Cognition. I

After the death in 1725 of Peter I, the reigning the house broke up into two lines - imperial and royal.

According to the figurative expression of V.O. Klyuchevsky, the period from the death of Peter I to the accession of Catherine II was called the “epoch of palace coups”: during this time, six monarchs occupied the Russian throne, receiving it as a result of complex palace intrigues or coups with the direct participation of the guard (a privileged part of the army created by Peter I) .

In 1722, Peter I abolished the order of succession to the throne by will or conciliar appointment, replacing it with a personal appointment. But he did not have time to appoint a successor. After his death, representatives of the clan nobility (Golitsyn, Dolgoruky), who recognized Prince Peter as the heir, clashed with the bureaucratic authorities, who staked on Catherine I, and won this fight with the help of the guards regiments. Since that time, the noble guards regiments have become the main weapon of struggle between rival factions. All persons who came to the throne through a palace coup could not do without relying on the guards.

Under these conditions, there could be no question of continuing major reforms. AD Menshikov became the de facto ruler of the country. To help the empress in governing the country, the Supreme Privy Council was created - the highest state body, the composition of which reflected the compromise that had taken place between rival political forces. It included A. D. Menshikov, F. M. Apraksin, G. I. Golovkin, P. A. Tolstoy, A. I. Osterman, D. M. Golitsyn and Holstein Duke Karl Friedrich - the husband of Peter's eldest daughter. Most turned out to be from the inner circle of Peter I.

After the death of Catherine I in 1727, according to her will, the grandson of Peter I, Peter II, was proclaimed emperor, and the functions of regent were transferred to the Supreme Privy Council, in fact, to A.D. Menshikov.

Menshikov's policy caused discontent even among his recent allies. In September 1727 he was arrested and exiled to distant Berezov, where he soon died. Having achieved the predominant influence in the Supreme Privy Council, the aristocratic group seeks to revise the transformations and, if possible, restore the order that existed in Russia before they were carried out.

In January 1730, the young emperor caught a cold during another hunt and died suddenly. During the discussion of possible candidates for the throne, the choice fell on the Duchess of Courland Anna Ioannovna, the daughter of Peter I's brother, Ivan Alekseevich. In deep secrecy, the conditions were drawn up, i.e. conditions for Anna Ioannovna's accession to the throne. Prince Golitsyn suggested: “We ought to relieve ourselves ... in order to add willpower. We should send items to Her Majesty.”

Conditions limited the autocracy, but not in the interests of the entire nobility, but in favor of its aristocratic elite of eight people, who sat in the Supreme Privy Council. According to the conditions, the right to conclude peace, establish new taxes, promote promotion, command the army, choose a successor to the sovereign, and much more passed into the hands of the Supreme Privy Council. As S.M. Solovyov: “All guarantees for eight, but against eight for the rest - where are the guarantees?”

These plans did not find support either among the nobles or the guards. Taking advantage of this, Anna Ioannovna proclaimed herself an autocratic empress, abolished the Supreme Privy Council, and sent its most active members to Siberia.

In the reign of Anna Ioannovna, the influence of foreigners reached unprecedented proportions. The tone at court was set by the favorite of the Empress, the Duke of Courland Biron, who enjoyed her boundless confidence. He occupied a dominant position in the court. During the years of the Bironovshchina, foreigners were promoted to lucrative positions, which caused protest from the Russian nobility.

The Secret Chancellery (the successor to the Preobrazhensky Prikaz) became the symbol of Anna Ioannovna's reign, monitoring the trustworthiness of Russian subjects and literally inundated with political denunciations. No one could consider himself safe from "word and deed" (an exclamation that usually began the procedure of denunciation and investigation)
Shortly before her death, the empress appointed her successor - Ivan VI - the grandson of Catherine Ivanovna (daughter of Ivan V), and not his mother, but Biron, was appointed regent of the child. In the conditions of general dissatisfaction with Biron, Field Marshal Munnich easily managed to carry out another palace coup, which in November 1740 deprived Biron of the rights of regent. Ivan's mother was proclaimed regent

The coup could not satisfy the interests of broad circles of the Russian nobility, since it still retained the leading position in the state for the Germans. Taking advantage of the weakness of the government and her popularity, Elizabeth, the daughter of Peter I, dressed in a man's dress, appeared in the barracks of the Preobrazhensky Regiment with the words: "Guys, you know whose daughter I am, follow me. Do you swear to die for me?" - the future empress asked and, having received an affirmative answer, she led them to the Winter Palace. So during the next coup, committed on November 25, 1741 in favor of the daughter of Peter I Elizabeth, representatives of the Brunswick family who were on the Russian throne were arrested. The participants in the coup received generous rewards, those of them who did not have a noble rank were elevated to the nobility.

Empress Elizaveta Petrovna reigned for twenty years from 1741 to 1761. The most legitimate of all the successors of Peter I, raised to the throne with the help of the guards, she, as V.O. Klyuchevsky, "inherited the energy of her father, built palaces in twenty-four hours and traveled from Moscow to St. Petersburg in two days, peaceful and carefree, she took Berlin and defeated the first strategist of that time, Frederick the Great ... her courtyard turned into a theater foyer - everyone was talking about the French comedy, the Italian opera, but the doors would not close, the windows were blowing, the water flowed along the walls - such a “gilded poverty”.
The core of her policy was the expansion and strengthening of the rights and privileges of the nobility. The landowners now had the right to exile recalcitrant peasants to Siberia and dispose of not only land, but also the person and property of serfs. Under Elizabeth Petrovna, the Senate, the Chief Magistrate, and the Collegia were restored in their rights. In 1755 Moscow University was opened - the first in Russia.

An indicator of the increased influence of Russia on international life was its active participation in the all-European conflict of the second half of the 18th century. - in the Seven Years' War 1756 - 1763.

Russia entered the war in 1757. In the very first battle near the village of Gross-Egersdorf on August 19, 1757, Russian troops inflicted a serious defeat on the Prussian troops. At the beginning of 1758, Russian troops captured Koenigsberg. The population of East Prussia swore allegiance to the Empress of Russia - Elizabeth.

The culmination of the military campaign of 1760 was the capture of Berlin on September 28 by the Russian army under the command of Chernyshov. Frederick II was on the verge of death, but he was saved by a sharp turn in Russia's foreign policy, caused by the accession to the throne of Peter III, who immediately broke the military alliance with Austria, stopped military operations against Prussia, and even offered Frederick military assistance.

Peter III was on the Russian throne for a short time from 1761 to 1762. The nephew of Elizabeth Petrovna was unable to lead the state. A special censure of Russian society was caused by his admiration for Frederick II, the presence in many of his actions in the expression of his contemporaries of "shakiness and whim." The disorder of the state mechanism was obvious to everyone, which led to a new palace coup. His wife Catherine II, relying on the support of the Izmailovsky and Semenovsky Guards regiments, proclaimed herself Empress in June 1762. The Senate and the Synod swore allegiance to her. An attempt by Peter III to enter into negotiations did not lead to anything, and he was forced to personally sign the act of "spontaneous" oath abdication sent by Catherine.

Thus ended the era of "palace coups".

rental block

Peter I did not have time to appoint a successor. Part of the nobility, who dreamed of returning the old order, wanted to put on the throne the young Peter, the son of the executed for participating in a conspiracy against the father of Tsarevich Alexei Petrovich. The nobles who advanced under Peter I advocated the transfer of the crown to Catherine, the widow of the emperor. The dispute over the successor was decided by the Guards regiments. The strengthening of the role of the guard in state affairs, as well as the decree of Peter I (1724), according to which the ruling monarch himself appointed his heir, caused frequent coups. The time from 1725 to 1762, the historian V. O. Klyuchevsky called the era of palace coups. The supreme body of power under Catherine I was the Supreme Privy Council, which essentially subjugated the senate, synod, colleges, it had the right to legislate. Any decree was considered valid if it had a cross of the Empress or the signatures of all members of the Supreme Privy Council. The grandson of Peter Pyotr Alekseevich, as well as the daughter of Peter I from Catherine Elizaveta Petrovna, remained the heirs to the throne. It would seem that Menshikov had to bet on Elizabeth here, but he, unexpectedly for everyone, proposes Peter Alekseevich to the throne. The fact is that Menshikov has a plan to marry Peter Alekseevich to his daughter Maria (she was 16 years old at that time). So, Peter II Alekseevich becomes the second ruler after Peter. Peter II was only 12 years old after accession to the throne, after the coronation Menshikov settled him in his house and completely controlled all his actions, everything went to the wedding, but suddenly Menshikov fell ill, Menshikov's enemies Osterman and the princes Dolgoruky took advantage of this, they restored Peter against him , and Menshikov soon lost all his posts and was exiled to the village of Berezov. The Supreme Privy Council became the collective regent of the young tsar; after the fall of Menshikov, the majority of it was occupied by representatives of the old nobility (except Osterman) - the Golitsyns and Dolgorukies. Ekaterina Alekseevna Dolgorukova (1712-1747) - princess, daughter of Prince Alexei Grigoryevich Dolgorukov, bride of Emperor Peter II, failed empress of Russia. Peter II himself did not live long - sprees and illnesses brought him to the grave. After the death of Peter II, the direct male line of descendants of Peter the Great was cut short, the members of the Supreme Privy Council began to decide who should take the Russian throne. Their eyes fell on the daughter of co-ruler Peter I Anna Ioannovna - who at that time was the Duchess of Courland. The Supreme Privy Council tried to limit the power of the empress, forcing her to sign the conditions (“conditions”) for accession to the throne, they were as follows: Anna pledged not to marry; Without the permission of the Supreme Council, Anna had no right to either declare war or issue new taxes.

Having initially signed these conditions (otherwise she would not have seen the throne as her own ears), Anna, realizing that the guards did not like the idea of ​​the Verkhovnikovs, tore them up, and soon the Supreme Privy Council was destroyed.

The Cabinet of Ministers became the new body of power. Anna's right hand was her favorite Ernst Johann Biron. Anna Ioannovna had a bad temper, was cruel and vengeful. The time of her reign is the time of the dominance of foreigners on the Russian throne, revelry and senseless spending, the symbol of which was the ice palace built on the orders of Anna. . On November 25, 1741, the noble guards arrested the little emperor and his mother, and the daughter of Peter I, Elizabeth, ascended the throne.

Under her rule, for the first time in the history of Russia, the death penalty was abolished, the authorities created by Peter I were revived, the Senate was proclaimed the highest body of the state, the Cabinet of Ministers was abolished. In 1756, a Conference was created at the royal court, and the collegiums, which had previously been abolished, were restored. However, the result of Elizabeth’s reign was depressing, the historian Platonov wrote: “Peter the Great knew how to unite his employees, personally led them, but Elizabeth could not do this: she was least of all fit to be a leader and unifier ... There was no unifier among her assistants. Elizaveta Petrovna appointed her nephew, Duke of Holstein Karl Peter Ulrich, as her successor. Peter III (1761 - 1762) - under this emperor, an imperial council was created, a decree “On the freedom of the nobles” was issued - in accordance with this document, a Russian nobleman could not serve the great sovereign for a year, a month, or a day.

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From the second quarter of the XVIII century. (since 1725 - from the death of Peter I) an era began in Russia, called palace coups.

This period was characterized by: 1) a fierce struggle between different political forces in the country;

2) the guards played a big role in the palace coups. During this period, it was almost the decisive political force in the country;

3) the development of favoritism.

The reign of Catherine I and Peter II

Peter died after a long illness on January 28, 1725. After his death, persons from his inner circle elevated the wife of Peter the Great, Catherine I, to the Russian throne. A.D. Menshikov, who actually ruled the country. In 1727, Catherine I died, her successor was the 12-year-old Tsarevich Peter, the son of the deceased Tsarevich Alexei.

The reign of Anna Ioannovna (1730–1740).

Bironovshchina

Soon, in 1730, Peter II suddenly died of smallpox. By decision of the Supreme Privy Council, the Duchess of Courland Anna Ioannovna was elevated to the Russian throne. Inviting Anna Ioannovna to the Russian throne, D.M. Golitsyn and V.L. Dolgoruky made special conditions, conditions, on the basis of which Anna was to govern the country.

According to the conditions: 1) Anna was to govern the country together with the Supreme Privy Council; 2) not to issue laws; 3) not dispose of the treasury;

4) not to marry; 5) do not appoint an heir, etc. But 2 weeks after arriving in Moscow, Anna Ioannovna broke the conditions and announced the restoration of autocracy, then abolished the Privy Council. The Duke of Courland E. Biron played a large role in the empress's entourage. He actually managed the affairs of the state. Therefore, the reign of Anna Ioannovna is often called Bironovshchina. Bironovshchina became the personification of the dominance of foreigners in governing the country. This situation caused discontent in the circles of the Russian nobility. The reign of Elizabeth Petrovna (1741-1761) In 1740, Anna Ioannovna died. During the next palace coup, the daughter of Peter I, Elizaveta Petrovna, was elevated to the Russian throne (thanks to the help of the guards). During the years of her reign, Russia returned to the policy of Peter I. The role of the Senate was restored, the rights of the nobles were expanded, and the merchant class received new privileges. Under Elizabeth, a university was opened in Moscow (1755).

Almost the entire period of the reign of Elizabeth Petrovna was peaceful, the country did not wage wars.

The reign of Peter III

Elizaveta Petrovna died in 1761. Peter III, the grandson of Peter I, became the new emperor of Russia. Researchers have an ambiguous assessment of the personality and politics of Peter III. Peter III issued decrees that continued the line of his predecessors. For example, a Decree was published (1762), which exempted the nobles from compulsory state and military service, thus turning the nobility from a service class into a privileged class. The Secret Chancellery was liquidated, etc.

At the same time, the actions of Peter III were distinguished by unscrupulousness and randomness.

He was rude to family and loved ones, spent a lot of time in revelry. In the Seven Years' War (1756–1763), the Prussian army suffered defeat and was almost doomed. But in 1761, Peter III became emperor of Russia, he made peace with Prussia and returned to her the territories conquered by Russia. In 1762, with the help of the guards, another coup was carried out. His wife, Catherine II, was proclaimed empress. Peter III was killed.

1. Russian Empire in the era of "palace coups" (1725–1762).

2. Main trends socio-economic development of the country.

3. The policy of "enlightened absolutism" of Catherine II.

4. Foreign policy.

5. Russian state at the end of the XVIII century. Pavel I.

1. The Russian Empire in the era of "palace coups"

After the death in 1725 of Peter I, who left no heir, a struggle for the throne began in Russia, which lasted until 1762. V. O. Klyuchevsky figuratively called this period "the era of palace coups." Some historians consider this time a period of weakening of Russian absolutism. Some (for example, N. Ya. Eidelman) see in these events a kind of reaction of the nobility to a sharp increase in the independence of the state under Peter I. Still others (D. N. Shansky) reject the term "palace coups", believing that absolutism in this era, on the contrary only strengthened.

Unlike revolutions, "palace coups" did not lead to a change in the socio-economic system of the country and did not pursue the goal of changing the state structure. They reflected the selfish interests of various groups of the nobility, they changed specific individuals, not the system. The social base of the coups, their driving force was the guard.

Let us dwell on the main prerequisites for the coups, which were predominantly socio-political in nature:

– the apparatus of government at that time was only taking shape, so the guards played a huge role in the state. It was used for the personal protection of the emperors, the organization of various institutions and control over their activities. For some time, serving in the guards became prestigious, and the guards regiments were replenished at the expense of noble children;

– in the 18th century there was a process of expanding the rights and privileges of the nobles, who began to feel more and more independent, participants in palace coups were generously distributed serfs and lands;

– there were no legal norms of succession to the throne and publicity in its implementation. As a result, a struggle broke out between noble groups for the erection of their protege to the throne.

On January 28, 1725, Peter I died. Earlier, by the Charter of January 5, 1722, the autocrat was granted the right to appoint an heir at his own request, but Peter did not have time to do this. The emperor had no sons left, and his daughters were born before the formalization of the church marriage with Catherine. Therefore, the real contenders for the throne were the emperor's widow and his grandson Peter (from his son by his first marriage). At the court, two groups of nobility were discovered who entered the struggle for the accession of their protege:

– nominees of the era of Peter I, headed by A. D. Menshikov - supporters of Ecate-

– old well-born aristocrats, headed by Prince D. M. Golitsyn, are supporters of the grandson of Peter.

There was also a third group of foreign courtiers in A. I. Osterman, who defended their own interests, but they entered the struggle later. While the Senate and senior dignitaries were discussing the issue of an heir, the Guards regiments openly supported Catherine I (1725–1727).

In the historical literature, the opinion was entrenched that Catherine I was a weak ruler, and the country was actually led by A. D. Menshikov. At the same time, there is another opinion: the empress should not be considered only a puppet in the hands of clever courtiers. In 1726, the Supreme Privy Council was created, endowed with great powers. According to M. N. Zuev, the council existed under the empress and was under her control. In domestic policy, no new transformations were carried out, on the contrary, a revision of the results of Peter's reforms began (reducing the role of the Senate, reducing the number of bureaucratic structures, changing the taxation system, changes in the army, etc.). Shortly before her death, the Empress appointed Peter, the son of Tsarevich Alexei, as her successor.

Twelve-year-old Peter II (1727-1730) at first listened to the advice of A. D. Menshikov, but he soon fell ill, which was taken advantage of by the princes Golitsyn and Dolgoruky. Prince A. G. Dolgoruky and his son Ivan became the new temporary workers. According to S. F. Platonov, there was no definite trend in governing the country during this short period, although the court moved to Moscow and some pre-Petrine orders were restored.

The sudden death of the young emperor raised the question of a new ruler. After long consultations, the Supreme Privy Council decided to crown the niece of Peter I, Anna Ioannovna (1730–1740). The leaders had a goal: to limit the autocracy and establish an aristocratic regime of government similar to the Swedish one. Special conditions (conditions) were developed, on the basis of which the empress was to rule, becoming an obedient instrument of the Supreme Privy Council. Anna, having signed the conditions, arrived in Moscow, but here, at the request of the nobles and with their support, she refused to fulfill the conditions. Under her rule, key positions in the country fell into the hands of foreigners, led by the favorite Duke E. I. Biron. Anna's reign

received the name Bironovshchina. By this concept, historians mean not only the dominance of foreigners at court, but also the lack of control of their power. In general, under Anna Ioannovna, the autocracy was strengthened, the duties of the nobles were reduced, and their power over the peasants was expanded. The Supreme Privy Council was abolished, in 1731 the Cabinet of Ministers was created, and the activities of the Privy Chancellery were resumed.

Anna Ioannovna appointed Ivan VI Antonovich (1740–1741), the grandson of her elder sister, the infant Ivan VI Antonovich (1740–1741), as her successor, and E. I. Biron as regent. However, at the court, a struggle broke out between foreigners for influence on politics. This created a threat of the collapse of the country and harmed the interests of the nobility, which began to pin their hopes on the daughter of Peter I, Elizabeth.

In November 1741, a new palace coup took place, financed by Sweden and France and based on the discontent of the guards. Elizaveta Petrovna (1741–1761) in many ways tried to return to her father's policy, strengthening the absolute power of the monarch, activating foreign policy, and taking measures in favor of the nobles and merchants. But she did not pay due attention to state affairs, she was distinguished by caution and excessive softness. According to S. M. Solovyov, the reign of Elizabeth created favorable conditions for the further development of Russia, prepared and educated new statesmen, who in the future made up the glory of Catherine II. She appointed her nephew as heir to the throne, inviting him from Holstein.

After the death of Elizabeth, Peter III (1761–1762) became emperor. Evaluation of the activities of Peter III in Russian historiography for a long time remained negative. But from the point of view of the historian.AS. Melnikov, some of the emperor’s events were certainly progressive for their time and became a prologue to the policy of “enlightened absolutism” (for example, the manifestos “On the Granting of Liberty and Freedom to the Russian Nobility” and “On the Destruction of the Secret Investigative Office”). However, by the general rejection of Russia and everything Russian, Peter III quickly turned against himself the guards, part of the army, the church and high dignitaries. His foreign policy became especially unreasonable and anti-national. As a result, the emperor was overthrown, and his wife Catherine II ascended the throne. The era of palace coups is over.

Summing up, it should be noted that with all the differences in the policies of the ruling emperors, they all sought to strengthen their absolute power, expanded the privileges of the nobles, and attacked the rights of the peasantry.

2. Main trends in the socio-economic development of the country

In the second half of the XVIII century. the territory of Russia has expanded significantly, especially in the southern and southwestern directions. The population in the middle of the century was 18 million, and at the end - 36 million people. The main part of it was in rural areas, less than 4% lived in cities (by the end of the century, about 10%). Approximately 45% of all inhabitants of the country and 53% of the total number of peasants were privately owned serfs.

Agriculture remained the leading sector of the economy. There was a growth of feudal-serf relations of production both in depth and in breadth. They covered new territories (Ukraine, Crimea, Ciscaucasia) and categories of the population (in 1755 factory peasants were assigned as permanent workers in the Ural factories). The economy developed extensively.

Due to the increased exploitation of the peasants, serfdom grew in depth. Trade in peasants flourished, they could be innocently punished, exiled without trial or investigation to hard labor. By decree of 1763, the peasants themselves paid the costs associated with the suppression of their speeches, if they were recognized as instigators, in 1767 they were forbidden to file complaints against their landlords to the empress. The peasants lost their last, purely nominal rights.

If in the first half of the century the state was the main exploiter of the peasants, and there was no growth in feudal rent, then in the second half the oppression by the landowners increased. This was caused by the release of the nobles from compulsory service, their acquisition of a "taste for luxury" and the beginning of a "price revolution".

In the second half of the century, two large areas finally took shape, where different forms of exploitation were used:

– on the fertile lands of the Black Earth and the south - corvee;

– in areas with infertile soils - dues.

Since the 1760s the disintegration of feudal-serf relations began, which manifested itself, first of all, in the corvée economy. This process took the following form:

1. Feudalism is characterized by the natural character of the economy. Now bread became a commodity, its consumption by the townspeople, the army, the distillery industry increased, and exports increased sharply.

2. Instead of the traditional allocation of land to the peasants and attachment to it, the lordly plowing increased, the peasant allotment was reduced and even disappeared, the property stratification of the peasants intensified, the growth of otkhodnichestvo to earn money in the city, which actually separated the peasants from the allotment.

3. The personal dependence of the peasants on the feudal lord remained, but under pressure from the resistance of the peasants, the government tried to at least somehow regulate their relationship with the landowners.

4. In general, a low level of technical development prevailed, but individual landlords tried to follow the path of rationalizing their farms, using technical devices and multi-field crop rotation.

Thus, the serf economy began to use forms and methods of labor organization that were unusual for it, which meant the beginning of its decomposition.

The growth of industrial production in the XVIII century. was more significant. This was caused by the increase in the needs of the army and navy, the growth of the non-agricultural population, the progressive demand in the world market for iron and sailing fabric. Of great importance was the publication in 1775 of the Manifesto on the free opening of industrial enterprises by representatives of all strata of society.

AT heavy industry, ferrous metallurgy in the Urals developed especially rapidly, and gold mining began in Siberia. There was an upsurge in light industry, especially textiles.

AT Russia had various forms of organization of industrial production. The main ones were handicraft and manufactory. The development of crafts in the city led to the publication in 1785 of a special "Craft regulation" on the unification of artisans in workshops with the election of foremen. The craft was widely developed in fishing villages (Ivanovo, Khokhloma, Gzhel). At the same time, there was an increase in manufactories, of which there were about two thousand by the end of the century. However, the vast majority of workers on them were serfs, and as civilian employees were used migrant peasants.

Thanks to the Manifesto of 1775, peasant manufactories appeared. Their owners were enterprising serfs, the peasants of the same landowner worked for them, but as hired workers. Legally, the owners of such manufactories were landlords, so their owners tried to redeem themselves free for any money.

AT generally in the second half of the eighteenth century. the process of pre-industrial modernization was developing in the Russian economy. A new trend was the formation of the capitalist way of life, which testified to the beginning of the decay of the old order. However, dominant positions were still retained by feudal-serf relations, the reserves of which had not yet been exhausted.

AT the country continued the process of formation of the all-Russian market. Increased specialization in various branches of economic activity. A variety of goods were sold and exchanged at numerous auctions and fairs (Makarievskaya, Nezhinskaya, Irbitskaya, etc.). At the same time, the nature of the fairs changed somewhat, they began to turn into the economic centers of the country, and in trade, the “capitalist peasants” were increasingly crowding out the merchants. The development of the all-Russian market was facilitated by the abolition of internal customs duties in 1754.

Foreign trade was carried out through the ports of the Baltic and the Black Sea. Metals, hemp, sailcloth, leather were exported, from the end of the century - grain. Sugar, metal products, silk, coffee, tea, fruits were imported. Moreover, exports significantly exceeded imports. England remained the leading trading partner.

The development of the market, the growth of public spending required the improvement of the credit and financial system. In 1769, the first paper money, bank notes, was issued, and in 1786, the Assignation Bank was established. In connection with the excess of government spending over income, Catherine II for the first time resorted to government loans in Holland and Italy.

AT The economic policy of Catherine II used elements of "economic liberalism". She took classless measures to encourage entrepreneurship, but did so inconsistently. Developing the principles of free trade in relation to the domestic market, the empress remained on the principles of protectionism

in with regard to foreign trade. Customs Tariffs 1757, 1766, 1782 introduced high protective duties on goods produced in Russia.

The period under review was a time of strengthening the estate system of the country. Each category of the population acquired class isolation, determined by the corresponding rights and privileges (or lack of them), fixed in laws and decrees. The entire population was divided into the following classes: the dominant (nobles), privileged and semi-privileged (clergy, Cossacks, merchants, townspeople, foreign colonists), unprivileged (peasants, soldiers and soldiers' children). Strengthening and imposing such a system was one of the ways to keep power in the hands of the ruling class.

The continuous strengthening of serfdom, the growth of taxes and duties aroused fierce resistance from the population. His main form was the flight to the outskirts (in the steppes, the Cossack regions, the Urals and Siberia). Fugitive peasants robbed on the roads, attacked the landowners' estates. The monastic peasants often revolted. In 1771, in the conditions of the plague, an uprising took place in Moscow - a “plague riot”. The performances of working people at the factories of the Urals and Karelia acquired a large scale. Many of them were suppressed by force of arms.

The speeches were spontaneous in nature, did not set clear goals, but testified to the growth of the popular movement in the country. In the 1760s impostors appeared in different parts of the country, who appropriated the name of Emperor Peter III. False letters and decrees about the alleged imminent release of serfs began to circulate.

In such a situation, a powerful popular uprising broke out in Russia, led by a Don Cossack. EI. Pugachev. The movement began among the Cossacks, but soon other sections of the population joined it: serfs, assigned and working people, the lower classes of the city, the peoples of the Urals and the Volga region. The war with the government lasted from 1773 to 1775, ended in defeat, but showed what deep contradictions lurk in the depths of Russian society. Later, not only Catherine II, but also the Decembrists, were afraid of the “Pugachevshchina”, they remembered her in 1861, when deciding to abolish serfdom.

Historians assess the significance of E. I. Pugachev's uprising in different ways. Some (primarily Marxists) speak of a peasant war, which had the character of a class struggle of peasants, contributed to social progress in a feudal society, the immediate result of which was the abolition of the registration of peasants, and in the long term - assistance to the bourgeois development of the country. Others believe that the "Pugachevshchina", on the contrary, scared away the Russian reformers, strengthened the position of the conservatives, which slowed down the socio-economic development of the country, and contributed to the consolidation of the trend towards the establishment of a military-police regime in Russia.

3. The policy of "enlightened absolutism" of Catherine II

Catherine II (1762-1796) came to power as a result of a palace coup, having managed to win over the guards, the nobility, part of the townspeople and merchants, people of creative professions. A distinctive feature of the Empress was a huge work

bee. She was engaged not only in state affairs, but also in health care, science, and art.

Having ascended the throne, Catherine II discovered the mind and abilities of a statesman. Count N.I. Panin offered her to create an imperial council, but Catherine refused, as this could limit the autocracy. The Empress liquidated the Cabinet of Ministers, the hetmanship in Left-Bank Ukraine, divided the Senate into six departments, turning it from a legislative body into a simple administrative body. All this testified to the desire for autocracy.

In the context of the beginning of the disintegration of the feudal serf system, Catherine II had to develop a specific policy that met the requirements of the time. This policy was called "enlightened absolutism". The empress used certain provisions of the ideology of the Enlightenment, having previously emasculated them, since in Russia the bourgeoisie and the proletariat were just emerging, and the leading role belonged to the nobility.

Enlightened absolutism is a special form of autocracy, a characteristic feature of which is the implementation of reforms caused by the emergence of bourgeois relations and the intensification of social struggle. Its goal is to assist the nobility in adapting to commodity-money relations while maintaining the foundations of the serf system.

The French encyclopedists - Voltaire, Diderot, Rousseau, Montesquieu, D "Alembert - formulated the foundations of the concept of enlightenment in relation to social development. Their idea was as follows: by nature, all people are free and equal, but humanity in its development violated the laws of natural life, which led to unfreedom, injustice and oppression. It is possible to return to just laws only with the help of the enlightenment of the people, who themselves will not be able to carry it out. To help the cause of enlightenment and the establishment of justice should be "wise men on the throne", i.e. enlightened monarchs. This policy was typical for those countries of Europe in which the positions of the nobility were especially strong, but at the same time bourgeois relations developed rapidly.The ideas of the enlighteners were adopted by Frederick II in Prussia, Joseph II in Austria, Gustav V in Sweden, Catherine II in Russia, but they invested in them semi-serfdom meaning: the understanding of equality extended only to the ruling class, the role of mo narkha in the state.

Among the main tasks of "enlightened absolutism" are:

– strengthening autocracy through the modernization and improvement of the management system;

– expansion of the rights and freedoms of the Russian nobility in order to turn it into a truly privileged and enlightened class, capable of serving the state “not out of fear, but out of conscience”;

– carrying out measures aimed, on the one hand, at strengthening the power of the landowners over the peasants, and on the other, designed to alleviate social tension;

– creation of conditions for the economic development of the country;

– dissemination of knowledge, development of European forms of culture and education;

In 1763, Catherine II began a correspondence with Voltaire, in which she rejected the apologetics of serfdom while maintaining the idea of ​​autocracy. She argued the necessity and regularity of autocracy in Russia, referring to the natural environment, the size of the country, the nature of its population. The ruler saw the task of the monarch in issuing the “best laws”, and the task of the government in their implementation. In 1763–1764 the secularization (transfer to the treasury) of the monastery lands was completed, and in 1765 the Free Economic Society began its activities, the main goal of which was to promote noble entrepreneurship.

The year 1767 is considered the pinnacle of the policy of "enlightened absolutism". In order to establish “peace and tranquility” in the country, to strengthen her position on the throne, the Empress convened a special commission in Moscow to draw up a new code of laws of the Russian Empire to replace the Cathedral Code of 1649. 573 deputies from nobles, government agencies, townspeople, state peasants, Cossacks (only serfs were not represented).

The deputies had to submit orders from the localities to the Legislative Commission. As a guiding document, Catherine II prepared her "Instruction" of 22 chapters (655 articles). The absence of domestic social science forced the Empress, who dreamed of reorganizing Russia on a liberal basis, to turn to the ideas of Western enlighteners. Her “Instruction” was an integral work, although it consisted of carefully selected quotations from the works of Montesquieu, Beccaria, and others. The document provided a theoretical justification for the policy of “enlightened absolutism”, proved the need for strong autocratic power, serfdom, estates. At the same time, legality was proclaimed the basis of the entire social structure, the question was raised about the existence of state power in the name of the people. Such a formulation of problems was new even for the West.

The work of the commission began solemnly and calmly, but suddenly the peasant question turned out to be in the center of attention. Some deputies criticized certain aspects of serfdom. Odnodvorets A. Maslov even suggested transferring the serfs to a special collegium, which would pay salaries to the landlords from their taxes, but the serfs would be freed from the power of the latter. Some deputies spoke of the need for a clear regulation of peasant duties.

The Empress was not ready for the ensuing discussion. The commission worked for more than a year, but was dissolved for the holidays under the pretext of the outbreak of war with Turkey, without compiling a new Code. On the other hand, the empress was able to find out the positions of various categories of the population, to collect rich material to get acquainted with the needs and wishes of citizens, which she used more than once in her subsequent legislative activities.

Some historians see in the convening of the Legislative Commission only a demagogic farce played out by the Empress. But other experts, on the contrary, consider her work

a real attempt to modernize Russia by creating a legitimate autocratic monarchy in it.

The work of the Legislative Commission showed that criticism of serfdom occupies a significant place in Russian public opinion. Wanting to influence this opinion, Catherine II turned to journalism and began to publish the satirical magazine Vsyakaya Vsyachina. It criticized human weaknesses, vices, superstitions, and, in fact, an attempt was made to divert society from discussing the most pressing issue. The outstanding Russian educator N. I. Novikov opposed this approach. In the journals "Truten" and "Painter" published by him, not abstract vices were criticized, but concrete phenomena and persons. N. I. Novikov won in the unfolding controversy of the journals. The empress gave up journalism, and the educator soon ended up in the Shlisselburg Fortress for four years.

In 1773–1775 Russia survived the "Pugachevism", which frightened the Empress to the extreme. The government's response to the speech was the strengthening of the noble dictatorship, a series of reforms to centralize and unify government

in center and in the field, the legislative consolidation of the class rights of the population. The policy of "enlightened absolutism" was narrowed down only to the nobility, for which the "Golden Age" had come.

After analyzing the reasons for the "Pugachevism", Catherine II concluded that control over the population was weakening and the estates were not ready for constructive work with the authorities. As a result, in 1775 a document was adopted under the title "Establishment for the management of the provinces of the Russian Empire." The whole country was divided into 50 provinces headed by governors who had extended powers and were directly subordinate to the empress. 300-400 thousand male souls lived in each province, and a regiment of soldiers was stationed to assist the authorities. Under the governor, a provincial government was created, and the provincial prosecutor was subordinate to him. Finance was handled by the Treasury, headed by the vice-governor. A state institution with social functions appeared - the Order of Public Charity, which was in charge of schools, hospitals, almshouses.

The provinces were divided into districts of 20-30 thousand souls each, headed by a police captain or district police officer, elected by the local nobility. Cities or large villages renamed into them became the administrative centers of the counties. In the provinces and counties, noble assemblies were legalized, electing the leaders of the nobility, who informed the emperor about the needs of the nobles.

AT city ​​was a separate administrative unit. At the head was the mayor, endowed with broad rights and powers. Strict police control was introduced. The city was divided into parts or districts that were under the control of a private bailiff, and the parts were divided into quarters headed by a quarter warden.

Each estate received its own judgment. The landowners were judged by the Zemsky court, the serfs

- their master, state peasants - upper (in the province) and lower (in the county) reprisals.

Thus, measures were taken in the country to strengthen the positions of the nobility in the center and in the regions. For the first time in Russian legislation, a document

ment that determined the activities of local government bodies and the court. At the same time, the number of officials more than doubled. The new system of local government lasted for almost a hundred years, and the country's administrative division continued until 1917.

In 1785, Catherine II simultaneously issued letters of commendation to the nobility and cities, which regulated the legislation on the rights and obligations of the estates. A draft letter of grant to the state peasants was also prepared, but it remained only on paper.

"The letter on the rights, liberties and advantages of the noble Russian nobility" confirmed the former freedoms from service, personal taxes, and corporal punishment. The estates were declared to be the full (i.e., private) property of the landowners. The principle of judicial immunity of nobles was introduced in relation to non-nobles, and without a decision of the noble court, no one could deprive the first noble honor, life and estate. The nobles received the right to create their own provincial and district corporations and to elect the appropriate marshals of the nobility. Provincial and district noble assemblies were given the opportunity to make representations to the government about their needs.

Thus, with the completion of the process of noble emancipation in Russia, the first sprouts of civil society appeared, that is, a society in which economic, social, cultural and other public interests are realized outside the direct activities of the state, opportunities for self-realization appear.

"The letter of rights and benefits to the cities of the Russian Empire" determined the system of government in cities, the rights and obligations of the urban population. All townspeople were recorded in the City Philistine Book and were divided into six class categories. The first included the nobles and clergy who lived in the city. The second included the merchant class, divided into three guilds. Merchants of the first and second guilds were exempted from the poll tax and paid a tax according to the bourgeois principle in the amount of 1% of the capital. The third category included guild artisans, and the fourth - foreigners permanently residing in the city. The fifth category was made up of eminent citizens (persons of free professions, entrepreneurs, the official elite of the city). The sixth category included all townspeople who were engaged in crafts or were hired. Every three years, the townsfolk elected self-government bodies represented by the General City Duma, the Mayor and judges. The General City Duma elected as an executive body a six-member Duma, which included one representative from each category of citizens. The Duma solved various problems of local life, but only with the knowledge and consent of the mayor appointed by the government.

The empress attached great importance to education issues in the life of the country. Back in the 1760s-1770s. she, together with the director of the land gentry corps I. I. Betsky, attempted to create closed class educational institutions. Their structure was based on the idea of ​​the priority of upbringing over education and the need to cultivate a “new breed of people”. Recreation centers opened in Moscow and St.

nutritional houses, the Smolny Institute for Noble Maidens, the Moscow Commercial School, and cadet corps were transformed. In 1782–1786 school reform began. Two-year small public schools were established in county towns, and four-year main public schools were established in provincial towns. They introduced uniform dates for the beginning and end of classes, a class lesson system, developed methods for teaching disciplines, and unified curricula.

However, the accumulation of liberal potential by society was interrupted. A huge shock for Catherine II was the events of the Great French Revolution, which put into practice her favorite ideas, but at the same time executed King Louis XVI and his wife Marie Antoinette. In addition, the social base of liberalism in Russia turned out to be extremely fragile. There was practically no third estate in the face of the bourgeoisie in the country, and the nobility perceived liberal thoughts ambiguously. The bulk of the petty nobility and other categories of the population were conservative and pragmatic in their approach to life and feared the strengthening of the positions of the aristocratic elite of society. According to the historian S. V. Bushuev, there was a “discrepancy between the external forms and internal conditions introduced from above”. From now on, the books of Voltaire and other enlighteners were subject to confiscation and destruction. In 1790

The main results of the domestic policy of Catherine II were:

– strengthening and modernization of the autocracy;

– further "Europeanization" of the country and the strengthening of the positions of the nobility;

– the revival of public life, the emergence of the beginnings of civil society and radical revolutionary ideas;

– the strengthening of serfdom with the simultaneous expression of ideas about softening or even abolishing serfdom;

– the emergence of the concepts of freedom and individual rights;

– the birth of the capitalist structure and the beginning of the disintegration of feudal serf relations.

4. Foreign policy

In the second half of the XVIII century. Russia's influence in the international arena continued to grow. Catherine II pursued an active and very successful foreign policy. Its main tasks were:

– the struggle for access to the southern seas (the Black and Azov);

– solution of the issue of the return of ancient Russian lands (the territory of Ukraine

and Belarus);

– the desire to play the role of a guarantor of the independence of the English colonies in North America and the observance of Russia's interests in this region;

– the fight against revolutionary France and the spread of the influence of the Great French Revolution.

The interests of the country's security pushed the Russian government to take active steps in the south; the needs of the nobility in new, richest lands; the need to access the sea coast for the development of industry and trade. In this regard, there were two Russian-Turkish wars.

The first war lasted from 1768 to 1774. Turkey, instigated by Austria and France, in the autumn of 1768 declared war on Russia. Military operations were conducted on the territory of Moldova, Wallachia, the Azov coast. In 1770, the Russian land army under the command of the talented commander P. A. Rumyantsev won brilliant victories on the Larga and Cahul rivers and reached the Danube. The Russian fleet under the command of Count A. G. Orlov and Admiral G. A. Spiridov in the Chesme Bay off the coast of Asia Minor completely destroyed the Turkish squadron, blocking the rest of the enemy fleet in the Black Sea. In 1771, the Russians captured the Crimea, which was supposed to mean the end of the war. However, the Turks disrupted the negotiations that had begun. The war dragged on. In 1774, the army under the command of Major General A.V. Suvorov defeated the troops of the Grand Vizier, opening the way to Istanbul. The threat of complete defeat forced Turkey to sign the Kyuchuk-Kaynarji peace treaty in the same year, according to which Russia received access to the Black Sea, the Black Sea steppes (Novorossia), the right to have the Black Sea Fleet, the right to pass through the Bosphorus and Dardanelles. The fortresses of Kerch, Kinburn, Yenikale passed to Russia. The Crimean Khanate became independent from Turkey. The autonomy of Moldavia and Wallachia was restored, and Russia was recognized as the defender of the legitimate rights of the Christian peoples of the Ottoman Empire.

The second Russian-Turkish war lasted from 1787 to 1791.

It was preceded by the events of 1783, when, in response to Turkey's attempt to return the Crimea under its rule, Russian troops occupied the peninsula and founded the stronghold of their fleet there, the fortress of Sevastopol. Almost simultaneously, Russia and the Georgian king Erekle II signed the Georgievsky Treaty, according to which Eastern Georgia passed under the protection of Russia. This development of the situation did not suit Turkey, which did not want to come to terms with the assertion of Russia in the Black Sea.

In the summer of 1787, Turkey demanded in an ultimatum the return of the Crimea, the recognition of its rights to Georgia, and, having received a refusal, opened hostilities. During the war, the army under the command of A. V. Suvorov defeated the enemy in the battles near Kinburn (1787), near Focsani and on the Rymnik River (1789), and stormed the fortress of Izmail (1790), which was considered impregnable. The Russian Admiral F. F. Ushakov successfully operated at sea. He won victories in the Kerch Strait and at Cape Gadzhibey, and in 1791 destroyed the Turkish fleet at Cape Kaliakria. In the same year, a peace treaty was signed in Iasi, according to which Turkey recognized Crimea as part of Russia, gave it the territory between the Bug and the Dniester, and agreed to a Russian protectorate over Georgia.

As a result of the wars, prerequisites were created for accelerating the economic development of the steppe south of Russia and expanding ties with the countries of the Mediterranean. The hotbed of aggression against the Ukrainian and Belarusian lands by the Crimean Khanate was destroyed.

In solving the second foreign policy task, the enemy of Russia was the Commonwealth. In the last third of the XVIII century. this country was going through a severe political crisis, which the monarchs of Prussia, Austria and Russia did not fail to take advantage of. Russia acted under the pretext of protecting and liberating the Ukrainian and Belarusian lands that were once part of Kievan Rus.

AT In 1772, at the initiative of the Prussian king, the first division of the Commonwealth took place, according to which Russia received the eastern part of Belarus up to Minsk and part of the Latvian lands. In 1793, according to the second section, the lands of central Belarus headed by Minsk and Right-Bank Ukraine were ceded to Russia. After the third partition, which took place in 1795, Russia got Lithuania, Courland, Volyn, Western Belarus.

The meaning of the sections looks inconsistent. On the one hand, the political prestige of Russia has grown, which, in addition, has become one of the most populated countries in Europe. There was a reunification of Ukrainian and Belarusian lands. But, on the other hand, the Polish state lost its statehood and sovereignty for more than a hundred years, which led to the aggravation of national problems in the Russian Empire. The activity of the Polish nobility in the struggle for national independence provoked a response, expressed in the deployment of the Russification policy of the government.

When solving the third task, Catherine II in 1780 adopted the "Declaration of Armed Neutrality", supported by most European powers. The document proclaimed the right of merchant ships of neutral countries to armed protection in the event of an attack on them by ships of a belligerent power. This objectively contributed to the victory of the American Revolution, since England, which was trying to organize a blockade of North America and seize the merchant ships of neutral countries that violated it, was forced to abandon its plans.

AT In 1784, the continued colonization of the regions of Siberia and the Far East led to the landing of a detachment of G. I. Shelekhov on the American continent and the emergence of permanent Russian settlements in Alaska and California.

The fourth foreign policy task was connected with the events in France. In 1789, a bourgeois revolution began in this country, as a result of which a republican order was established. Catherine II provided decisive assistance to the French aristocracy, and after the execution of the king and queen, she severed diplomatic and trade relations with the country and banned the work of French enlighteners. The uprising of T. Kosciuszko in Poland in 1794 prevented the empress from openly speaking out against France. This was done by her son, Emperor Paul I (1796-1801).

At the end of the 1790s. Napoleonic France, seeking to assert its dominance in Europe, captured Malta and the Ionian Islands in the Mediterranean, as well as Egypt. In response, Russia joined the anti-French coalition along with Prussia, Austria and England. In 1798–1800 the Russian fleet under the command of F. F. Ushakov captured the Ionian Islands, a strong French fortress on the island of Corfu, landed troops in the port of Brindisi, which later entered Naples and Rome.

In 1799, the offensive of the land army of A. V. Suvorov began, acting jointly with the Austrian troops. Within five weeks, Northern Italy was cleared of the French, and Russian troops entered Milan and Turin. The successes of A. V. Suvorov aroused envy on the part of the Austrians, under whose pressure Pavel I transferred troops to Switzerland to join with another Russian army led by General A. M. Rimsky-Korsakov. The heroic passage of Suvorov's army through the Alps ended in complete success, but by this time the contradictions within the anti-French coalition had intensified, and the Russian army was returned to its homeland. A political rapprochement began with France, which was seen as an ally in the fight against England's influence in European affairs.

Thus, the foreign policy results of the second half of the XVIII century. were very successful for the further development of Russia. Unlike the empires of Western Europe that had overseas territories, the Russian population lived together with the peoples annexed to the empire. The national elite organically merged into the composition of the Russian nobility, and the state almost did not interfere in the internal structure of the outskirts. As a result, coexistence objectively contributed to the rapprochement of peoples, allowing them to survive in the vast expanses of Eurasia.

5. The Russian state at the end of the XVIII century. Pavel I

Paul I was the son of Emperor Peter III and Empress Catherine II. His mother did not love him, Elizaveta Petrovna was engaged in raising the boy, who assigned to him N.I. Panin, a supporter of "enlightenment", who dreamed of making Paul an ideal sovereign for Russia. The young man grew up with the consciousness of his high destiny, faith in the ideals of "enlightened absolutism." Seeing what was really happening, he began to be critical of his mother's policy quite early, to perceive with hostility many of her plans. Pavel wrote several memos to Catherine, proving the harm of Russian offensive wars for the country's economy, asking her to respect the peasants, not to crush them with taxes.

The ideal ruler for Paul was Peter I, to whose times he tried to return in his own way. At the same time, the future emperor adored the Prussian king Frederick II and his army with cane discipline. Paul's domestic politics were also influenced by his unpredictable personality. Straightforwardness, harshness, the desire to observe the knightly code of honor often turned into rudeness, intolerance, pettiness with him. In connection with these factors, the entire policy of the ruler was distinguished by inconsistency and inconsistency.

Having become emperor, Paul I (1796-1801) began to restore his order in order to strengthen autocracy and strengthen discipline in the army and state. He dismissed most of the advisers and employees of Catherine II from service, replacing them with his "Gatchins". The Prussian drill was imposed in the army and severe punishments were imposed for the slightest mistakes in drills and malfunctions in clothing.

Declaring himself the protector of thrones and altars, which were threatened by the destructive ideas of the French revolution and philosophy, Paul decided to bring out in Russia all manifestations of liberalism and freethinking. For this purpose, strict censorship was introduced, it was forbidden to wear French clothes, study abroad, import books from abroad, and free entry of foreigners into Russia.

Pavel took under his patronage the Catholic clergy - the knightly Order of Malta - and established its special priory in St. Petersburg. In 1798, after the capture of Malta by Napoleon, the emperor assumed the title of Grand Master of the Order of Malta and declared war on France.

In order to strengthen the monarchical power in Russia and streamline the succession to the throne, Paul issued in 1797 the “Institution on the Imperial Family”, which contained detailed legalizations on the position and relations of members of the imperial house and on the succession to the throne. The throne was supposed to pass from the father to the eldest son, and in the absence of sons, to the eldest of the brothers of the deceased emperor. For the maintenance of the imperial family, a special department of "destinies" was formed, which managed the specific property and the peasants living on the specific lands.

As a defender of unlimited royal power, Paul did not want to allow any class rights and privileges. He limited the effect of Catherine's letters of 1785, forced everyone to serve again, forbade meetings of the nobility, abolished the right of the nobles to elect officials, and abolished the freedom of the nobles from corporal punishment. The emperor punished seven times more nobles than his mother in 34 years. A special box for petitions was placed near the palace, which was opened by the ruler himself. However, it would be wrong to assume that Paul's policy was directed against the nobles. More true is the statement of those historians who believe that he wanted to turn the nobility into a knighthood, disciplined, organized, without exception serving, devoted to the sovereign.

The emperor's policy on the peasant question was also inconsistent.

On the one hand, he announced that every subject could file a complaint personally with him; on the other hand, he severely persecuted such attempts on the part of the peasants.

On April 5, 1797, a manifesto was issued in favor of the peasants, which is not entirely correctly called the "Manifesto on the three-day corvée." It was forbidden to force the peasants to work on weekends, and the remaining six days of the week were supposed to be divided in half for work for the landowner and for himself. A number of Senate decrees were taken to improve the situation of state peasants. At the same time, the emperor continued to generously distribute state lands with the peasants who inhabited them into private ownership, increasing the number of serfs. The scope of serfdom was extended to the Don region, the North Caucasus, Novorossiysk provinces.

The basis of Russia's foreign policy under Paul I was the desire "by all means to resist the violent French Revolution." Russia continued to help counter-revolutionary emigrants and finance their activities. The brother of the executed Louis XVI was received in Russia as King Louis XVIII, he was given a residence and a huge pension. stricter restrictions on importation into

Russian French goods, especially presses and books.

Catherine II did not participate in hostilities against France, her son did. He joined another coalition consisting of England, Austria, Turkey, the Kingdom of Naples. The center of military operations of the coalition became Italy and the Mediterranean Sea, where the fleets of England and Russia were moved. The Russian fleet under the command of Admiral Ushakov in the summer of 1798 passed the Black Sea straits, the Adriatic, took possession of the Ionian Islands and, after a brilliantly conducted siege and assault, forced the strongest French fortress on the island of Corfu to capitulate, capturing rich trophies. His further actions took place in 1799 off the coast and in Italy. Having captured the port of Brindisi, F.F. Ushakov landed troops that fought through the entire Apennine Peninsula, expelled the French from Naples, and then from Rome.

At the same time, military operations were carried out in Northern Italy and Switzerland. At the request of the allies, A. V. Suvorov, who had previously been in exile, was placed at the head of the combined Russian-Austrian army. Arriving in Vienna, he drew up his truly innovative campaign plan, prepared the troops, and moved swiftly into northern Italy. The Italian campaign of Suvorov is considered the height of his military leadership and the manifestation of the best qualities of the Russian army led by him. With an army many times inferior to the enemy, he won a number of victories.

The victory on April 25, 1799 at the Adda River opened the way for Suvorov to Milan and Turin, and made it possible to clear Northern Italy of the French in five weeks. Having learned that the army of General MacDonald was moving towards the enemy from the south, A.V. Suvorov made a throw of eighty miles in thirty-six hours and, after a three-day battle on the Trebia River, forced the French to retreat. On August 14, at the Battle of Novi, the troops of General Joubert were defeated.

After the victories won, the illustrious commander considered it necessary to transfer hostilities to the Rhine and French territory. However, this was opposed by the Allies, especially Austria. Pavel I agreed with their plan to transfer Russian troops across the Alps to Switzerland to help the corps of General Rimsky-Korsakov, against whom the 80,000-strong French army acted. On September 11, A. V. Suvorov set off on a campaign, walking in the most difficult conditions on ice and mountain paths, waging continuous battles. On September 24, he captured the St. Gotthard Pass, the next day he won a victory at the Devil's Bridge. But at this time, the French defeated Rimsky-Korsakov, surrounded the army of Suvorov, having a triple superiority of forces. Having overcome the pass covered with eternal ice, the commander broke out of the encirclement, having lost only seven thousand people.

Dissatisfied with the allies, Paul I broke his treaty with Austria and England and in 1800 recalled the Russian troops. At this time, Napoleon declared himself "First Consul", clearly seeking to restore the monarchy. He turned to the Russian emperor with a flattering letter, returned all Russian prisoners. On the other hand, the British took Malta from France, but did not return it to the Order of Malta. The result was the conclusion of peace between Russia and France, a break with England, the expulsion of French emigrants, and the preparation of the Baltic Fleet for military operations against England. The emperor also sent forty regiments of Don Cossacks to conquer India.

The army set out on a campaign without sufficient supplies, without plans and maps, and was doomed to death in the deserts of Central Asia.

The spiritual balance of Paul I was upset more and more, his irritability and cruelty increased. None of those close to him felt safe. A conspiracy arose in St. Petersburg led by the military governor, Count Palen. On the night of March 12, 1801, the conspirators entered the palace demanding that Paul abdicate the throne. Encountering resistance, they killed the emperor.

Questions for self-examination

1. Compare the economic policies of Peter I and Catherine II.

2. What are the prerequisites for palace coups?

3. What is the essence of "enlightened absolutism"?

4. Explain the concept of "golden age of the Russian nobility."

5. What are the main directions and results of foreign policy in the second half of

6. What three issues were resolved in the same way in the "era of palace coups"?

7. Evaluate the reign of Paul I.

Bibliography

Anisimov E. V., Kamensky A. B. Russia in the 18th – first half of the 19th century. – M.,

Derevianko A. P., Shabelnikova N. A. Russian history. - M., 2006. - S. 148-163.

History of Russia from the beginning of the 18th to the end of the 19th century. / resp. ed. A. N. Sakharov. - M., 2000. - S. 108-269.

Kamensky A. B. Russian Empire in the 18th century: traditions and modernization. – M.,

Orlov A. S., Georgiev V. A., Georgieva N. G., Sivokhina T. A. History of Russia from ancient times to the present day. - M., 2006. - S. 145–177.

Pavlenko N. I. Catherine the Second. - M., 2000.

Eidelman N. Ya. Your XVIII century. - M., 1989.

Peter I did not have time to leave a will. Therefore, the issue of his successor was to be decided by the highest ranks of the state. With the apparent breadth of choice of real candidates for the throne, there were only two. The fact is that of the numerous offspring of Peter I, only two daughters survived him - Anna and Elizabeth. However, they were born before the wedding of their parents and were considered illegitimate. Anna and Ekaterina, the daughters of the elder brother (and until 1696 co-ruler of Peter) Ivan V Alekseevich, were married and were considered foreign princesses. Until 1724 (before the exposure of his wife's love affair with V. Mons), Peter I, in all likelihood, intended to leave the throne to Catherine. It was she who was supported by the same thin-born, like the empress, "chicks of Petrov's nest." Another real contender for the crown was Peter, the nine-year-old son of Tsarevich Alexei Petrovich, who was executed in 1718. His supporters were representatives of a number of families of the old Moscow aristocracy.

The choice was made fairly quickly. HELL. Menshikov not only brought both guards regiments under the windows of the palace, but also allowed guards officers to be present in the council hall. Empress in 1725 became Ekaterina I Alekseevna(nee Marta Skavronskaya).

The circle of interests of Catherine I after the accession practically did not change: her family was still her main concern. The solution of issues of domestic and foreign policy (real power) was under the jurisdiction of A.D. Menshikov. And it was he - the closest of the associates of Peter I - who began the revision of the transformations of the first quarter of the century. True, the revision of Petrine legislation was carried out very carefully and was not class-limited. Among the measures taken were: a reduction in the head salary by four kopecks, the release of landlord estates from standing, etc. The establishment in 1726 of the Supreme Privy Council, formally limiting the power of the empress (according to the decree, the document took the force of law after its approval in the Council).

The creation of the Council was also an attempt to reach a compromise between the warring factions of the bureaucracy. In an effort to strengthen his own position, A.D. Menshikov allows the heads of the hostile aristocratic party to participate in the development of the most important political decisions.

The next step on this path was the engagement of Tsarevich Peter Alekseevich and the daughter of the all-powerful favorite Maria. This was explained by the fact that A.D. Menshikov understood the direct dependence of his career on the health of the sick empress. Becoming the father-in-law of the prince, he expected to rule in Russia for a long time. Therefore, after the engagement, no one was surprised that Catherine I bequeathed the throne to the prince.

In less than twelve years in May 1727Peter II Alekseevich became emperor. The young sovereign, of course, could not govern independently. A.D. still held real power in the country. Menshikov. True, it was increasingly difficult to maintain this power. In the Supreme Privy Council, most of the seats now belonged to his opponents Dolgorukov and Golitsyn. The favorite of Peter II was the young prince. I.A. Dolgorukov. And the emperor did not like the bride. Under these conditions, the overthrow of the omnipotent nobleman was only a matter of time. A convenient opportunity came a few months after the accession of Peter II, when, due to A.D. Menshikov could not appear at court for several days. During this time, a case of bribery and treason was fabricated against him. Following a number of formalities, he and his family were sent to settle in the Siberian town of Berezov, where he died in 1729.

Clan Prince. Dolgorukovs was replaced by A.D. Menshikov as the supreme ruler of Russia. Perhaps the most notable event of this time was the move of the court to Moscow. According to contemporaries, Peter II himself did not bother himself much with solving state affairs. The same can be said about the attitude to teaching. Perhaps, over the years, the emperor would have realized the need for personal participation in solving the problems of government. But in January 1730, not having lived two days before the wedding with the sister of the favorite E.A. Dolgorukova, Peter II dies of smallpox.

The disease proceeded so rapidly that the emperor did not have time to leave a will. Again, the highest officials of Russia had to decide the issue of the heir to the throne. The Dolgorukovs intended to hand over the throne to the Tsar's bride. But her candidacy was rejected even by the former allies of the Dolgorukovs. In the Supreme Privy Council, the choice was made in favor of the thirty-seven-year-old daughter of Ivan V. Anna Ivanovna, by that time a widow, the childless Duchess of Courland, lived in Mitava. She barely made ends meet in her small household, regularly begging for help from St. Petersburg. Such a candidacy satisfied everyone.

In parallel with the choice of a successor to the throne, the members of the Supreme Privy Council ("supreme leaders") also tried to resolve the question of how to "make yourself feel better ... to add more will." For this purpose, they developed "condition"(conditions), only after the signing of which Anna became empress. "Conditions" limited the power of the Empress. Without the sanction of the Supreme Privy Council, the empress did not have the right to declare war, make peace, appoint anyone to the highest government positions and award a rank higher than a colonel, did not have the right to appoint an heir, and also pledged not to interfere in tax and financial policy, not to favor and do not take away estates without judgment. The command of the guard was also to be transferred to the Supreme Privy Council. Thus, the "conditions" limited the autocracy, but not in the interests of the entire nobility, but in favor of the old Moscow nobility.

Having received an invitation to reign, Anna did not delay signing the "conditions". It is unlikely that this step was dictated by the desire on any terms, but as soon as possible to be in Moscow. After all, even then she knew (through A.P. Sumarokov) that the "future" of the members of the Supreme Privy Council was not popular among the nobility. And indeed, having learned about the intentions of the "supreme leaders", the nobility in the capital set in motion. "Conditions" did not suit anyone, since they only took into account the interests of the compilers and did not give any guarantees against their arbitrariness. The nobles filed a petition to the empress with a request to rule as before. Anna took advantage of this pretext. The "conditions" were broken, the Supreme Privy Council was liquidated, its members (Dolgorukovs and Golitsyns) were subjected to disgrace, and a few years later they were re-condemned and executed.

empress Anna Ivanovna (1730-1740 ), liquidating the Supreme Privy Council, restored the importance of the Senate, but not for long. In 1731, by decree of the Empress, a Cabinet of Ministers. The Cabinet of Ministers received broad rights in the field of domestic and foreign policy, legislation, supervised judicial and financial affairs, and resolved the most important administrative issues. According to the decree of 1735, the signatures of the three Cabinet Ministers were equal to the signatures of the Empress, thus, the Cabinet of Ministers was legally turned into the supreme state institution.

Distinguished by high growth and extreme fullness, lazy and ignorant, Empress Anna Ivanovna showed no interest in state affairs. While still in Courland, Anna became close to the poor and humble Courland nobleman Ernest Johann Biron. He helped the Dowager Duchess in solving numerous, by no means only economic problems. Having become Empress, Anna did not forget the services rendered to her. The ignorant, rude and cruel favorite of the empress actually stood at the head of the country's administration.

By the name of the favorite and the reign of Anna Ivanovna received a terrible name in Russian history. bironovshchina. Everywhere in the administration, the courts and the army, the highest positions are filled by foreigners. According to the figurative expression of V.O. Klyuchevsky, "the Germans poured into Russia as if from a leaky bag." The influence of foreigners has reached unprecedented proportions. Another characteristic feature of the regime was the dominance of the Secret Investigation Office. The ominous "word and deed of the sovereign" was equally terrible for both the commoner and the nobleman.

However, Anna Ivanovna remembered too well to whom she owed the throne and granted a number of privileges to the nobility: the decree on single inheritance was canceled (1730); the Gentry Cadet Corps was formed (1731); limited to 25 years of compulsory service for the nobility; one of the sons of a noble family was allowed to be released from service to manage the estate (1736). In 1736, all non-passported workers who had by that time been assigned to the factories were assigned. Thus, the rights of taxable estates were limited while expanding the rights and privileges of the nobility. It is from this time social policy acquires a pronounced pro-noble character.

Anna died on October 17, 1740. According to her will, her great-nephew Ivan Antonovich inherited the throne. And since the heir was not even a year and a half old, the empress, along with the name of the heir, also named the name of the regent. As expected, E.I. Biron. However, less than a month later, the temporary worker, hated by all, was overthrown. The organizer of the next palace coup was a talented adventurer, who managed to serve in almost all the courts of Europe, B.Kh.Minnich. The regency was transferred to the emperor's mother Anna Leopoldovna, his father Anton Ulrich of Brunswick received the rank of generalissimo.

However, a good mother and mistress of the house Anna Leopoldovna was not at all ready for the role of a political leader. The government of the country was carried out by the institution still under E.I. Biron is fine. At the court, entertainment changed in an established sequence. And in the guards barracks, a conspiracy was ripening in favor of the daughter of Peter the Great, Elizabeth.

Relying on a conspiracy of court circles against Anna Leopoldovna and Ivan VI Antonovich and the support of the guards, Elizaveta Petrovna ascended the throne as a result of a palace coup. On the night of November 25, 1741, the most prominent officials of the past reign were arrested together with the emperor's family. Exile became a punishment for everyone. Elizabeth vowed not to execute anyone if she became empress.

Reign Elizabeth Petrovna (1741-1761 ) began under the slogans of a return to the norms of Petrine legislation. However, firstly, the effect of far from all Peter's laws was restored. For example, single inheritance, so important for the entire policy of the great emperor, was not renewed. And secondly, it is not uncommon to return to the orders of the first quarter of the 18th century. carried out without taking into account the needs of the country. As rightly noted by V.O. Klyuchevsky, "the watch was wound up, but not checked." In other words, the government did not have a positive program of action.

The situation changed somewhat only with the advent of a new favorite - A.G. Razumovsky was replaced by I.I. Shuvalov. His cousin P.I.Shuvalov developed a number of financial and economic reforms (however, most of them remained on paper). In particular, a project was developed for the transition from direct to indirect taxation. To this end a state monopoly is introduced for a number of the most profitable types of business (sale of salt, distillation and wine trade, tar smoking, etc.). However, the monopolies that brought high profits very soon became the object of harassment by high-ranking officials. Monopolies began to be transferred to private hands, as a rule, to representatives of the nobility (for example, the decree of 1754 declared distillation a noble monopoly). The result achieved was directly opposite to what was expected: the reform, stopped halfway, only ruined part of the most efficient taxpayers - the commercial peasantry.

One of the most important events carried out on the initiative of P.I. Shuvalov - abolition of internal customs in 1754 Internal customs have existed in Russia since the time of feudal fragmentation, when each of the independent principalities levied import, bridge and similar duties. With the formation of a single state from the principalities of North-Eastern Russia, customs were not destroyed, since they were one of the sources of state income. According to P.I. Shuvalov, a number of measures, including the system of monopolies, were supposed to more than compensate for government losses. The abolition of internal borders contributed to the rapid growth of the marketability of the Russian economy, accelerated the pace of its economic unification.

Almost immediately upon accession to the throne, Elizabeth took care of the heir. In 1742, her fourteen-year-old nephew was brought from Holstein, who received the name of Peter Fedorovich after Orthodox baptism. It was to him that Elizabeth handed over the throne.

Reign Peter III(December 25 1761- June 28 1762.) was the shortest in Russian history. During these six months, the beginning of the monetary reform and the secularization of church land ownership was laid. 18th of Febuary 1762 was signed Manifesto on the Liberty of the Nobility. The manifesto exempted the nobility from compulsory public service. At the same time, the rights and privileges of the noble class were in no way limited. Consequently, the social policy of Peter III, like Anna and Elizabeth before him, was pro-noble in nature.

At the same time, Peter III made a number of very serious miscalculations. So, he defiantly neglected the implementation of the rites and rules of Orthodoxy. In the army, new orders are being introduced along the lines of Prussia. The victorious Seven Years' War for Russia was ended by him on the terms of "status quo". Moreover, the Russian emperor was going to start a war with Denmark, allied with Russia, in order to defend the interests of his homeland (the duchy of Holstein) with the power of Russian weapons. And it was supposed to send privileged guards regiments to the war. Perhaps the matter would have ended in a slight ferment among the guards officers, if the emperor had not threatened his wife with a divorce.

The ambitious, energetic, intelligent Empress Ekaterina Alekseevna (nee Sophia Frederica Augusta, Princess of Anhalt-Zerbst) did not want to get acquainted with the charter of a Russian monastery from her own experience. Relying on the guard, with the help of the brothers, Mr. and A.G. She overthrew the Orlovs and other persons from the throne of Peter III, who was isolated in Peterhof (one of the suburban imperial residences in the vicinity of St. Petersburg), where he signed the abdication. The troops and the population swore allegiance to Catherine II.

The first decrees of Catherine II are frankly populist in nature: a return to the Elizabethan order in the army, the cessation of preparations for a campaign against Denmark, a decrease in the price of salt, etc. It could not be otherwise. Indeed, in addition to the abdicated Emperor Peter III, two more legitimate heirs to the throne lived in Russia: the eight-year-old son of Peter III and Catherine II, and Ivan Antonovich, who was deposed in 1741. "Chance" freed Catherine II from two rivals. A week after the coup in Ropsha, her husband was killed in a drunken brawl. A little later, in 1764, lieutenant V.Ya. Mirovich tried to release Ivan Antonovich, who was under arrest in Shlisselburg's cell. However, the guards, exactly following the order, strangled the prisoner.

Reign Catherine II (1762-1796 ) in the historical literature was called enlightened absolutism. This concept includes several aspects. First, the monarch still has full legislative, executive and judicial powers. Secondly, it is the monarchs (or the favorites who had real power) who realize the need for broad socio-economic and administrative changes, and the theoretical basis for the reforms are the conclusions of the ideologists of the Enlightenment (S.L. Montesquieu, D. Diderot, J.J. Rousseau, F. M. Voltaire).

Enlighteners solved specific issues in different ways, but at the same time they saw the goal of social development in achieving the common good. It was recognized that the growth of mass welfare and civil equality (equality before the law) are the means to achieve this goal. It was these ideas that became the theoretical basis for the reforms of the 1760s-1780s. in Russia.

Thus, under enlightened absolutism the stage of development of an absolute monarchy is understood, when, under the influence of socio-economic changes, the government carried out a set of reforms, using the conclusions of the theorists of the Enlightenment, but at the same time the existing power and property remained inviolable.

Catherine II died on November 6, 1796. The accession of her son Pavel Petrovich is usually regarded as a palace coup. The fact is that, not finding a common language with her son, Catherine in the last years of her reign more than once announced her intention to transfer the throne to her grandson. Alexander, on the other hand, thanked his grandmother, but actually renounced the throne, informing his father of her intentions. It is not known whether any will was made. Probably only one thing is known: on the night of his accession, Paul, locking himself up with the chancellor gr. A.A. Beardless in his mother's office, looking through and burning her papers.

Reign Paul I (1796-1801 ) was remembered by contemporaries as completely opposite to Catherine's. Paul I was a supporter of the idea regular state. This resulted in fundamental changes in the domestic policy of the Russian government.

On April 5, 1797, a new order of succession to the throne was established. The order that had existed since the time of Peter the Great, when the throne was transferred according to the will (testament) of the reigning emperor, was canceled. From that time until 1917, the throne in Russia passed through a direct male descending line (from father to eldest son). The introduction of a direct order of succession to the throne strengthened the position of the sovereign.

The social policy of Paul I cannot be characterized as unequivocally pro-noble. It is impossible, although the monopoly of the nobility on the ownership of land and serfs was not violated, although state peasants were distributed into private hands on an unprecedented scale before (approximately 600,000 d.m.p. for the four years of reign). After all, in parallel, a number of provisions of the Charter to the nobility were canceled, the oath of the serfs was carried out, decrees were issued, at least on paper, limiting the power of the landowner over the serfs. The explanation for such a seemingly contradictory policy should be sought in the idea of ​​regularity. For the good of the state, it is necessary that every subject be able to fulfill his duties.

Measures were taken to support entrepreneurship. For this purpose, in 1796, the Manufactory College was recreated. The purchase of peasants for factories was again allowed. Pavel I tried to solve the problem of the depreciation of banknotes (paper money issued since 1769) by lighting a fire from excess banknotes under the windows of the palace. However, very soon financial difficulties forced the issue of banknotes unsecured by silver to begin.

Considering the Pavlovian legislation, researchers usually note the extremely high activity of the emperor in the field of lawmaking. As a rule, the abundance of laws indicates that transformations are being carried out in the country. This is quite true for characterizing the time of the reign of Paul I. But unlike his predecessors, the emperor sought only to preserve and bring to perfection what was already there.

Along with management, social relations and the economy, regulation was also carried out in everyday life. So, the regime of the day, the form of clothing were established, even the vocabulary of subjects was controlled. Of course, the orders of the supreme power that invaded the private life of a person were ignored as far as possible. Often this led to simply anecdotal situations. Paul I himself became the hero of a huge number of jokes that maliciously ridiculed the absurdity of the behavior and orders of the emperor. Perhaps the shortest of them was the order after the parade: "Regiment, march to Siberia!" Of course, such orders were never issued. But the quick-tempered Paul I often threatened Siberia in anger. It happened that immediately after the parade the officers went into exile. The rest was easy to figure out. The source of such anecdotes was the environment of the guards officers and courtiers. Thanks to them, Paul I was known as not quite a normal person.

An analysis of the legislation of Paul I allows us to conclude that the emperor was fully responsible. His decrees reflected his own vision of solving the problems of Russia's domestic and foreign policy. In fact, this led to the restriction of the privileges of the upper class, interference in the privacy of subjects. In addition, his extreme imbalance influenced his attitude towards Paul I. None of the entourage of Paul I could be sure of the strength of his position (the fate of E. Gruzinov, one of the imperial favorites who died under the whip of the executioner, is proof of this).

In this situation, at the beginning of 1801, a conspiracy against the emperor matured. The organizers of the coup were the St. Petersburg Governor-General gr. P.A. von der Pahlen and President of the College of Foreign Affairs N.P. Panin, the performers were no more than a dozen guards officers. Pavel I was killed on March 11, 1801 in the Mikhailovsky Castle, which he had just rebuilt (a fortress, practically, in the center of St. Petersburg). Fear, reinforced by a hefty dose of alcohol, forced the conspirators to act decisively. Most likely, the very first blow with a snuffbox to the temple turned out to be fatal (the blow was so strong that it was impossible to hide it even under a layer of makeup, and Pavel had to be buried in a hat). The fallen body was strangled, beaten, stabbed with swords. The artists had to work hard in order to allow the people to say goodbye to the emperor who had died from an "apoplexy" in the morning.

So, the conflicting interests of absolute power, the bureaucracy and the nobility were the main reason for palace coups. The active participation of the nobility in the palace coups had quite tangible consequences. In the 30-90s. 18th century the government step by step expands the rights and privileges of the noble class.