stood out. It was found that when interpreting test scores, personality and intelligence cannot be separated. An individual's performance on IQ tests, as well as his study, work or other type of activity, is affected by his desire for achievement, perseverance, value system, ability to free himself from emotional difficulties and other characteristics traditionally associated with the concept of "personality". But not only personality traits affect intellectual development, but the intellectual level also affects personality development. Preliminary data confirming this relationship were obtained by V. Plant and E. Minium. Using data from 5 longitudinal studies of young college graduates, the authors selected in each sample of intelligence test scores the top 25% of the students who did the best on the tests and the bottom 25% of the students on the tests. The obtained contrast groups were then compared according to the results of personality tests, which were presented to one or more samples and included the measurement of attitudes, values, motivation, and other non-cognitive qualities. An analysis of these data showed that more "capable" groups, compared with less "capable" groups, are much more susceptible to "psychologically positive" personality changes.

The development of an individual and the use of his abilities depends on the characteristics of emotional regulation, the nature of interpersonal relationships and the formed idea of ​​himself. In the ideas of the individual about himself, the mutual influence of abilities and personal qualities is especially clearly manifested. The success of the child in school, play and in other situations helps him to create an idea of ​​himself, and his idea of ​​himself at this stage affects his subsequent performance of activities, etc. in a spiral. In this sense, the self-image is a kind of individually self-fulfilling prediction.

K. Hayes's hypothesis about the correlation of motives and intelligence can be attributed to more theoretical ones. Defining intelligence as a set of learning abilities, K. Hayes argues that the nature of motivation affects the type and amount of perceived knowledge. In particular, the intellectual development is affected by the strength of "motives developed in the process of life." Examples of such motives include exploration, manipulative activity, curiosity, play, baby babbling, and other intrinsically motivated behaviors. Referring primarily to research on animal behavior, Hayes argues that "lifetime motives" are genetically determined and are the only heritable basis for individual differences in intelligence.

One way or another, the concept of general intellectuality remained the standard of culture and education until the appearance at the turn of the 70-80s. a new generation of theorists who have attempted to dismember the G-factor or even completely abandon this concept. R. Sternberg from Yale University developed an original three-component theory of intelligence, which claims to radically revise traditional views. G. Gardner from Harvard University and D. Feldman from Tufts University went even further in this respect.

Although Sternberg believes that IQ tests are "a relatively acceptable way to measure knowledge and analytical and critical thinking ability", he argues that such tests are still "too narrow". “There are a lot of people with high IQs who make a lot of mistakes in real life,” says Sternberg. "Other people who don't do as well on the test do well in life." According to Sternberg, these tests do not touch on a number of important areas, such as the ability to determine the essence of the problem, the ability to navigate in a new situation, to solve old problems in a new way. Moreover, in his opinion, most IQ tests focus on what a person already knows, and not on how capable he is of learning something new. Sternberg believes that a good benchmark for measuring intelligence would be immersion in a completely different culture, because this experience would reveal both the practical side of intelligence and its ability to perceive new things.

Although Sternberg essentially takes the traditional view of general mental development, he introduces changes to this concept that include some often neglected aspects of mental abilities. He develops the "theory of three principles", which according to; posits the existence of three components of intelligence. The first covers the purely internal mechanisms of mental activity, in particular the ability of a person to plan and evaluate the situation in order to solve problems. The second component includes the functioning of a person in the environment, i.e. his capacity for what most people would call just common sense. The third component concerns the relationship of intelligence with life experience, especially in the case of a person's reaction to the new.

Professor of the University of Pennsylvania J. Baron considers the disadvantage of existing IQ tests that they do not assess rational thinking. Rational thinking, i.e. deep and critical inquiry into problems, as well as self-assessment, are a key component of what Baron calls "a new theory about the components of intelligence." He argues that such thinking can easily be assessed using an individual test: “You give the student a problem and ask him to think aloud. Is he capable of alternatives, of new ideas? How does he respond to your advice?

Sternberg disagrees: "Insight is an integral part of my theory of intelligence, but I don't think insight is a rational process."

Baron, on the contrary, believes that thinking almost always goes through the same stages: articulating possibilities, evaluating data, and setting goals. The difference is only in what is given more importance, for example, in the artistic field, the definition of goals rather than the evaluation of data prevails.

Although Sternberg and Baron attempt to dissect intelligence into its component parts, the traditional notion of general intelligence is implicitly present in the concept of each of them.

Gardner and Feldman take a different direction. Both are leaders of the Spectrum Project, a collaborative effort to develop new ways of assessing intelligence. They argue that a person has not one intellectuality, but several. In other words, they are not looking for "something", but "plurality". In Forms of the Intellect, Gardner put forward the idea that there are seven aspects of intelligence inherent in man. Among them there is linguistic intelligence and logical-mathematical, assessed by the IQ test. He then lists abilities that traditional scholars would never consider intellectual in the full sense of the word - musical ability, spatial vision ability, and kinesthetic ability.

To the even greater indignation of supporters of traditional tests, Gardner adds "intrapersonal" and "interpersonal" forms of intelligence: the first approximately corresponds to self-awareness, and the second - sociability, the ability to communicate with others. One of Gardner's main points is that you can be "smart" in one area and "stupid" in another.

Gardner's ideas developed in the course of his research on both individuals suffering from impaired brain activity and child prodigies. The former, he found, were capable of certain mental functions and incapable of others; the second showed brilliant abilities in a certain area and only mediocre in other areas. Feldman also came up with his ideas about multiple intelligences in connection with the study of child prodigies. He puts forward the main criterion: the ability to be studied must correspond to a certain role, profession or purpose of a person in the world of adults. He says that “this limitation allows us not to increase the number of forms of intelligence to a thousand, ten thousand, or a million. One can imagine hundreds of forms of intelligence, but when you're dealing with human activities, it doesn't seem like an exaggeration."

These are just some of the many different approaches that today make up the motley mosaic called "theories of intelligence." Today we have to recognize that intelligence is more of an abstract concept that combines many factors, rather than a specific given that can be measured. In this respect, the concept of "intelligence" is somewhat akin to the concept of "weather". People have been talking about good and bad weather since time immemorial. Not so long ago, they learned how to measure air temperature and humidity, atmospheric pressure, wind speed, magnetic background... But they never learned how to measure the weather! It has remained in our perception of good or bad. Just like intelligence and stupidity.

Such reflections are suggested by acquaintance with one of the recent issues of the American popular science magazine Scientific American, which is entirely devoted to the problem of intelligence. Particular attention is drawn to several policy articles written by leading American experts on this problem. R. Sternberg's article is called "How intelligent are intelligence tests?" G. Gardner's article titled "The Varieties of Intellect" has a lot in common with it. Strikingly dissonant is an article by a less eminent specialist, Linda Gottfredson (University of Delaware), in which the author defends traditional testing and, in particular, the much-criticized G-factor (the article is called “General Intelligence Factor”). staff writer Scientific American Tim Beardsley reviews the sensational book by R. Hernstein and C. Murray "The Bell Curve" - ​​a somewhat belated review (the book was published in 1994, and one of the authors, R. Hernstein, has already left this world), but invariably relevant in view of acute relevance of the topic itself. The journalistic pathos of the review is reflected in its title - "For Whom Does the Bell Curve Toll?".

In Hernstein and Murray's book, The Bell Curve, we are talking about a curve of normal statistical distribution of IQ measured in a fairly large group of people. In a random sample from the entire population (for example, the US population), the average value (, or the top of the bell) is taken as one hundred, and the extreme five percent on both sides account for the lower IQ values ​​- 50-75 (mentally retarded) and the upper ones - 120-150 (highly gifted). If the sample is specially selected, for example, it is made up of students from a prestigious university or the homeless, then the entire bell shifts to the right or left. For example, for those who, for one reason or another, could not finish school, the average IQ is not 100, but 85, and for theoretical physicists, the top of the curve falls at 130.

Journalists usually start criticizing a book with doubts that the IQ value really characterizes intelligence, since this concept itself is not strictly defined. The authors understand this well and use a narrower but more precise concept - cognitive abilities. (cognitivability), which they estimate by IQ.

Hundreds of works are devoted to what is actually measured in this case, in which, in particular, a high correlation between the IQ of schoolchildren and their academic performance and, most importantly, their further successes, was unambiguously revealed. Children with IQs above 100 not only perform better on average, but they are more likely to continue their studies in colleges, get into more prestigious universities and successfully graduate from them. If they then go into science, they get higher degrees, in the army they reach higher ranks, in business they become managers or owners of larger and more successful companies, and have a higher income. On the contrary, children who had an IQ below the average were more likely to drop out of school later, a greater percentage of them divorced, had illegitimate children, became unemployed, lived on welfare.

Like it or not, it should be recognized that IQ testing is a method that allows you to evaluate mental or cognitive abilities, that is, the ability to learn and mental work, as well as achieving success in the lifestyle and according to the criteria that are accepted in developed democracies - such as modern America. Of course, survival in the Australian desert or the Guinean jungle requires abilities of a different kind and is evaluated according to other criteria, but we and our kind live, thank God, not in the desert and jungle, hundreds of generations of our ancestors took care to provide us with something more complicated than rock scribbles and stone chop.

It is important to remember that the correlations between IQ and social success or failure are statistical, that is, they do not apply to individuals, but to groups of individuals. A particular boy with an IQ of 90 may study better and achieve more in life than another boy with an IQ of 110, but it is certain that a group with an average IQ of 90 will perform worse on average than a group with an average IQ of 110.

The question of whether the abilities measured by IQ tests are inherited has been hotly debated for several decades. Now the discussion has somewhat subsided due to the presence of reliably established patterns confirming the fact of inheritance, as well as due to the obvious unsubstantiated arguments of the opposite side. Hundreds of serious works have been devoted to the transmission of IQ by inheritance, the results of which sometimes differ significantly from each other. Therefore, it is now customary to rely not on any one, maybe very thorough work, but to use the results of each study only as a point on the graph. The dependence of IQ similarity in two people on the degree of relationship between them, that is, on the number of common genes, is expressed by correlation and heritability coefficients (they are not the same thing), which can vary from 0 in the absence of any dependence to 1.0 with absolute dependence. This correlation is quite significant (0.4-0.5) in parents and children or siblings. But in monozygotic twins (MZ), in which all genes are identical, the correlation is especially high - up to 0.8.

However, with a strict approach, this still does not allow us to assert that IQ is entirely determined by genes. After all, usually siblings live together, that is, under the same conditions, which can affect their IQ, bringing their values ​​closer. Observations on separated twins, that is, those rare cases when twins were brought up in different conditions from childhood (and not just apart, since conditions in families of relatives may differ slightly), are decisive. Such cases are carefully collected and studied. In most scientific studies devoted to them, the correlation coefficient turned out to be 0.8. However, Hernstein and Murray, out of caution, write that IQ depends on genes by 60-80 percent, and the remaining 20-40 percent from external conditions. Thus, the cognitive abilities of a person are mainly, although not exclusively, determined by his heredity. They also depend on the surrounding conditions, on upbringing and training, but to a much lesser extent.

There are two fundamental questions that I would like to discuss in more detail. One is about ethnic differences in IQ, which caused the most buzz. The second question is about the isolation in American society of two extreme groups with high and low IQ. For some reason, this question - important and new - is hardly mentioned in the reviews, although the book itself is devoted to it.

The fact that people belonging to different races and nations differ in appearance, frequency of blood types, national character, etc., is well known and does not cause objections. Usually they compare the criteria for the normal distribution of quantitative traits that overlap each other in different peoples, but may differ in the average value, that is, the top of the "bell". Average cognitive abilities measured by IQ, being, as it has been convincingly shown, predominantly hereditary, can serve as a characteristic of race or nation, such as skin color, nose shape or eye shape. Numerous measurements of IQ in different ethnic groups, mainly in the United States, have shown that the largest and most significant differences are found between black and white Americans. Representatives of the yellow race, who assimilated in America from China, Japan, and Southeast Asia, have a significant, albeit slight, advantage over whites. Among the whites, Ashkenazi Jews stand out somewhat, who, unlike the Palestinian Sephardim, lived for two millennia in dispersion among the European peoples.

If the entire population of America has an average IQ of 100, then it is 85 for African Americans and 105 for whites. nor for accusing psychologists of tendentiousness.

Racism, that is, the assertion that one race is superior to another and therefore they should have different rights, has nothing to do with the scientific discussion about IQ. The higher average IQ of the Japanese does not give them an advantage in rights, just as these rights do not decrease due to their smaller height on average.

Not too serious are the objections of biased critics who say that the lower IQ of blacks is due to the "white mentality" of the test compilers. This is easily refuted by the fact that, given the same IQ, blacks and whites are the same in terms of the criteria by which we generally judge what is measured by intelligence tests. The group of African Americans with an average IQ of 110 (their proportion among blacks is noticeably smaller than among whites) does not differ from the group of whites with the same IQ either in school and university success or in other manifestations of cognitive abilities.

Belonging to a group with a lower average IQ should not make the individual feel doomed. Firstly, his own IQ may turn out to be higher than the average for his group, and secondly, his personal fate may develop more successfully, since the correlation between IQ and social success is not absolute. And finally, thirdly, his own efforts, expressed in obtaining a better education, play, although not decisive, but quite a definite role.

However, being in a group with a lower average IQ poses serious problems that are hard to ignore. The share of the unemployed, low-paid, poorly educated and living on state benefits, as well as drug addicts and criminals, is significantly higher among the black population of America. In no small measure this is determined by the vicious circle of social conditions, but cannot but depend on their lower IQ. To break this vicious cycle, as well as compensate for natural “injustices,” the US authorities have introduced an “affirmative action” program that provides a number of benefits to blacks, some Hispanics, the disabled, and some other minorities who might otherwise be discriminated against. Hernstein and Murray discuss this difficult situation, often perceived as racism in reverse, that is, discrimination against whites based on skin color (as well as on gender, health status, non-membership of sexual minorities). There is a bitter joke among Americans: “Who has the best chance of being hired right now? One-legged black lesbian!” The authors of the book believe that the artificial attraction of individuals with insufficiently high IQ to activities that require high intelligence does not so much solve as creates problems.

As for the second question, it seems to be even more essential. Around the beginning of the 60s. in the United States, the stratification of society began, the separation of two little mixing groups from it - with high and low IQ. According to cognitive ability (IQ), Hernstein and Murray divide modern American society into five classes: I - very high (IQ = 125-150, their 5%, that is, 12.5 million); II - high (110-125, 20% of them, or 50 million); III - normal (90-110, 50% of them, 125 million); IV - low (75-90.20%, 50 million) and V - very low (50-75.5%, 12.5 million). According to the authors, in recent decades, a separate intellectual elite has formed from members of the first class, which increasingly occupies the most prestigious and highly paid positions in government, business, science, medicine, and jurisprudence. In this group, the average IQ is increasing, and it is increasingly fenced off from the rest of society. A genetic role in this isolation is played by the preference shown by carriers of high IQs to each other when entering into marriages. With a high heritability of intelligence, this creates a kind of self-reproducing caste of people belonging to the first class.

A distorted mirror image of the privileged group in the USA looks like the group of "poor", consisting of persons with low cognitive ability (V and partly IV classes with IQ = 50-80). They differ from the middle classes, not to mention the upper classes, in a number of respects. First of all, they are poor (of course, by American standards). To a large extent, their poverty is determined by their social background: the children of poor parents, growing up, are poor 8 times more often than the children of the rich. However, the role of IQ is more significant: in parents with low IQ (grade V), children become poor 15 times (!) More often than in parents with high IQ (grade I). Children with low IQs are significantly more likely to drop out of school without finishing. Among people with low IQ, there are significantly more of those who cannot and those who do not want to find a job. They live on state benefits (welfare) mainly for people with low IQ. The average IQ for law breakers is 90, but for repeat offenders it is even lower. Demographic problems are also related to OQ: women with high IQ (grades I and II) give birth less and later. In the United States, the group of women who still have illegitimate children at school age, do not look for work and live on welfare is increasing. Their daughters, as a rule, choose the same path, thus creating a vicious circle, reproducing and increasing the lower caste. Not surprisingly, in terms of IQ, they belong to the two lowest classes.

The authors of the book draw attention to the negative consequences that the increased attention of the government and society to the lower strata of society leads to. In an effort to achieve social justice and reduce differences in levels of education and income, the American administration directs the main attention and funds of taxpayers to the strained and hopeless pulling up of the lower to the higher. The reverse trend exists in the school system, where programs are not aimed at the best and not even at the average, but at the lagging behind. In the United States, only 0.1% of the funds allocated for education goes to the education of gifted students, while 92% of the funds are spent on pulling up those who are lagging behind (with low IQ). As a result, the quality of school education in the United States is declining, and the mathematical problems that were given to fifteen-year-old schoolchildren at the beginning of the last century cannot be solved by their peers today.

Thus, the purpose of the Bell Curve is not at all to show ethnic differences in cognitive abilities, nor is it to show that these differences are largely genetically determined. These objective and repeatedly confirmed data have not been the subject of scientific discussion for a long time. A seriously justified and disturbing observation is the separation of two "castes" in American society. Their isolation from each other and the degree of their differences increase over time. In addition, the lower caste has a more pronounced tendency towards active self-reproduction, threatening the entire nation with intellectual degradation (which is worth thinking about for the advocates of increasing the birth rate at any cost).

Popular psychological encyclopedia. - M.: Eksmo. S.S. Stepanov. 2005 .

Intelligence

Despite early attempts to define intelligence in terms of the so-called common factor, most modern definitions emphasize the ability to function effectively in the environment, implying the adaptive nature of intelligence. The concept of intelligence in psychology is inevitably combined with the concept of IQ (), which is calculated from the results of tests for mental development. Because these tests measure adaptive behavior in a specific cultural context, they are almost always culturally biased; in other words, it is difficult to measure the degree of adaptability and effectiveness of behavior outside of a given culture.

Psychology. AND I. Dictionary-reference book / Per. from English. K. S. Tkachenko. - M.: FAIR-PRESS. Wikipedia

The level of intellectual development, or IQ, is characterized by indicators of the brain. In order to calculate the value, you must pass a scientific test. It can be found on the Internet or in the relevant sections of books on increasing intelligence. IQ includes memory, logical thinking, perception (visual, auditory, olfactory) and so on. The modern world leaves its mark on society. More and more people want to increase the coefficient, despite the possible difficulties. Let's take a look at the effective methods one by one.

Method number 1. Expand your horizons

1. It is known that sedentary work has a negative effect on the activity of internal organs and the spine. So the presence of the brain at the same level affects intellectual development.
2. In no case do not allow stagnation, strive to develop in every possible way. Set a goal, which is to constantly strive for more. Have you been dreaming about a new car? Well, make a plan and start implementing your plan.
3. Learn new information every day, visit literary and art exhibitions, museums, theaters. Start studying history or painting, become a specialist in one of the areas.
4. Sign up for a drawing section or a music school, learn cutting and sewing courses. Hairdressing, nail or eyelash extensions are suitable for fashionistas. Men can focus on automotive or electronics.
5. The more knowledge you gain, the higher your IQ score will rise. A foreign language is considered an excellent option for self-development. New letters and sounds are quickly deposited in the brain, sending impulses for quick perception. As a result, logical thinking increases, memory and perception of reality improve.

Method number 2. Watch

1. A smart person is distinguished not only by understanding what is happening, but also by the ability to observe. As a result of such manipulations, logic develops. You find connections between random objects and draw conclusions based on what you see. Observation allows you to put together or, on the contrary, put random and intentional events on the sides.
2. Let's give a simple example: while walking along the sidewalk, you noticed how a car drove into the oncoming lane, as a result of which a head-on collision occurred. A typical person will pass by, writing off what happened as a coincidence. The wise will do otherwise.
3. If you stand aside and observe, you can identify the factors that triggered the accident. Perhaps there is an open hatch on the road, or one of the drivers fell asleep at the wheel.
4. Such aspects help to solve complex problems that may appear in the future. By developing mindfulness, you increase the level of intelligence. It is worth focusing on art, music, astronomy, architecture, business, law, history and other "smart" sciences.

Method number 3. Strive for more

1. Always strive to be better than yesterday. The recommendation applies not only to the spiritual and material sphere. People who want to get rich are constantly looking for additional income.
2. If you're in college or working in a low-paying position, change things up. Believe in yourself, take refresher courses, take a prestigious post. In the case of students, in addition to the institute scholarship, start working as a waiter or salesman.
3. It is important to involve yourself in different areas. If you work on a 2 * 2 schedule, you get about 15 days off per month. For the average person, this is quite a lot, consider part-time vacancies. At the same time, it is important that the two positions are opposite in type of activity.
4. It is known that mental work is more tiring than physical work. If you spend 5 days a week in the office, make it a habit to hit the gym after work. Such a move will allow the brain to work 25% more efficiently, as a result of which important points will pop up in your memory, whether it is a book you have read or clippings from scientific literature.
5. Set big goals, they are easier to hit. Many believe that dreamers cannot achieve heights in their careers or personal lives. However, the situation is different. The dreamer does not set limits for himself, he always strives for more. Therefore, he regularly takes risks, after which he reaps the fruits of his own success.

Method number 4. Change the way you see things

1. Images and habits are firmly rooted in the human brain, as a result of which new ways are perceived “skeptically”. Simply put, if you are used to peeling potatoes in a certain way, there is no point in changing anything, but in vain.
2. The new is the well-forgotten old. Instead of driving to work / school on the usual road, cut the route in half or bypass the traffic jam in another way. As a result of such manipulations, the brain will literally begin to think, building logical conclusions.
3. If you go the usual route, you will not pay attention to all the potholes. The brain will not work because the actions are performed on a subconscious level. Such manipulations significantly reduce intelligence (IQ).
4. If you take notes in a notebook, transfer everything to electronic media. From now on, create notes in a text editor or the Notepad application. Seemingly simple things, but so effective. In addition to increasing IQ, manipulation helps to get rid of the routine.

Method number 5. go in for sports

1. Scientists have repeatedly proven the relationship between active physical activity and mental activity. Sport increases blood flow, as a result of which metabolic processes are significantly accelerated.
2. If you perform simple exercises daily, after a month, memory and perception will improve, logical thinking and IQ will increase.
3. It is not necessary to visit the gym and work with "iron", aerobic exercise is better suited for these purposes. Do 20-minute daily runs in the park or work on the track (about 40 minutes), jump rope, pump the press, squat, lunge, twist the hoop.
4. Take a closer look at popular areas such as yoga (even tantra will do), swimming, Pilates (gymnastics through breathing exercises), stretching (stretching all muscle groups), water aerobics. Play basketball or football with your kids, go skiing/skating.

Method number 6. Read

1. Perhaps reading is the most common way to increase the level of intellectual development. However, it is important to understand that only the “correct” books are considered effective.
2. Scientific literature is considered the best option. If you do not feel cravings for such works, give preference to art books. On the network, you can download any work absolutely free on your tablet or smartphone.
3. Thus, you will improve not only IQ, but also visual memory. Reading also helps to increase vocabulary, improves literacy, develops logic. Whenever possible, read books of all genres to become a versatile person.
4. Before choosing literature, it is important to make sure that a particular book suits your level of intelligence. Too light works will act disastrously. You must draw information from every page you read.

Method number 7. Learn the art of self-expression

1. Multifaceted personalities have a higher level of intellectual development than those who spend all day on the couch. If you belong to the latter type, it's time to correct the situation.
2. Express yourself in any convenient way. Sign up for acting classes or learn to play the piano. Speak in public, toast at every opportunity, become the soul of the company. Interact with a large number of people, it is not necessary to call everyone friends.
3. The human brain draws information not only from electronic media, books or reference books. In the process of communication, you take away a particle of the opponent for yourself, starting to express yourself or think like an interlocutor.
4. If you choose the right audience (environment), you can achieve heights, as they say, through other people's thoughts, views, ideas. In this way, your horizons expand much faster, you grow mentally and increase your IQ.

Method number 8. Control your IQ

1. To understand if you are moving in the right direction, you need to take an IQ test with frequent intervals. The best option is to carry out manipulations 1 time in 7-10 days, more often.
2. In this case, you need to write down the indicators in a notebook, and then analyze the results. Weekly changes of 5-10 points are considered normal. Well, if you can achieve a greater effect.
3. When choosing a test, pay attention to whether the site has a license. Pirated versions ask for confirmation by e-mail, this is not correct. Beware of scammers, they offer to pay a fee in exchange for results.

It is difficult to increase the level of intellectual development, but the procedure cannot be called impossible. Expand your horizons, learn something new every day. Always strive for more, do not stand still. Learn to express yourself, play sports, regularly check your IQ.

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