Positional and non-positional alternations of sounds. Positional vowel alternations

Sound alternations can be:

1. Phonetic when the change in sound is due to position and alternate variants or variations of the same phoneme, without changing the composition of phonemes in morphemes. Such are the alternations of stressed and unstressed vowels in Russian, or voiced and voiceless consonants. Such phonetic alternations are mandatory in this language. These alternations are not related to the expression of meanings - they are forced by position and are studied in phonetics.

2. Non-phonetic, when the change in sounds does not depend on positions, but alternate phonemes, due to which the morpheme receives a different phonemic composition in its various variants. Among non-phonetic alternations one should distinguish:

BUT) Morphological(historical), when this alternation is not due to a phonetic position, but is not in itself an exponent of grammatical meaning, but only accompanies the formation of certain grammatical forms, being obligatory by tradition, but not for expressiveness. This type of alternation includes: alternation vowel with zero sound, consonant alternation [ to - h], [g - x], [x - w] or combinations of consonants with one consonant [sk - u], [st - u], [zg - x], [zd - x]. Thus, in morphological alternations, two phonemes can alternate with one, one phoneme with another, or a phoneme with zero.

Morphological alternations can be regular, when they are repeated in different forms and in different parts of speech (for example, [mr - f]) and irregular, occurring in a few cases (for example, [g - h]), and in inflection there are more often regular alternations, and in word formation - irregular. These phenomena are not included in phonetics and are not determined by grammar, but form a special area of ​​language - morphonology. Such alternations are called traditional because these alternations are not subject to both semantic necessity and phonetic compulsion, but are preserved by virtue of tradition.

B) Grammar alternations are the same alternations as morphological ones, because neither of them depend on phonetic positions. However, the essential difference between grammatical alternations is that they do not just accompany different word forms formed and distinguished in other ways, but independently express grammatical meanings, and such an alternation in itself may be sufficient to distinguish between word forms, and therefore cannot be canceled by analogy by unifying the phonemic composition of the root. In such cases, we are dealing with a grammatical way, and therefore with internal inflection.

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Ticket number 1

1. Alphabet. Vowels and consonants.

Alphabet - a set of letters in a certain order

The letters of the Russian alphabet are divided into three groups:

1) 10 vowel letters: a, o, y, s, e, i, e, ё, u, i;

2) consonant letters - 21: b, c, d, e, d, g, h, k, l, m, n, p, p, s, t, f, x, c, h, w, u;

3) 2 letters that do not indicate sounds: b and b.

There are 33 letters in the Russian alphabet.

There are six vowels in the Russian literary language: and, uh, u, uh, uh. They are heard most clearly under stress.

Iotated vowels (letters denoting two sounds). represent two sounds, if worth:
I - [ya] Yu- [yu] E - [ye] Yo - [yo]

at the beginning of a word (hedgehog, apple, spinning top)

after b and b (eat, family, rise)

after vowels (sing, union, military)

Letters e, i, u, e represent one sound[e], [a], [y], [o] after a consonant only under stress.

century - [v "ek], ball - [m "ah"], blues - [bl "us], honey - [m" from]

In an unstressed position, these letters after the consonant indicate the sound [and]
rows [r 'and d y] woods [l 'and s o k]

Paired consonants

Unpaired deaf sounds– 5: [x], [x’] [c], [h’], [u’].
Unpaired voiced sounds– 9: [l], [l’], [m], [m’], [n], [n’], [r], [r’], [th’].
Always solid consonants:[g], [w], [c].
Always soft consonants:[h '], [u '], [th '].
Unpaired voiced sounds[l], [l’], [m], [m’], [n], [n’], [p], [p’] are called sonorants, which means “sonorous” in Latin.

2. Phrase. Ways of communication in a phrase

phrase- this is a combination of two or more significant words, related in meaning and grammatically, serving for the dismembered designation of a single concept (object, quality, action, etc.).

In a subordinating phrase, one word is the main one, and the other is dependent (you can ask a question to it from the main word). There are three types of connections between words in a phrase:

· Coordination- a type of connection in which the dependent word is consistent with the main word in gender, number, case. main word

always a noun; The subordinate clause can be: an adjective, a participle or a pronoun. Examples: beautiful hat, about an interesting story, under the same name.

· Control- a type of subordinating connection, where the dependent word is in the form of the main in the form of an indirect case.

· adjoining- a type of connection in which the dependence of a word is expressed lexically, by word order and intonation, without

the use of function words or morphological changes. It is formed by adverbs, infinitives and adverbs, as well as possessive pronouns of the 3rd person, a simple form of the comparative degree of an adjective or adverb. Examples: sing beautifully, lie still, very tired, walked slowly, an older boy.

Ticket number 2

1. Noun

Noun (noun) - a significant (independent) part of speech, belonging to the category of a name and a class of full-valued lexemes, can appear in a sentence in the functions of the subject, object and nominal part of the predicate. In Russian - an independent part of speech, denoting an object and answering a question "who what?". One of the main lexical categories; in sentences, the noun, as a rule, acts as a subject or object, as well as a circumstance and a predicate.

Permanent signs of a noun

• Common noun (common noun or proper name)
• Animation
• Discharge (concrete, real, abstract, collective)
• declination

Common noun and proper name

Common nouns serve as a common name for a class of single objects: article, house, a computer etc.

The transition of common nouns to proper names is accompanied by the loss of a linguistic concept by the name (for example, "Gum" from "gum" - "right"). N. and. there are specific (table), non-specific or complex conceptual (love), real, or material (sugar), and collective (students).

Proper nouns serve as the name of a specific object distinguished from the class of homogeneous: Ivan, America, Everest.

Grammar

The noun has a number of which is different in different languages. These:

gender (masculine, feminine, neuter, there are also nouns of common and mutual genders);

case (nominative, genitive, dative, accusative, instrumental, prepositional);

number (singular, plural);

· Animation.

All nouns have one of 3 declensions:

Nouns of the 1st declension - masculine and feminine nouns ending in the nominative singular -and I, For example, dad, mom, family.

Nouns 2 declensions - masculine and neuter nouns ending in the nominative singular: zero ending for masculine and zero or -o, -e for the neuter gender, for example, window, dove, table.

Nouns 3 declensions - feminine nouns in the nominative singular zero ending, for example mouse, shawl, lie.

Another grammatical feature of a noun is animation/inanimateness. In Russian words dead man, dead man, doll, tumbler, matryoshka and some others are animate. Moreover, the word dead body belongs to the category of the inanimate. There are also occasional animate nouns. For example: There were no crayfish in the river, but He ate crabs.

2. Distinctive features of a simple sentence. Offer types

Offer types

Simple sentence is a syntactic unit formed by one syntactic

connection between subject and predicate or one main member.

Two-part sentence is a simple sentence with subject and predicate as

necessary components: They laughed. He was smart. Cloud - black, heavy outlines.

One-part sentence is a simple sentence with only one main

member (with or without dependent words). One-part proposals are:

A sentence does not always express a thought, it can express a question, an impulse, a will, an emotion. Accordingly, the proposals are of the following types:

· narrative (declarative) a sentence communicates some fact, action or event

· Interrogative sentence prompts the interlocutor to answer the speaker's question.

· Incentive the sentence contains the will of the speaker, expressing an order, request or prayer. Incentive sentences are distinguished by: motivating intonation, a predicate in the form of an imperative mood, the presence of particles that introduce a motivating connotation into the sentence (come on, let it).

· exclamatory the sentence expresses the emotions of the speaker, which is conveyed by a special exclamatory intonation. Exclamatory sentences can be declarative, interrogative, and imperative sentences.

If a sentence contains only a subject and a predicate, then it is called uncommon, otherwise - widespread.

The offer is considered simple, if it contains one predicative unit, if more - difficult.

If a sentence contains both a subject and a predicate, then it is called two-part, otherwise - one-piece.

One-part sentences are divided into the following types:

· Definitely personal sentence - a simple one-part sentence without a subject with a verb-predicate, which, with its personal endings, indicates that the action named by it is performed by a certain, 1st or 2nd, person: I am going home. Get dressed!

· indefinite-personal sentence - a simple one-part sentence without a subject, when the action is performed by an indefinite person: I was called to the director.

· generalized-personal sentence - a simple one-part sentence without a subject with a verb-predicate, where anyone can be the subject of the action: You can't even pull a fish out of a pond without difficulty.

· Impersonal sentence - a simple one-part sentence with a predicate that names such an action or state, which is presented without the participation of the grammatical subject of the action: It was getting dark. It was already light. I want to drink. It was as if he suddenly twitched. Under the thick foliage, there was a smell of grass and forest.

· infinitive a sentence is a simple one-part sentence in which the predicate is expressed by an infinitive (a verb in an indefinite form). In such sentences, the subject cannot be expressed by any word without changing the form of the predicate: Be silent! You already have to go. Just to be on time!

· nominative sentence - a simple one-part sentence in which the subject is expressed by a noun in the nominative case and there is no predicate (the predicate is expressed by the verb "to be" in zero form): Summer morning. There is silence in the air.

Ticket number 3

1. Types of morphemes. Sound alternation.

Morpheme(from the Greek morphe - form) is the smallest, further indivisible part of a word that has a meaning. By the nature of the expressed meaning and by the function in the word, morphemes are divided into root and auxiliary.

According to the role in the word, morphemes are divided into:

· root

· service (affixal).

Root morphemes- these are the roots of words, make up the lexical base of the word. Ideally, a mandatory part of the word.

Service morphemes, or affixes- form the word as a lexical and grammatical unit in the system of parts of speech. These are optional parts of the word. These include:

· prefix (prefix) - a significant part of the word, standing before its root and complementing or changing the meaning

the words. Prefixes of the Russian language are divided into three groups. Prefixes of the first group are always written the same way, regardless of pronunciation. These are attachments: in- (in-) (vzo-), you-, before-, for- (iso-), ko-, on-, over- (must-), ​​not- (under-), o-, about- ( obo-), from-(oto-), pa-, po-, sub-(podo-), pr-, pre-(pre-), pro-, dis-, s-(co-), su-, u-. Prefixes of the second group - all prefixes ending in З and С: without-(bes-), vz-(sun-), voz-(sun-), from-(is-), bottom-(nis-), times-(ras-), ros-(ros-), through - (through-). Prefixes belonging to the third group: pre- and pre-. In total, there are 70 prefixes in Russian.)

· suffix - a significant part of the word, which is located after the root and serves to form new words or forms

the same word: water - water, oven - stove-maker; new - newest, run - ran, strong - strong-her, expensive - dear, humbly - humble-eysh-e, lying-l-a - lying, pass-l-a - pass-ti

The suffix is ​​not a required element of the word. A word can have one or more suffixes: easy-o, chit-a-tel, image-ova-nn-ost.

· interfix (connective vowel) - connecting derivational morpheme, which stands out in

composition of compound words. The most common are interfixes. -O-, -E-: steam-o-cart, birds-e-ed, lower-e-signed, little-o-educated, above-e-named.

· the ending - service morpheme expressing grammatical (sometimes derivational) meaning and

performing a derivational function. The termination can be materially expressed or zero. Example: chair-bedØ - chair-beds, fiftyØ - fifty

· postfix - service morpheme, standing after the end and expressing derivational or

grammatical meaning. The name is a derivational meaning, the postfix is ​​part of the stem of the word. In Russian, the verbal postfix is ​​distinguished -СЯ (-СЫ) in reflexive verbs and verb forms: washing, washing, washing.

According to the role in the formation and functioning of the word, morphemes are distinguished:

· derivational

· shaping.

Word-forming morphemes change the lexical meaning of the word and serve to form new words:

cheerfulness, cheerfulness.

There are different ways of forming words that study word formation.

Formative morphemes serve to form forms of the same word without changing its lexical meaning: brisk - brisk - brisk - th, speak - speaking-box-th - speak-vsh-th.

There are several ways to form word forms.

Alternation of sounds in Russian

alternation called the regular replacement of one sound by another in the stems of related words or in the stems of forms of the same word, for example: slu X– slu w at ( X alternates with w ); sbr about sit - sbr a piss ( about alternates with a );in h it - in well at (h alternates with well ).

Not only sounds, but also sound combinations can alternate: szh a t-szh them at ( a alternates with them ). Sound can alternate with zero sound: with about n-sleep, cous about k, - piece-a ( about alternates with zero, sound).

In word forms goat, goat, goat, goats, in words goats, goat, Capricorn the root is the same. But we pronounce that [h] (goat, goats) then [h "] (goat, capricorn) then [with] (goats), then [з°] (goat) or [z "°] (goat). The first vowel is also not the same: [o] (goats, goats),[a 0 ] (goat, goat, goat)[a] (Capricorn). Ns is the same and the first consonant: before [a 0], [e] is [k] (goat, capricorn) and before [o] it is [to 0] (goats, goats). Such a change of sounds that occupy the same place in the same morpheme, but in different words or different word forms, is called the alternation of m. Replacing [h] with [s] (or vice versa) in words ko[for, ko[sa, we will not get alternation: the roots are different here. In the word rein can be pronounced [zh "] and [zh]. Variants of the word tunnel and tunnel differ in sounds [a 0] and [y], but this is not an alternation, but a variation of sounds in the same word form.

Alternations can be positional and non-positional. II positional alternations are associated with certain positions, are caused by them. Phonetic position alternations (i.e., the conditions for the appearance of a particular sound) are phonetic - the beginning and end of a word or syllable, the proximity of other sounds, the position in a stressed or unstressed syllable: girlfriend]a - friend[ to], [games - with [gran, knit [zat - ties] [ska, and [a] p - n[b*ry - n[e]rova. Morphological alternations have morphological positions - the position before a certain morpheme (suffix or ending), the word belongs to one or another morphological class: re [ka - re [h] noah(before the suffix -"-), lu6"]go- l / o [bl "] / 6 (before the end of the 1st person singular), ty [ho - ty [sh](for noun III cl.).

Positional alternations may not know exceptions in a given language system. Such alternations are called positionally determined and: for example, the phonetic alternation of a noisy voiced consonant with a deaf one at the end of a word (gla [s] a - gla c]) or before a deaf noisy (gla [z] a - gla [s] ki) morphological alternation [г||Ж] before adjective suffix -//- (friend [g] a - friend [f] ny), before the verb suffix -i- (friend [g] a - friend [f] yt) or before verb endings II conjugation (friend [g] a - friend [f] y, friend[f]ish etc.).

Positional alternations that know exceptions are called positionally attached. For example, the phonetic alternation of a hard dental consonant with a soft in position

in front of a soft tooth (bridge - bridge) ns necessarily at the junction of the prefix and the root (ra [c)] hack and ra[s] hew), at the beginning of a word ([with "tena and rarely [with ]tena), after a hard consonant ( sher [s" t and gier [s] t); morphological alternation [o||a] before the verbal suffix - yva-/-willow- (split off - breaks off, goes out - takes care, demolishes - wears out, catches - catches etc.) knows exceptions: tramples - tramples and i/l/- tramples, clapping - clapping and etc.

In addition to positional, there are also such alternations that have neither phonetic nor morphological conditionality: friend [g] a - friend [h "] I, sve [ t] - light "]at, dry up] - zas[s] hat - zas[u] sew. These are non-positional alternations that are associated only with specific words.

Phonetic positionally determined alternation is the alternation of sounds belonging to the same phoneme. A phonetic positionally attached alternation can be an alternation of sounds belonging to the same phoneme and an alternation of phonemes. So, if deviations from positional alternation are fixed in individual words, lexicalized and obligatory for speakers, then such alternations are alternations of phonemes. For example, alternation [n "|| n] in front of a hard dental (ko [n"] - kb[n]ny, Kaza[ n"] - Kazakh [n> Spaniard [n "]ets - Spaniards [tsy) knows the exception: june[ and"] - ju [n "] sky. Therefore, this alternation of sounds is an alternation of phonemes / n "|| n /. If deviations from positional alternation are optional, optional, then such positionally alternating sounds are considered as representatives of one phoneme. For example, alternating stressed [a] with unstressed [and e] after a soft consonant (p ["a] ty - p [and e] so, p [g h] d - p [i e] dy) represent the phoneme /a/, despite the fact that in words like speculative, assimilative in the pre-stressed syllable, along with [and e] there is a pronunciation ["a].

Morphological and non-positional alternations of phonemes are called historical alternations.

Phonetic positional alternations can be of two types: a) alternations that form parallel rows that do not have common members; b) alternations forming intersecting rows having common members.

Here is a schematic representation of these two types of alternation in positions R 1 and R/.

For example, the phonemes /r/, /l/ form parallel rows of sounds alternating in different positions:

The phoneme /р/ is represented by a number of positionally alternating sounds [р||р°||р]. The phoneme /l/ is represented by the series [l||l°||l]. Wherein

in each position /r/ and /l/ are represented by different sounds, these phonemes differ in all positions.

Phonemes /b/, /p/ form intersecting rows of alternating sounds:

The coincidence of two or more phonemes in a certain position is called neutralization. In the position of neutralization, these phonemes are realized by the same sound. Thus, the phonemes /b/, /p/, being realized by different sounds, differ before vowels and are neutralized at the end of the word, where they are realized by the same sound.

Positionally conditioned sounds are combined into one phoneme. M. V. Panov gives an example of positional alternation of sounds in accordance with the preposition with before nouns:

The last alternation is easy to check: it is pronounced the same turned out to be Shchukar and ended up with Shchukar. This is explained by the fact that before [nG] the sound [s] should be replaced by [w "]; a consonant of triple length [w "nGnG] would be obtained, since [IG] \u003d [w "w"]. Such sounds are impossible in Russian: in place of [sch "uGtsG] [sh" sh ") is pronounced.

The phoneme /s/ is realized by the following series of positionally alternating sounds: [s | c° || s" || s || s" || sh || w || w"|w"|| -]. Consequently, a phoneme can be represented by sounds that are completely different from each other (for example, [с°] and [g "]), including zero sound.

• Cm.: Panov M.V. Modern Russian language. Phonetics. M., 1979.

Position is the position of the sound in the word. This is a condition for pronouncing a particular sound.

In Russian speech in different positions one sound is replaced by another.

The regular change of sounds within the same morpheme, caused by positional conditions, is called positional alternation: [m / dew], [m / roses].

We will consider the positional alternations of consonant sounds according to the main 2 features: voiced-deafness, hardness-softness.

1. Change of consonants on the basis of sonority-deafness.

A voiced consonant changes to a voiceless one in the following cases:

a) at the absolute end of the word: friend [k], oak [p];

b) before deaf consonants: low cue [s]

A deaf consonant changes to a voiced one before a voiced one: a request [pro / z "bb], from the mountain [zg / ry].

2. Change of consonants on the basis of hardness-softness.

This exchange primarily occurs on the basis of softness.

The change of a hard sound to a soft one is observed primarily within words and usually occurs in the position of a dental consonant before a soft dental one:

make [z "d" e / lt "], guest [go / s" t "], forge [ku / z" n "b]

The sound [l] is not subject to this pattern: to gain weight [n / ln "et"]

3. Change of whistling sounds [h] [s] before hissing to hissing squeeze [at "], stitch [yt "].

The likening of one sound to another in relation to the conditions for its formation is called assimilation.

4. The system of consonant sounds of the Russian language is also characterized by the phenomenon of simplification of groups of consonants.

Such a phenomenon is observed in combinations of stn, zdn, lnts, rdts, ntsk, stl, vstv: local [m "e / dreams], late, sun, heart, giant, envious, feeling, then unpronounceable consonants.

They depend on the following factors:

1. from the place of stress of words;

2. From the position of the consonant in relation to the stressed syllable;

3. From the hardness-softness of neighboring consonants.

1. Positional change of vowels under stress.

A solid consonant before vowels does not affect it in any way: the vowel is pronounced the same way as after a pause (the beginning of a word).

Compare: sleep - he; noise is mind.

A hard consonant after a vowel also does not affect: gift - yes.

Thus, for vowel phonemes<а, о, э, у>under stress at the beginning of a word and after solid consonants a strong position. Hard consonants do not affect the realization of these phonemes. The exception is<и>.

Strong position:

a) after a pause (the beginning of a word);

b) after soft consonants: silt - drank.

And after hard consonants<и>implemented in<ы>: game - [sy] play.

Soft consonants, on the contrary, affect the implementation of phonemes<а, о, э, у>.

In resemblance to soft consonants, each of these phonemes is realized by a more closed and more forward vowel. The tongue rises to the top. In this case, articulation (from Latin articulatio - to articulate, the work of the organs of speech, aimed at producing sounds) changes.

for example:

[spat"] - articulation at the end of the sound [a] is shifted forward and up;

[sp "at] - articulation at the beginning of the sound. The soft consonant most strongly affects the initial part of the vowel;

[s "p" a / "and] - sleeping. This is how soft consonants affect [. a.] covered by the entire process of articulation.

[n / sa / tk] - [s "a / du]

[pa / sa / d "im] - [s" a / d "bm]

[a]:[a], ["a", [a"], ["a"]

A parallel type of phonemic series, its members are variations. Members of this series can never coincide with members of another phonemic series.

Such a process is called accommodation (from Latin accomdatio - adaptation). Those. - this is an adaptation of the organs of speech for pronouncing a vowel sound in the vicinity of a soft consonant. So the vowels [a, o, y, e] after soft consonants become more front, and higher by ear.

In transcription, the phenomenon of accommodation is denoted by Y [and] - accommodation can not be denoted, since it is always in the upper rise.

2. Positional change of vowels in unstressed position.

In an unstressed position, vowels undergo reduction (from Latin reductio - bring back, return; reduce, reduce). Reduction- this is a weakening of the articulation of sound and a change in its sound (reduction of sound in strength and duration).

The reduction concerns mainly vowel sounds in an unstressed position.

The stressed position is always strong and the vowel sounds do not change.

In weak positions, high vowels [and] [s] [y] undergo only quantitative reduction, i.e. the time of their pronunciation is somewhat reduced, but the quality does not change: let's compare smoke - smoke - smoke [smoke / smoke].

Vowels [a] [o] [e] are subjected not only to quantitative, but also to qualitative reduction.

The main positional changes of unstressed vowels can be presented in the table:

At the absolute beginning of a word, the position of the vowel sound is equated to position I of the prestressed syllable.

herbs grass herbal

[tra / you] [tr / va] [tr / in "and e / but]

<а>: [a] - - [b]

water water water

[water] [in yes /] [in / d "and / but]

<о>: [o] - - [b]

These are intersecting types of the phonemic series, since some of their sounds coincide. The members of these series are options.

six six by six

[shesh "t"] [shy e / one hundred] [on / sh's "t"]

<э>: [e] [s e] [b]

chalk chalk chalk

[mel] [m "and e / lok] [m "b / l / in]

<э>: [e] [u e] [b]

Historical alternations of sounds.

In addition to positional alternation, historical alternations (non-positional, morphological) are observed in the Russian language.

The main difference from positional alternations is that they are not determined by the position in the word: but ha - foot

but sit - bears

vowel position is the same: stressed

Historical alternations arose in the process of language development.

1. Sleep - sleep O / / in the XI - XII centuries, the fall of reduction

day - day E / / sun - day - day - day?

2. o//a asks - begs

ber//beer take - choose

erased / / erase erase - I erase

3. b / / bl (love - love)

v//vl (catch - catch)

f//fl (graph - graph)

4. g//f leg - leg

k//h hand - pen

5. st / / d lead - lead

st//t revenge - meta

6. d / / f walk - I walk

Why do words alternate sounds? This happens during the formation of grammatical forms of the word. That is, sounds in the same morpheme, for example, in a root, can replace each other. This substitution is called alternation. We note right away that we are talking about phonetic processes, and not about spelling words.

In certain cases, not only vowels alternate, but also consonants. Most often, alternation is found in roots, suffixes and prefixes.

Moss - moss, carry - carry, cool - cooler, friend - friends - make friends - at the root of the word;

circle - mug, daughter - daughters, winter - winter, valuable - valuable - in suffixes;

wait - wait, call - convene, rub - votru - in prefixes.

There are two types of alternations: historical (they cannot be explained, they arose a long time ago and are associated with the loss of vowels [b], [b] (sn - sleep, flatter - flatter) or with an inexplicable identity of consonant sounds (run - run) and phonetic ( positional in a different way, since they depend on the position of the sound in the word [nΛga - nok], they can be explained from the point of view of the modern Russian language, for example, the alternation [g / / k] arose because the consonant sound is preserved before the vowel, and in at the end of the word, the sound is deafened, changing its sound quality).

Historical alternations

Vowel sounds
	moss - moss root - roots tan - tan freeze - freeze breathe - breath carry - carry understand - understand - understand sound - call
Consonants
[p//pl; m//ml; b//bl; v//vl] [sk//st//u]	buy - buy, earthly - land wear - wear to drive - drive dry - land leads - lead father - fatherland shine - glisten - shine light - candle - lighting fence - fence - fence call - cry - exclamation

Phonetic (positional) alternations

Vowel sounds
[o//and e //b] [a// and e //b] [e// and e //b]	in [about] bottom - in [Λ ]yes - in [b] diana tr [a] wka - tr [Λ] wa-tr [b]weedy n [about] s - n [and uh ] set - n [b] Suna P [a] t - p [and uh ] type [b]tenth with [e] m - with [and uh ] mi - with [b] tenth
vowels
voiced - deaf hard - soft	but [f] and - but [w] mo[ l]- mo [l']b

Historical alternations are revealed during word formation and form change.

Phonetic (positional) can be determined by the reduction of vowels and the assimilation of consonants.

Many fluent vowels when changing monosyllabic and two-syllable nouns according to cases [o, uh, and / / -]:

mouth - mouth, ice - ice, stump - stump;

fire - fire, knot - knot, wind - wind, lesson - lesson, nail - nail, beehive - beehive;

bucket - buckets, window - windows, needle - needles, egg - eggs.

There are fluent vowels in short adjectives:

short - short, bitter - bitter, funny - funny, long - long, cunning - cunning.

In the roots of multispecific verbs, alternations of vowels and consonants also occur:

touch - touch, inspect - inspect, collect - collect, send - send, ignite - ignite, understand - understand, compress - compress.

It is important to know the alternation of sounds in order to correctly apply spelling rules when there are difficulties with writing letters in different parts of speech. If you do not recognize the alternation, you can make a mistake in morphemic analysis, when you highlight parts of a word.

Sound alternation- this is a natural difference in sounds in variants of this and the same morpheme.

Stressed vowel alternation. Soft consonants cause the articulation of the vowel to shift forward and upward. In transcription, this shift of the initial and final phase of the vowel is indicated by dots above the letter: /h¢ as/, /ma ¢t/.

Between soft consonants, there is a forward and upward shift in the central part of the vowel: /h ast/ and /h as/, /mel/ and /m el/ - the vowel - E of the front row moves (forward) up. /pike/ and /pike/.

We see that the alternation of stressed vowels after soft and before soft consonants occurs in their significatively strong position, but different perceptually.

Solid consonants before and after /А,О,Э,У/ do not affect the vowel in any way: /jaguar, gift, yes/ - the same sound is everywhere /A/ - the environment does not affect the sound - this is a perceptually strong position for /А,О,Э,У/ and weak for /I/; position after soft.

In a weak position, sounds, adjacent to the consonant, adapt the vowel to their articulation. This can be heard by ear. In the word mass is pronounced /A/, the position here is strong. In the word meat, it is pronounced /A/ - the sound is extraordinary throughout its sound - it is more advanced. In the word /Ira/ it is pronounced /I/ - this is the main variant of the phoneme /I/, the quality of the sound is not determined by the position. In the word /cheese/ - it is pronounced /Y/, and then it is pronounced /I/: /sy-i-i-ra/.

Thus, in a perceptually weak position, /A/ is the result of the adaptation of /A/ to the preceding soft consonant, and in the same way /Y/ is the result of the adaptation of /I/ to the preceding hard.

Alternation of unstressed vowels. Unstressed vowels differ quantitatively and qualitatively from stressed vowels: they are shorter than stressed ones and are pronounced with less force and different timbre. In connection with this distinction, stressed vowels are called full vowels, unstressed - reduced vowels.

There is also a difference between unstressed vowels, which is due to their place in relation to stress and position in the syllable.

Potebnya proposed a formula conditionally estimating the strength of stressed and unstressed syllables in units of 3,2,1. Stroke 3, 1st pre-strike - 2, others - 1. / b ispLradak / - a mess, / per and pdgLtofk /.

The strength of an unstressed vowel depends on the following conditions: 1. an uncovered syllable is equal to the 1st pre-stressed one: attack /LtkLvat/, stork/stork/.

The strength of the stressed final open syllable fluctuates between 1 and 2 units: cap / capL / \ reduced vowels of the 1st degree (in 2 units of stress) and the vowel of the 2nd degree, (in 1 unit) - b and L.

The qualitative differences between stressed and unstressed vowels are due to the fact that unstressed vowels are articulated less energetically than stressed ones. The body of the tongue occupies a position close to neutral. Unstressed /И/ /Ы/ - high vowels: the tongue does not reach the upper position: /vitrine/, /cheese/.

When pronouncing the vowel A in the 1st prestressed syllable, the tongue does not reach the lowest position, its more accurate image is L: /trLva/, in the 2nd prestressed syllable, the sound A corresponds to /b/ - the tongue occupies the middle position: /npLdat/ .