Positional alternation of vowels depending on the position in relation to the stressed syllable. The concept of alternation
In real speech, sounds are pronounced differently, it depends on the individual characteristics of the speaker, his social and territorial affiliation, positional conditions for pronouncing the sound. Sound changes caused by any neighboring sounds are called combinatorial. The convergence of the articulation of two sounds is called accommodation , for example, in the Romance languages, as well as in the Proto-Slavic language, the back-lingual consonants, being in front of the front vowel, turned into either hissing, or middle-lingual affricates, or fricative: penetrate, penetrating, tremble - tremble and under. The similarity of sounds to each other is called assimilation , For example, squeeze [squeeze], lat. affere from ab-fere. In some cases, the reverse process is observed - dissimilation - dissimilarity of sounds with similar articulation: Rus. what [what]. Assimilation occurs in both vowels and consonants; dissimilation is much less common.
Alternations of sounds are quite regularly observed in the language, for example, in Russian all vowel sounds (except U) in an unstressed position are able to alternate with each other, voiced consonants alternate with deaf ones, hard with soft ones. However, despite this, people still identify sound complexes into words and morphemes. We give the following examples: in words table and on table the root vowel and the final consonant are pronounced differently, and different vowels are also pronounced in the following words: five, minus five, five digit; but in words tooth - teeth, snow - snow the final consonant is pronounced differently. In order to understand sounding speech, it is necessary to identify significant units of the language by meaning and by sound. In these words, the sounds alternate positionally, that is, they change, but their mutual exchange is regular and depends on phonetic position , that is, specific conditions of pronunciation.
Sounds that alternate positionally exist in the language as an identity, a series of positionally alternating sounds is called allophones
, and the language unit, represented by a number of allophones - phoneme
. The phoneme is opposed to sound as a unit of language to a unit of speech, it is thanks to phonemes that we distinguish and identify words and morphemes, the phoneme is a functional unit of the language, as it distinguishes words. The basic principle of identifying and analyzing phonemes is formulated as follows: if in a given language the differences between two given sounds make it possible to distinguish between different words or different grammatical forms, these sounds belong to different phonemes. Yes, phoneme< a >in Russian it is represented by the following allophones [a, Λ, b, i, b], compare in the following words: shaft, on the shaft, gross, five, without five, five-ton[v'al, n'vΛ'lu, vlΛv'oy, p'at', b'sp'i't'i, p't'i'tonk], phoneme<д>- the next series of allophones [d, d', t], for example: ice, icy, on ice[l'ot, l'd'i`noy, nΛ`l'du]. Phoneme
Therefore, all phonetic positions can be divided into those in which neutralization occurs ( weak positions ), and those in which neutralization does not occur ( strong positions ). So, for most vowels in Russian, the position under stress is strong, and the position without stress is weak; consonants also have their own positions: for voiced consonants, the position at the end of the word and before the voiceless consonant is weak, and the position before the vowel is strong.
A phoneme is always named after the variety that appears in a strong position. If a number of positionally alternating sounds is common to several phonemes, and there is no strong position in this case, then such a unit is called hyperphoneme . For example, for unstressed vowels in the word pencil there are no strong positions, the same should be said about the initial and final consonant in the word all of a sudden, compare the phonetic and phonemic transcription of these words: [karΛndash, vdruk],<к а/о р а/о н д а ш, в/ф д р у г/к>. (Phonetic transcription is in square brackets, and phonological transcription is in diamond-shaped brackets).
alternation- replacement of one sound by another, occurring in the same place of the same phoneme, but in different words or word forms (koz(z)a - goat(s)).
Alternation may be associated with a certain position of sounds in a word. Positional alternation called such an alternation that occurs in any position and knows no exceptions in a given language system (stunning at the end of a word: girlfriend-druk, leg-nok; "fatally total".).
At phonetic (positional) alternations positions, i.e., the conditions for the appearance of a particular sound, phonetic - the beginning and end of a word or syllable, the proximity of other sounds, the position in a stressed or unstressed syllable, this is an alternation of sounds related to one morpheme.
Examples:
The alternation of sounds can be caused by the position of the beginning of the word, in dialects with incomplete okan "o" is replaced by "y" at the beginning of the word in the second pre-stressed syllable: clouds - ublaka, island - islands; operation, subjugation. The alternation may be related to the position of the sound in the syllable. So, in an undisguised unstressed syllable, the phoneme /o/ is realized by the sound "" (lake - azer). In a covered syllable, it appears after a solid consonant only in the first pre-stressed one, and in other unstressed syllables, after a solid consonant, ə is pronounced (in but in əzerk). Often the alternation is due to the position of one sound next to another (after the TV consonant “and” is replaced by “s” (game - play; knives, wide)). Before the deaf acc. voiced ones are replaced by deaf ones (knit - tie). Sounds can alternate depending on the position in relation to the stress (from above - navirhu).
But in the examples, a friend is friendly, paper is paper, this is not a phonetic alternation (the spelling “g” does not depend on the position of “n” after it (gon - drive, blink - blink)). Here is another positional conditioning: the alternation g/f knows no exceptions in the position before the suffix -n-. The position here is morphological, alternation - morphological positional(alternation in which the spelling depends on the morpheme). In borrowed words, too - catalog - catalog. With morph. alternations, not only a suffix, but also an ending can act as a special position (to destroy - I destroy, to drown - I drown, to poison - to persecute, to feed - I feed). There are no exceptions, and in loans. (graph - graph).
Positional alternations that know no exceptions - positionally conditioned(eyes - voice, girlfriend - friendly); aware of exceptions positionally fixed(bridge - bridge, sten - wall). Phonetic positionally conditioned - alternations of sounds related to one phoneme. Phonetic positionally attached can be an alternation of sounds related to one phoneme, and an alternation of phonemes (Kazan - Kazan; excl. June - June).
Non-positional alternations - alternations that have neither phonetic nor morphological conditionality; are associated only with specific words and are inexplicable in modern language (girlfriend - friends, dry up - dry up - dry up).
Historical alternations - alternations that are not determined by the phonetic position of the sound, which are a reflection of the phonetic processes that operated in earlier periods of the development of the Russian language. These are morphological (they accompany the formation of certain grammatical forms, although in themselves they are not exponents of grammatical meanings, and traditional alternations, since they are preserved by virtue of tradition, not being conditioned either by semantic necessity or by the requirements of the modern phonetic system of the language) and non-positional phoneme alternation. Some call morphological alternations historical.
Positional alternation of vowels.
Positional alternation of consonants.
Position- ϶ᴛᴏ the position of the sound in the word. This is a condition for pronouncing a particular sound.
In Russian speech in different positions one sound is replaced by another.
The regular change of sounds within the same morpheme, caused by positional conditions, it is customary to call positional alternation: [m / ro with], [m /ro h s].
We will consider the positional alternations of consonant sounds according to the main 2 features: voiced-deafness, hardness-softness.
1. Change of consonants on the basis of sonority-deafness.
A voiced consonant changes to a voiceless one in the following cases:
a) at the absolute end of the word: friend [k], oak [p];
b) before deaf consonants: low cue
A deaf consonant changes to a voiced one before a voiced one: request [pro / z "b],
from the mountain [zg / ry].
2. Change of consonants on the basis of hardness-softness.
This exchange primarily occurs on the basis of softness.
The change of a hard sound to a soft one is observed primarily inside words and is usually found in the position of a dental consonant before a soft dental one:
make [z "d" e / lt "], guest [go / s" t "], forge [ku / z" n "b]
The sound [l] is not subject to this pattern: to gain weight [n / ln "et"]
3. Change of whistling sounds [h] [s] before hissing to hissing
compress [at "], stitch [yt "].
assimilation one sound to another in relation to the conditions of its formation is usually called assimilation.
4. It is important to note that the system of consonant sounds of the Russian language is also characterized by the phenomenon of simplification of consonant groups. Such a phenomenon is observed in combinations of stn, zdn, lnts, rdts, ntsk, stl, vstv: local [m "e / dreams], late, sun, heart, giant, envious, feeling, then unpronounceable consonants.
Οʜᴎ depend on the following factors:
1. from the place of stress of words;
2. from the position of the consonant in relation to the stressed syllable;
3. from the hardness-softness of neighboring consonants.
1. Positional change of vowels under stress.
A solid consonant before vowels does not affect it in any way: the vowel is pronounced the same way as after a pause (the beginning of a word).
Compare: sleep - he; noise is the mind.
A solid consonant after a vowel also does not affect: a gift - yes.
Τᴀᴋᴎᴍ ᴏϬᴩᴀᴈᴏᴍ, for vowel phonemes<а, о, э, у>under stress at the beginning of a word and after solid consonants a strong position. Hard consonants do not affect the realization of these phonemes. The exception is<и>. Strong position:
a) after a pause (the beginning of a word);
b) after soft consonants: silt - drank.
And after hard consonants<и>implemented in<ы>: game - [sy] play.
Soft consonants, on the contrary, affect the implementation of phonemes<а, о, э, у>.
In resemblance to soft consonants, each of these phonemes is realized by a more closed and more forward vowel. The tongue rises to the top. In this case, articulation (from Latin articulatio - to articulate, the work of the organs of speech, aimed at producing sounds) changes.
For example: [spa‣‣‣t"] - the articulation at the end of the sound [а‣‣‣] is shifted forward and up;
[sp "‣‣‣ at] - articulation at the beginning of the sound. The soft consonant has the strongest effect on the initial part of the vowel;
[s"p" ‣‣‣ a ‣‣‣ / "and] - sleeping. This is how soft consonants affect [ . a. ] covered the entire process of articulation.
[p / sa / tk] - [s "‣‣‣ a / du]
[pa / sa ‣‣‣ / d "im] - [s" a ‣ ‣ ‣ / d "bm]
[a]:[a], [ " ‣‣‣ a], [a ‣‣‣ "], [ " ‣‣‣ a ‣‣‣ "]
parallel type of phonemic series, its members are variations. Members of this series can never coincide with members of another phonemic series.
Such a process is usually called accommodation (from the Latin accomdatio - adaptation). Those. - ϶ᴛᴏ adaptation of the organs of speech for pronouncing a vowel sound in the vicinity of a soft consonant. So the vowels [a, o, y, e] after soft consonants become more front, and higher by ear.
In transcription, the phenomenon of accommodation is denoted by ‣‣‣ U [and] - accommodation can not be denoted, since it is always in the upper rise.
2. Positional change of vowels in an unstressed position.
In an unstressed position, vowels undergo reduction (from Latin reductio - bring back, return; reduce, reduce). Reduction - ϶ᴛᴏ weakening the articulation of sound and changing its sound (reduction of sound in strength and duration).
The reduction concerns mainly vowel sounds in an unstressed position.
The position under stress is always strong and vowels do not change.
In weak positions, high vowels [and] [s] [y] undergo only quantitative reduction, ᴛ.ᴇ. the time of their pronunciation is somewhat reduced, but the quality does not change: let's compare smoke - smoke - smoke [smoke / fog].
Vowels [a] [o] [e] are subjected not only to quantitative, but also to qualitative reduction.
The main positional changes of unstressed vowels are presented in the table:
At the absolute beginning of a word, the position of the vowel sound is equated to position I of the prestressed syllable.
herbs grass herbal
[tra / you] [tr / va] [tr / in "and e / but ‣‣‣ ]
<а>: [a] - - [b]
water water water
[water] [in yes /] [in / d "and / but]
<о>: [o] - - [b]
These are intersecting types of the phonemic series, since some of their sounds coincide. The members of these series are options.
six six by six
[shesh "t"] [shy e / one hundred] [on / sh's "t"]
<э>: [e] [s e] [b]
chalk chalk chalk
[mel] [m "and e / lok] [m "b / l / in]
<э>: [e] [u e] [b]
Historical alternations of sounds.
In addition to positional alternation, historical alternations (non-positional, morphological) are observed in the Russian language.
The main difference from positional alternations is that they are not determined by the position in the word: n about ha - but well Noah
n about sit - out a sews
vowel position is the same: stressed
Historical alternations arose in the process of language development.
1.sleep - sleep O / / Ø in the XI - XII centuries, the fall of reduction
day - day E / / Ø son - sleep day - day
2.o//a asks - begs
ber//beer take - choose
erased / / erase erase - I erase
3.b//bl (love - love)
v//vl (catch - catch)
f//fl (graph - graph)
4.g//f leg - leg
k / / h hand - pen
5.st / / d lead - lead
st//t revenge - meta
6.d//f walk - walk
s//w wear - wear
Topic number 14. Phonology.
Plan.
1. The concept of the phoneme.
2. System of phonemes of the Russian language.
3. Composition of consonant phonemes.
4. Composition of vowel phonemes.
5. Hyperphoneme.
6. Phonemic transcription.
Positional alternation of vowels. - concept and types. Classification and features of the category "Positional alternation of vowels." 2017, 2018.
Sound alternation
Why do words alternate sounds? This happens during the formation of grammatical forms of the word. That is, sounds in the same morpheme, for example, in a root, can replace each other. This substitution is called alternation. We note right away that we are talking about phonetic processes, and not about spelling words.
In certain cases, not only vowels alternate, but also consonants. Most often, alternation is found in roots, suffixes and prefixes.
Moss - moss, carry - carry, cool - cooler, friend - friends - make friends - at the root of the word;
circle - mug, daughter - daughters, winter - winter, valuable - valuable - in suffixes;
wait - wait, call - convene, rub - votru - in prefixes.
There are two types of alternations: historical (they cannot be explained, they arose a long time ago and are associated with the loss of vowels [b], [b] (sn - sleep, flatter - flatter) or with an inexplicable identity of consonant sounds (run - run) and phonetic ( positional in a different way, since they depend on the position of the sound in the word [nΛga - nok], they can be explained from the point of view of the modern Russian language, for example, the alternation [g / / k] arose because the consonant sound is preserved before the vowel, and in at the end of the word, the sound is deafened, changing its sound quality).
Historical alternations
Phonetic (positional) alternations
|
Vowel sounds | |
|
[o//and e //b] [a// and e //b] [e// and e //b] |
in [about] bottom - in [Λ ]yes - in [b] diana tr [a] wka - tr [Λ] wa-tr [b]weedy n [about] s - n [and uh ] set - n [b] Suna P [a] t - p [and uh ] type [b]tenth with [e] m - with [and uh ] mi - with [b] tenth |
|
vowels | |
|
voiced - deaf hard - soft |
but [f] and - but [w] mo[ l]- mo [l']b |
Historical alternations are revealed during word formation and form change.
Phonetic (positional) can be determined by the reduction of vowels and the assimilation of consonants.
Many fluent vowels when changing monosyllabic and two-syllable nouns according to cases [o, uh, and / / -]:
mouth - mouth, ice - ice, stump - stump;
fire - fire, knot - knot, wind - wind, lesson - lesson, nail - nail, beehive - beehive;
bucket - buckets, window - windows, needle - needles, egg - eggs.
There are fluent vowels in short adjectives:
short - short, bitter - bitter, funny - funny, long - long, cunning - cunning.
In the roots of multispecific verbs, alternations of vowels and consonants also occur:
touch - touch, inspect - inspect, collect - collect, send - send, ignite - ignite, understand - understand, compress - compress.
It is important to know the alternation of sounds in order to correctly apply spelling rules when there are difficulties with writing letters in different parts of speech. If you do not recognize the alternation, you can make a mistake in morphemic analysis, when you highlight parts of a word.
Sound alternation- this is a natural difference in sounds in variants of this and the same morpheme.
Stressed vowel alternation. Soft consonants cause the articulation of the vowel to shift forward and upward. In transcription, this shift of the initial and final phase of the vowel is indicated by dots above the letter: /h¢ as/, /ma ¢t/.
Between soft consonants, there is a forward and upward shift in the central part of the vowel: /h ast/ and /h as/, /mel/ and /m el/ - the vowel - E of the front row moves (forward) up. /pike/ and /pike/.
We see that the alternation of stressed vowels after soft and before soft consonants occurs in their significatively strong position, but different perceptually.
Solid consonants before and after /А,О,Э,У/ do not affect the vowel in any way: /jaguar, gift, yes/ - the same sound is everywhere /A/ - the environment does not affect the sound - this is a perceptually strong position for /А,О,Э,У/ and weak for /I/; position after soft.
In a weak position, sounds, adjacent to the consonant, adapt the vowel to their articulation. This can be heard by ear. In the word mass is pronounced /A/, the position here is strong. In the word meat, it is pronounced /A/ - the sound is extraordinary throughout its sound - it is more advanced. In the word /Ira/ it is pronounced /I/ - this is the main variant of the phoneme /I/, the quality of the sound is not determined by the position. In the word /cheese/ - it is pronounced /Y/, and then it is pronounced /I/: /sy-i-i-ra/.
Thus, in a perceptually weak position, /A/ is the result of the adaptation of /A/ to the preceding soft consonant, and in the same way /Y/ is the result of the adaptation of /I/ to the preceding hard.
Alternation of unstressed vowels. Unstressed vowels differ quantitatively and qualitatively from stressed vowels: they are shorter than stressed ones and are pronounced with less force and different timbre. In connection with this distinction, stressed vowels are called full vowels, unstressed - reduced vowels.
There is also a difference between unstressed vowels, which is due to their place in relation to stress and position in the syllable.
Potebnya proposed a formula conditionally estimating the strength of stressed and unstressed syllables in units of 3,2,1. Stroke 3, 1st pre-strike - 2, others - 1. / b ispLradak / - a mess, / per and pdgLtofk /.
The strength of an unstressed vowel depends on the following conditions: 1. an uncovered syllable is equal to the 1st pre-stressed one: attack /LtkLvat/, stork/stork/.
The strength of the stressed final open syllable fluctuates between 1 and 2 units: cap / capL / \ reduced vowels of the 1st degree (in 2 units of stress) and the vowel of the 2nd degree, (in 1 unit) - b and L.
The qualitative differences between stressed and unstressed vowels are due to the fact that unstressed vowels are articulated less energetically than stressed ones. The body of the tongue occupies a position close to neutral. Unstressed /И/ /Ы/ - high vowels: the tongue does not reach the upper position: /vitrine/, /cheese/.
When pronouncing the vowel A in the 1st prestressed syllable, the tongue does not reach the lowest position, its more accurate image is L: /trLva/, in the 2nd prestressed syllable, the sound A corresponds to /b/ - the tongue occupies the middle position: /npLdat/ .
Alternation of consonants.
1. Alternation of voiced and deaf consonants.
A) At the end of the word, voiced noisy ones are replaced by deaf ones: /oaks/, /dup/, bu/d/eat - bu/t/.
B) Before deaf consonants, voiced ones will be replaced by deaf ones: ska / s / ka - / ska / sk / a, lo / w / echka - lo / sh / ka.
C) Before voiced consonants, voiceless ones are replaced by voiced ones: / pro / s / it / - / pro / sb / a /, young / t / it - young / d / ba, ta / k / oh - ta / gzh / e.
2. Alternation of consonants in the place and method of formation.
A) Before the anterior palatine (w, w, h) noisy dental noisy ones are replaced by the corresponding anterior palatal ones: without a wife / fugitive /, from miracles o / h / miracles.
B) Explosive consonants before fricatives are replaced by affricates /T/- /Ts/: pour - /sprinkle/, five- /pyatsya/, pinch off - o / h pinch, kindergarten - de / c / garden.
3. Alternation of hard and soft consonants.
The hard consonant is replaced by a soft one in the following positions:
A) Dental before soft teeth;
mo/st/ - mo/st/ik
bridle - at / zd / echka
The sounds /L/, /L/ do not participate in the action of this pattern: /L/ is not replaced by /L/ - by /l/ny - by /ln/et; before /l/ the replacement of a hard tooth with a soft one is optional;; /zl/it and /zl/it.
B) Before /H/ and /Sh/, the sound /N/ is replaced by /N/: vago/n/- vago/nch/ik, deceit - deception/nch/iy.
4. Alternation of consonants with zero sound.
A combination of three or more consonants may be subject to simplification:
/stn/: honor - che/sn/y - honest;
/sts/: six -she / ss / from - six hundred;
/stsk/: tourist - turi / sk / y - tourist;
/stts/, /zdts/: bridle - under the bridles - under the /sts /s;
/rdts/ and /rdch/: heart - se/rts/e, se/rch/isco.
POSITIONAL AND HISTORICAL ALTERNATIONS
Positional changes in sounds lead to the concept of alternation of sounds (phonemes). The alternation of sounds is a natural difference in sounds in variants of the same morpheme. For example: timid - timid there is an alternation in the root of the sounds [b] and [p].
The alternation of sounds may concern several variants of only one morpheme, but most often it has a broader character and covers several or many morphemes and their variants: bargain-trade-trade; city - cities - non-resident. In these examples, there is an alternation of sounds [o] - [L] - [b].
These alternations are called positional, as they are explained by positional changes in sounds (phonemes) in accordance with the current phonetic laws (the law of qualitative reduction, the law of stunning voiced consonants before deaf ones, etc.)
Positional alternations are the alternation [p`] / [p]: turner - turner, door - door - in connection with the law of assimilation of soft consonants by hardness), and the alternation of [w] and [s]: sew - twist (in connection with the law of assimilation of the dental before the anterior), etc.
But not all alternations of sounds within morphemes (in their modern versions) are explained by the current phonetic laws of the Russian language. Many alternations have remained from the former state of the Russian language - from the Old Russian, Common Slavic languages - as a result of phonetic laws that have long disappeared. So, for example, once in the Russian language there was a law of transition of sound combinations [kt] and [th] into [h], which gave the words night from noct, be able from might, oven from pect. Now such combinations are not replaced by [h] (cf .: practice, elbows, nails), That means the law is no longer in effect. As a result, alternations [k] - [h] and [g] - [h] remained from him (cf .: flowed out - flow out, saved - save.
The phonetic law of the past may cease to act as a phonetic factor, but its consequence may be not only the alternations of sounds in morphemes that have survived from the time of its action, but also the alternations of sounds in new morphemes that appeared after the loss of the law, by analogy with the existing sound correspondences in old morphemes. So, once the sound [k] before front vowels turned into [h]: pen - rune, century - eternal; by analogy with this, but not according to the law of the first palatalization, similar correspondences developed much later in the morphs of new morphemes ( barrack - barracks, bed - bed, block - block). Also, due to the fall of reduced vowels, an alternation of [o] by zero sound appeared in the word forms of sleep-sna, sleep; [e] - zero sound in the word forms day - day, day; later, by analogy with these, but not due to the loss of reduced sounds, appeared ice - ice, ice; ditch - ditch, ditch.
Alternations of sounds left over from the time of phonetic laws that were in force, but already lost, as well as the same alternations that spread to new morphemes later by analogy, are called historical.
The main historical alternations in modern Russian are as follows:
1. In the area of vowels:
[o] - zero sound: shore - shore, sleep - sleep, funny - funny, strong - strong;[e] or [b] - zero sound: day - day, all - all, terrible - terrible, sick - sick; [and] // [o] - lead - leads, command - will, divide - share;
[s] // zero sound: break through - break through, call - call, plug - shut up;
[s] // [y]: dry up - dry up, breath - du;
[s] // [o] or [ L]: breath - sigh - breathe in; jerk-sya - shudder; to blaze - to burn;
[o] // [a]: wear - wear out, poll - interrogate, mowing - mow;
2. In the area of consonants:
[k] // [h]: hand - pen, old man - old man, river - river;
[g] //[g]: a book - a book, a leg - a knife, an enemy - an enemy, a horn - a horn;
[x] // [w]: fly fly, dry - to dry, fear - terrible;
[c] // \h]: bird - bird, face - personal, egg - testicle, hare hare;
[e] // [g], [wa]: childbirth - give birth, give birth; fit - fit, pleasing; seeing off - to see off, driving.
[sk] // [sh`]: shine - shine, crack - crack, gloss - burnish;
[b`]`//[bl`]: to love - I love, to hammer - hollowing, to insult - an insult.
[v`] // [vl`]: catch - catch, catch; become - becoming, declare - statement;
[p`] or [p] // [pl`]: scream - scream, drip - drops, drown - heating;
[t] // [s]: weave - weave, bloom - flowers;
[d] // [s]: lead - lead, fall - fall.
[st] - [w`]: grow - growing, clean - cleaner.
A sound from a pair of historical alternations can enter another pair in a positional alternation. So, in case childbirth - give birth sounds alternate [d] - [g]; the first of these has positional alternation with [d ` ] childbirth - give birth and with [t] genus - genus. In such cases, all alternating sounds in several variants of one morpheme form a whole alternating (alternative) group (for the given variants of the morpheme, gender is [d] - [d ` ] - [t] - [g] - [zh].)
In addition to the alternations of sounds left over from the history of the Russian language and having a more or less regular, sometimes quite frequent character, there are single or less typical cases of alternation of sounds in morpheme variants, cf .: bloated - puffy(alternation in the suffix [t] - [tl]) , cat Kitty ( alternation at the root [t] - [w].
Alternations are usually considered to be the changes of sounds in this morpheme, which developed in the depths of a given language and are explained by its internal, primordial causes. The list of original alternations of the Russian language, given above, can be supplemented with alternations borrowed along with foreign words, which include the corresponding alternating sounds:
[k] - [c]: electrification - electrify, application - apply;
[h ` ] - [st ` ]: fantasy - fantastic;
[s`] - [t] - [t`]: skepticism is skeptical, chaos is chaotic;
[e] - [and]: cousin - cousin;
[ts] - [s]: clown - clown.
Hyphenation
How to divide a word into syllables? There are usually as many syllables in a word as there are vowels: wolf (1 syllable), river (2 syllables), rise (3 syllables), advanced (4 syllables), intonation (5 syllables), corresponding (6 syllables). The longer the word, the more syllables.
A syllable can consist of one vowel sound (the pronoun "I", the union "a"). But most often a syllable consists of a combination of a vowel and one or more consonants (the conjunction “but”, the pronoun “you”, the preposition “under”). Vowels are the most sonorous and are syllable-forming.
Syllables end in a vowel sound (MA-MA) and are called open. And if at the end there is a consonant sound (mOY, fodder), then the syllable is considered closed. Also, syllables can be covered, that is, they begin with a consonant sound (Fa-Bri-Ka) and uncovered (Yav) - they begin with a vowel.
Syllables open at the end and covered at the beginning of the word: craft [r "b | m" and e | slo '], good [bla' | g], pipe [pipe | ba '].
Syllables closed at the end and covered at the beginning of the word: personal [l "i'h" | nyj "], quarter [kvΛr | ta'l], tip [ko'n" | h "ik].
Open and undisguised syllables: ау [Λ|у'].
Closed and uncovered syllables: already [ush], lawsuit [lawsuit].
When we pronounce words, we do not pause between syllables (remember reading by syllables!). But sometimes hyphenation helps us in life. For example, we are chanting a slogan in the stadium. To make it sound clear and legible, we repeat the words syllable by syllable (“We-re-bya-ta-mo-lo-dtsy!”). Either in the forest, or in the mountains, or at the other end of the street, or on the other side of the river, we need to shout something, we will use the syllable section - and they will immediately hear and understand us (“A-u-i-here-and-do-do -my!").
There is a law of ascending sonority that all syllables obey. This means that the sounds in the word are arranged in order: from less sonorous to more sonorous. All sounds can be divided into groups according to sonority. The most sonorous (conditionally 3) are vowels, followed by sonorants (conditionally 2) and the last are noisy consonants (conditionally 1).
When we divide words into syllables, we rely on 5 rules.
First. We divide into syllables only in transcription.
Examples: hero [b|gΛ|ty'r "], headman [hundred'|rj|st].
Second. In most words, the syllable section passes after the vowel, leaving the syllable mostly open.
Examples: an orphan [s "and | pΛ | ta '], a locomotive [p | pΛ | vo's].
Third. But a syllable section can be both after a sonorant sound and after if they are next to a noisy consonant.
Examples: brand [ma’r|kj], stick [pa’l|kj], kayak [bΛj "|da’r|kj].
Fourth. Noisy consonants belong to another syllable if combined with noisy or sonorous sounds.
Examples: mask [ma'|skj], fiber [v|lΛ|kno'].
Fifth. Two sonorous consonants also belong to another syllable.
Examples: rake [gra'|bl "and], barracks [kΛ|za'|rm].
We reason like this. There are three vowel sounds in the word “get up”, which means three syllables: [fstΛ|j"o'|t"b]. The word "for example" also has three vowel sounds, so there are three syllables: [n | pr "and e | m" e’r]
Check yourself! Write a sentence using phonetic transcription, divide the words into syllables. Note that there are no pauses!
Travelers traveled without incident...
And here is the correct answer!
[Pu | t "and e | she' | stv" b | n "b | k" b | j "e ' | xb | l "and | b "and e s | fs" a ' | to "their | pr" and | cl "u | h" e ' | n "and j"].
Syllable division in Russian
Syllable division can be considered in three phonetic positions.
1. The simplest and most indisputable case of syllable division is the division of a word into open syllables of the type dog, cuttlefish, pro-da-yu. Here the rule that knows no exceptions applies: a single intervocalic (i.e. standing between vowels) consonant enters one syllable followed by a vowel.
2. An intervocalic combination of two GSSG consonants can theoretically either go entirely to the next vowel (Г-ССГ) or be distributed between two syllables (ГС-СГ). (There is no GSS-G syllable division in Russian.) The first option seems natural. Of great evidentiary value in the question of syllable division are data on the nature of the transition from a vowel to a subsequent consonant. The idea that the nature of the transition from one sound to another can serve as a criterion for establishing a syllabic boundary was first expressed by the Swedish linguist B. Malmberg in 1955. If the first component of the intervocalic combination was included in one syllable with the preceding vowel (GS-SG) , it would be characterized by a close connection with this vowel. However, according to spectral analysis, transitions from vowel to consonant (in our examples from stressed /a, e/ to /n, P/) in word forms like wound, turnip, where syllable division is beyond doubt, and in word forms like ra-nka, re-pka, where one could assume the occurrence of closed syllables ran-, rap-, have no significant differences. Thus, there is every reason to believe that consonants /n, P/ do not adjoin stressed vowels and therefore do not enter the same syllable with them. If we extend this provision to all structures of the GSSG type, then we can say that the intervocalic combination goes to the next vowel. This is also true in relation to three-phonemic combinations of consonants such as G-SSSG. Thus, the structure of the preceding open syllable is not violated by intervocalic combinations.
Let us illustrate syllable division in Russian with specific examples.
|
barrel |
a-lfa |
|
ton |
|
noodles |
gang |
slippery |
gamma |
|
bru-ski |
dirk |
nautical |
villa |
|
a drop |
cardboard |
oh-tu-yes |
Ma-rra(R. p. from Marr) |
|
rags |
skates |
subject | |
|
ski-zhnya |
pa-lto |
weight |
The only exception to this rule is the combination /j/+ consonant: /j/ always falls back to the preceding vowel ( gull, war, howl-howl). Phoneme /j/ in this phonetic position appears in its allophone, usually called "and non-syllabic", which definitely indicates its proximity to the vowel /and/.
3. When a consonant or combination of consonants is at the end of a word ( cat, dispute, nose, coal, tail, repair), conditions are created for the formation of closed syllables.
Two positions of the final consonant should be distinguished: either at the end of a word in the flow of speech, or at the end of a word before a pause. In the first case, the final consonant or combination of consonants adjoin not to the previous vowel, but to the next one, which is part of another word ( ku-pi-l a-na-us - "bought a pineapple", ku-pi-l ma-shi-nu, ku-pi-l sko-in-ro-du), even if there is already one or more consonants before that vowel. In the second case, there is no vowel after the final consonant. However, since the flow of speech in terms of articulation is a sequence of closing-opening movements (closing corresponds to a consonant, and opening corresponds to a vowel), it is quite possible to assume that after a consonant, before a pause, an opening movement will occur, generating some very short vowel element. The resulting phonetic effect is determined by the nature of a particular consonant. Yes, final /R/ becomes multi-stressed and in duration approaches an unstressed syllable. vowel sound after /R/ is found easily. Final deaf explosives are characterized by aspiration and a longer explosion, in the spectrum of which separate areas of energy concentration, a kind of formants, are distinguished, which indicates the presence of a vocal element, only pronounced without the participation of the vocal cords, i.e. deaf. "Word cat, pronounced at the absolute end of the phrase, before the pause receives the following syllabic organization: ko-t"[Bondarko, 1998, p. 212]. In this regard, it is interesting to note that Professor A. I. Thomson, a linguist with a remarkably fine phonetic ear, in 1922 argued that the final solid consonants in Russian have s-shaped coloring, and final soft - and-shaped. In this coloring, Thomson saw a reflection of the reduced vowels [ b] and [ b], which existed in the Old Russian language. To a large extent, the final sonants lose their consonant nature.
As a result, we can say that the structure of an open syllable characteristic of the Russian language also appears in the case of a final consonant before a pause. The opening movement following the closing produces a very short vowel element that cannot be phonemically attributed. This is a purely phonetic syllable, in contrast to the usual "phonemic" syllables, in which the phonemic nature of the components can be established without difficulty.
§ten. Positional vowel changesThe alternation of vowels depends primarily on their position in relation to the stressed syllable. In it, vowels sound most distinct, so the position of the vowel in the stressed syllable is called strong . In a strong position, the following vowels are distinguished: [a] - [lady], [o] - [house], [e] - [em] (letter name), [s] - [smoke], [and] - [im] , [y] - [mind].
In unstressed syllables, vowels are pronounced less distinctly, shorter, so the position of the vowel in an unstressed syllable is called weak position. Compare the pronunciation of root vowels in words run, run, run out. In the first case, the vowel [e] is in a strong position, in a stressed syllable, so it is heard clearly. It cannot be confused with any other. In words run away and run out vowels in the root are in a weak position, tk. the stress shifted to other syllables. We can no longer say that in this case we hear the vowel [e], because its sound weakens, decreases in duration, and its pronunciation approaches [and]. And in the word run out the vowel is pronounced even shorter, losing its main features. This positional change of vowels is called reduction .
^ Reduction is a weakening of the pronunciation of a vowel associated with a change in its length and sound quality in a weak position. All vowels in unstressed syllables undergo reduction, but the degree of reduction and its nature are different for different vowels. Distinguish reduction quantitative and qualitative .
At quantitative reduction vowels, although they are not pronounced so clearly, losing part of the longitude (i.e. changing quantitatively), but do not lose their main quality, do not become completely obscure: Pat t - pat tí - Pat tevó th; land tsa - land tsó – land tsevó th; etcy bend - prs jó k - yoú etcs bend. High vowels [i], [s], [y] are subjected to quantitative reduction. In any position, they are pronounced quite recognizably.
At qualitative reduction the very nature of the sound of vowels changes: they lose their main quality, becoming almost unrecognizable. Yes, in words get sick and enemies there are no vowels [o] and [a] occurring in a strong position ([bol`], [vrak]). Instead, they pronounce a sound similar to a weakened [a], and therefore, it needs its own designation - [] (a-tent). In the word price a vowel sound in a weak position is similar to [s] and [e] at the same time. In transcription, it is denoted [s e] ([s] with an overtone [e]). If we compare the words painful,be at enmity, price, it turns out that the vowels in the roots, being far enough from the stressed syllables, become quite short, indistinguishable. In transcription, such a vowel is designated [ъ] (ep). (By the way, changes in weak positions depend not only on the distance from the stressed syllable, but also on the position of the vowel after a hard or soft consonant. So, in the same position as hurt, enemies, in the word clock a sound is pronounced, the middle between [and] and [e] - [and e], and in the word hourly- sound denoted by [b] (er)).
Thus, depending on the position of the vowel in relation to the stressed syllable, 2 types of qualitative reduction are distinguished: they are called the 1st degree of reduction (or 1st weak position) and the 2nd degree of reduction (2nd weak position).
1st degree of reduction vowels in the following positions are exposed:
a) 1st prestressed syllable: [pl`á] (fields), [trva] (grass), [nʻi e so] (nickle), [shy e stop`] (sixth);
b) 1st open syllable, regardless of the distance from the stressed syllable: [d`in] (one), [d`inok`y`] (lonely), [s e tash] (floor), [s e tzhy]́ (floors);
c) adjacent identical vowels (the so-called "gaping" of vowels): [зl`et`] (blush), [ngrot] (to the garden).
2nd degree of reduction vowels are exposed in other cases:
a) 2nd, 3rd, etc. prestressed syllable: [karndash] (pencil), [karndshy] (the pencils), [s'd'ina] (gray hair), [t`l`i e background] (telephone);
b) all stressed syllables: [mam] (mother), [lozh'ch`k] (spoon), [sea] (sea), [fight] (fight).
The designation in phonetic transcription of vowels undergoing qualitative reduction can be schematically represented as follows:
Recall that the vowels [and], [s], [y] are not subject to qualitative reduction, therefore, in phonetic transcription, they will be denoted in any position [and], [s], [y]: [l`is`itsʹ] (fox), [k`irp`ich`i] (bricks), [s`in`y`] (blue), [roar] (lever arm), [roar and e jock] (lever), [bald`] (bold), [corn] (corn).
Questions and tasks
What determines the positional alternation of vowels?
What is reduction? What is it connected with?
Name the types of reduction. What is the difference?
What vowels are subject to quantitative reduction?
What is the essence of qualitative reduction?
What is the reason for the existence of two degrees of qualitative reduction?
How do vowels of the 1st degree of reduction change and are indicated? vowels of the 2nd degree of reduction?
Change the words or choose cognates for them so that the vowels that are in a strong position are first in the 1st weak position, and then in the 2nd weak position: house, six, king, stretches, whole, dark.
Determine the positions of the vowels. Transcribe the words. Divide them into syllables: watery, carefree, gear, phenomenon, frozen, holiday, language, happiness, station, forget-me-not.
What phonetic phenomenon underlies the appearance of homophones: company - campaign, shine - devote, awl - awl, caress - rinse, cleanliness - frequency? Transcribe the words.
Read the words. Make them alphabetical: [l`ú l`k], [y`i uh ntá p`], [r`i uh shé n`i`b], [b`i uh p`ó ck], [y`i uh w`:ó ], [divided uh d`í t`], [tsy uh oń h'k], [pdr Ms.́ t`]. Is there only one variant of the letter notation in all cases?
Transcribe text 1 . Specify the cases of quantitative and qualitative reduction. Give a complete description of the vowel sounds in the underlined words.
(N. Nosov)
§eleven. Positional changes in consonants
Positional alternations of consonants are associated with the position of the sound in the word, as well as with the influence of sounds on each other. As with vowels, there are strong and weak positions for consonants too. However, consonants can coincide or differ in sound in two ways: by sonority-deafness and by hardness-softness. The position in which paired consonants differ is called strong.
Usually, strong positions in terms of voiced-deafness and hardness-softness do not coincide, however, in the position before a vowel, consonants differ in both ways. This position is called absolutely strong . The following consonants can be distinguished in it: [d] - [house] (house), [d`] - [id`om] (let's go), [t] - [current] (current), [t`] - [t`ok] (tech), [h] - [umbrella] (umbrella), [з`] - [з`ornъ] (grains), [s] – [som] (som), [s`] - [s`ol] (villages), [b] - [cheerful] (cheerfully), [b`] - [b`odr] (hips), [p] - [sweat] (sweat), [n`] - [n`otr] (Peter), [in] - [ox] (ox), [v`] - [v`ol] (led), [f] - [background] (background), [f`] - [f`odr] (Fyodor), [g] - [goal] (Goal), [g`] - [g`en`y`] (genius), [k] - [cat] (cat), [k`] - [tk`ot] (weaves), [m] - [mol] (Youth), [m`] - [m`ol] (a piece of chalk), [n] - [nose] (nose), [n`]- [n`os] (carried), [r] - [rof] (ditch), [r`] - [r`of] (roar), [l] – [lot] (lot), [l`] - [l`ot] (ice), [x] - [hot] (move), [х`] - [х`andry`] (cunning), [f] - [zhok] (burned), [w`:] - [w`: from] (burns), [w] - [shock] (wOK), [w`:] - [w`: ok`i] (cheeks), [h`] - [h`olk] (bang), [c] - [tsokat] (clatter), [th`] - [th`ok] (yogi).
In addition to an absolutely strong position, there are strong positions for different groups of paired consonants. So, for noisy consonants, paired in sonority-deafness, the following positions are also strong:
before a sonorant consonant: [s`l`it`] - [z`l`it`] (drain - piss off), [ask`it] - [throw`it] (asks - quits), [cm`i e y`as`] - [zm`i e y`as`] (laughing - laughing), [whip] - [bend] (whip - bend);
before [in], [in`]: [dvr`etz] - [tvr`etz] (palace - creator), [sv`er`] - [sv`er`] (beast - check).
at the end of the word: [kon] (kon)- [con`] (horse), [m`el] (a piece of chalk)- [m`el`] (stranded), [throne] (throne)– [throne`] (touch);
before a hard consonant: [l'ink] (Linka)- [l`in`k] (molt), [bridge] (bridge), [proz`b] (request). For dental consonants - also in front of soft labials, which is associated with the variability allowed by orthoepic norms: [s`m`at`] - [sm`at`] (crumple), [t`v`ordy`] - [tv`ordy`] (solid);
for [l] and [l`] - all positions are strong: [mal`v] (mallow)- [mlva] (rumor), [plz`aʹ] (crawling)- [n`i e l`z`a] (it is forbidden).
Stun due to the fact that in Russian a voiced consonant cannot be pronounced at the end of a word: [gr`ip] (flu or mushroom) , [l`es] ( forest or climbed), [stock] ( stock or stack), [wear] ( knife or burden– R.p. plural), [p`at`] ( five or span) etc. When a word changes, when the corresponding consonant falls into a strong position, it becomes clear whether there is a positional alternation in this word: [g`ip] - [g`iby] (mushroom - mushrooms)- [n] // [b], [l`es] - [l`ezu] (climb - climb)- [s] // [s], [stock] - [stha] (stack - stacks) - [k] // [g], etc.
Assimilation - this is the likening of sounds to each other within the same phonetic word. Assimilation occurs as a result of the fact that the articulation of one of the adjacent consonants extends to the other. The interaction of sounds, as a result of which they become the same, is called complete assimilation ([zh:at`] - squeeze, [b`i e s: on] - without sleep, [uch`its: b] - to study). Usually, as a result of such assimilation, so-called long sounds are formed.
The interaction of sounds, as a result of which they become similar only according to some one articulatory feature, is called incomplete (or partial) assimilation : [loshk] (the spoon)- assimilation by deafness, [kos`t`] (bone)- softness assimilation.
There are the following types of assimilation:
a) assimilation by softness [h], [s], [n] before [d`], [t`], [n`]: [tail`t`ik] (tail), [pl`ez`n`y`y] (more useful), [in`d`i`y] (India), [kan`t`ik] (edging);
b) assimilation by softness [n] before [h`], [w`:]: [n`an`ch`it`] (to babysit), [gon`sh`:ik] (racer);
c) assimilation by hardness: [y`i e nvarsk`y`] (January)(cf. [y`i e nvar`] (January)), [s`t`i e pnoy`] (steppe)(cf. [s`t`ep`] (steppe)).
In general, in case of difficulties associated with the presence or absence of assimilation in hardness-softness, it is best to refer to the relevant reference literature, for example, the Orthoepic Dictionary of the Russian Language.
by place and method of education . With such assimilation, the articulation of the previous consonant adjusts to the articulation of the next one: [sh: yt`] (sew), [h:ad`i] (behind), [ryts:b] (rummage)- complete assimilation; [h`sh`:etn] (in vain), [best`] (best)- partial assimilation.
Questions and tasks
What causes positional alternations of consonants?
Why are there different strong positions for different consonant clusters?
What is an absolutely strong position for consonants?
Name the strong positions according to sonority-deafness.
Name the main strengths in terms of hardness-softness.
Why are all voiced-deafness positions strong for sonorant consonants? Why for [h`], [w`:], [zh`:], [d`], [q] all positions in terms of hardness-softness are strong?
What is the stun associated with? Give your examples.
From the listed consonants, indicate those that can be at the absolute end of the word: [th`], [w], [g], [m], [m`], [h], [h`], [t], [t`], [s], [s`], [ d], [d`], [g], [g`], [k], [k`]. Justify your answer with examples.
In one of the school textbooks on the Russian language, the following rule is given: “At the end of the word, voiced and deaf paired consonants are pronounced equally deaf.” Rate this statement. How can it be corrected?
What is assimilation? Describe assimilation by loudness-deafness, by hardness-softness, by place and method of formation. Give your examples of different types of assimilation.
Read the text. Specify: a) consonants in an absolutely strong position; b) consonants in a strong position in voiced-deafness, c) consonants in a strong position in hardness-softness:
Is it possible to find out the meaning of these words in transcription out of context: [cat], [poppy], [voice], [tinder], [l`es`t`], [in`i uh s`t`í ], [sy`est]? What options are available? What phonetic phenomenon creates homophones in this case?
Transcribe the words. Identify all cases of assimilation: rain, rare, guess, pilot, burn, get naughty, hand over, plant, grow, homeland, here, pick up, fairy tale, illness, coddle, sandy, instill, remove, shortchange, cog, man, breast, childhood, common.
Transcribe the text. Look for cases of assimilation. Describe the syllables and sounds in the underlined words:
Feeling that beautyher begins to fade and wanting to somehow prolong its summer, Birch dyed yellowColour - the most fashionable in autumnage .
And then everyone saw that her autumn had come ... (F.Krivin)
Two heads and six legs; four walk, and two lie still
Self-esteem - what is it: concept, structure, types and levels
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