Principles of Russian spelling basic spelling rules. Basic principles of Russian spelling

The basic principles of spelling, taking into account which the rules for writing words are formulated, are morphological-phonemic, phonetic, traditional and the principle of differentiated writing. Spelling words that do not have spellings, for example, house, floor, hold, do not correspond to any principle of writing.

The morphological and phonemic principle consists in the uniform spelling of the same morphemes, regardless of their pronunciation options.

The morphological principle makes it possible to preserve the unity of the same morphemes in writing. This is achieved due to the fact that the positional alternations of vowels and consonants are not reflected in the letter. Uniform spelling is established according to the pattern of writing a morpheme in a strong position. So, for example, the sound [e] in the root morpheme -forest- can have pronunciation options [and e] in the word forest and [b] in the word forester. However, for writing, a variant in a strong position [e] is chosen. Based on the morphological and phonemic principle, not only roots are written, but also many suffixes, prefixes and endings, the spelling of which is also checked by the strong position of this vowel or consonant sound in the same morpheme. For example, the prefix ot- is always written with the vowel o and the consonant t, regardless of the pronunciation options: finishing [addelk], clear [ach'ys't'it'], because the choice of writing the prefix occurs according to the strong position of the sounds in this prefix: vacation, dinner. Prefixes over-, under- and some others are written similarly. The suffixes of nouns -ost, -izn, -av, -ar, etc. are written in the same way (in the word hand-av-itsa, as in the word pyκ-aβ∖ in the word tok-ar, as in the word vrat-ar). Unstressed case endings can be checked by a strong position of the endings of other words, but of the same type of declension: book - hand, oak - table (book, hand - 1st fold; oak, table - 2nd fold). The following spelling rules are based on the morphological-phonemic principle:

1. Spelling of unstressed vowels, checked by stress: breeze - wind.

2. Spelling of unpronounceable consonants: stellar - star.

3. Spelling of voiced and deaf consonants at the end of a word: oak - oaks.

4. Spelling of prefixes: o-, about-, from-, on-, over-, over-, under-: give away - vacation.

5. Spelling of suffixes: -ov-, -a-, -ya-, etc.: detained - detain.

6. Spelling of case endings: lakes - buckets.

7. Spelling of a soft sign after consonants inside the word: take - I'll take, casually - I slide.

In Russian, there is assimilative softness, which is not indicated in the letter (guest), and independent softness
(eighth), denoted by ь. To distinguish an independent soft sound from an assimilatively softened one, the word must be changed so that the sound being tested comes before the hard sound. If the independent softness of the sound is preserved, then it is indicated in writing by the letter b.

Initially, Russian writing was mostly phonetic. The vowel sounds of the complete formation o, a, etc. did not change during pronunciation, akanye appeared only in the 12th - 13th centuries. Consonant sounds were not deafened and not voiced, since their pronunciation was supported by special vowels of incomplete formation ь and ъ. So, for example, in the Old Russian language it was impossible to deafen voiced sounds in the words shop, mug, because after the sounds [v] and [g] followed by vowel sounds of incomplete formation: shop, mug. The fall of the reduced, the development of akanya, the processes of assimilation and dissimilation changed the pronunciation of words, but the spelling of morphemes in words was preserved in accordance with the morphological principle. The historical consolidation of the morphological principle occurred because it made it possible to see related words. The relationship of the words forester - forest - forester, fairy tale - storyteller, etc. becomes more important in our minds than pronunciation differences. Thus, the morphological principle appears as a consequence of the awareness of the relatedness of certain roots, prefixes, suffixes and endings. We write words depending on the understanding of their composition. The morpheme remains in the mind as an unchangeable meaningful unit. Hence the desire not to change its spelling. When choosing a graphic representation of a phoneme in a morpheme, two trends collide - to keep the spelling of the morpheme or to designate the sound in accordance with the pronunciation. With the victory of the first tendency, morphological writing is formed, with the victory of the second - phonetic.

Deviations from the morphological principle of writing significant parts of a word are observed when the same morpheme is written differently in different positions. Such deviations are observed: 1) in the spelling of prefixes on -z, -s (take a nap, but cry; tasteless, but useless)", 2) in the spelling of prefixes roses-/-s - times-/s (sledge, but fall apart; painting , but paint)", 3) in the spelling of the endings of adjectives, participles, pronouns and ordinal numbers in im.p. unit (sixth, but fifth; such, but such, etc.); 4) in the endings after hissing (cockerel, but a nut; a candle, but a cloud; fresh, but clumsy); 5) in the absence of double consonants in some derivative words (crystal, but crystal; column, but column); 6) in some roots, where a/o or i/e alternate
(dawn, but to dawn; I will gather, but to collect, etc.), 7) in roots, with alternating consonants (leg, foot; light, lighting, etc.); 8) in the roots, where, after Russian prefixes, the initial and turns into s (to play along, before June).

The phonetic principle consists in reflecting the alternation of phonemes in weak and strong positions in writing. With such a letter, the letter corresponds to the pronunciation (it is written as it is heard). Thus, the same morpheme has spelling variants depending on pronunciation. There are few orthograms that correspond to the phonetic principle in Russian spelling. According to the phonetic principle, they are written: 1) prefixes on 3-∕c-∙. without-/bes-, air-/voo-, air-/sun-, from-/is-, bottom-/nis-, times-/ras-, roses-/ros-, through-/through~: chosen - fulfilled, overthrow

Fall down, emergency - striped", 2) spelling of prefixes roses- / dew- - times- / races-", distribute - distributed, schedule

Receipts - painting", 3) writing s instead of and in the roots after Russian prefixes: unprincipled, refined, artless,

4) spelling s after ts in the suffix -yn: sinitsyn, sistersyn (but: dad, mom, Svetin), in the words: tsyts, gypsies, chicks,

5) writing the letter o under stress after nouns, adjectives and adverbs hissing in suffixes and endings: river, galchonok, strap, raincoat, fresh, hot, cherry plum, canvas (but: pebble, chintz, plush; 6) writing individual letters in some roots: ladder (climb, climb), nostril (nose, nasal), wedding (matchmaker, woo), in these words, assimilation by deafness was fixed in writing.

The traditional-historical principle of spelling is the spelling of words in accordance with established traditions. Phonemes in weak positions are indicated by one of the possible options.

The traditional principle includes: 1) writing alternating roots: state - state, swimmers

Swim, etc., 2) writing a soft sign after hissing: daughter, back, only, read, spread, etc .; 3) spelling of the vowel in the suffixes -insk-/-ensk-: Sochi, Baku, but: Penza, Frunze; 4) writing sounds that are paired in sonority / deafness, not tested by a strong position: railway station, football, baking, asbestos; 5) writing dictionary words: railing, vinaigrette, accompaniment, etc.; 6) writing the ending -th instead of the pronounced -ova in adjectives, participles, ordinal numbers and some pronouns: large, read, second, which. If the spelling of dictionary words needs to be simply memorized or specified in a dictionary, then the spelling of alternating roots and the spelling of a soft sign after hissing is regulated by a system of rules. Soft sign after hissing
written for feminine nouns of the 3rd declension (night, daughter), for verbs in the infinitive, in the 2nd person singular. hours and in the imperative mood mi. h. (burn, bake, read, pour, cut, spread), as well as adverbs, except for married, unbearable, backwards, backwards, and particles (only, I mean). Masculine nouns, nouns in the genitive plural. hours and short adjectives are written without a soft sign (brick, a lot of clouds, good, burning). There are few alternating roots in Russian, but the rules for their spelling are heterogeneous in nature, which creates difficulties in spelling such roots.

Spelling of alternating roots

alternating	Writing rules	Exceptions
Alternation at the root depends on the place of stress in the roots
zar-/zor-	dawn - dawn	dawn, dawn
rap-∕rop- creature-/creature- clan-/clone-	In an unstressed position O: burnt - cinder, mess up - a creature, tilt - bow	scorch, scorch, scorch utensils
The alternation in the root depends on the last consonants of the root
lag-/false-	A before G, O before? K: expound - expound	canopy
jump-/skoch-	A in front of K, O in front of H: jump - I’ll skip	jump, jump
rast" / rasch- /	And before ST, SH; O in other cases: overgrow, grow, overgrown	teenager, Rostislav, pawnbroker, sprout, Rostov, industry
Alternation at the root depends on the value of the roots
plov-/plov-	About in the roots of words denoting people: swimmer, swimmers, swimmer. And in other cases: float, swimming	quicksand

Table continuation

equal-/even-	Equal - in the meaning of "equal, the same": compare, equality. Rovn - in the meaning of "smooth, smooth": trim the paths, align the beds	level plain, level, alignment
poppy-/mok-	Mak- in the meaning of "dip into the liquid": to dip in water. Mok - in the meaning of "absorb moisture, get wet": waterproof, blotter
Alternations in the root depend on the suffix -a-
κac-∕κoc-	And in the root, if there is a suffix -a-: touch - touch
beer- / ber- blist - / glitter - dir - / hold - jig - / burn - world - / mer - pir - / pers -steel - / stell - tir - / ter - chnt - / even -	And in the root it is written, if there is a suffix -a-: clean up - clean up, bli become - shine, run away - run away, light - lit, die - died, lock - locked, spread - spread out, wipe - wiped,	combine, combination, count

In Russian, there are also other varieties of the traditional principle of writing. So, the alternation of a / o in the root can be associated with the formation of aspect pairs in verbs with suffixes -yva- / -iva-: in the roots of imperfective verbs it is written a, in the roots of perfective verbs - o: throw away - throw away, flood - flood , throw - abandon, affect - affect, be late

To be late, to look after - to look after, etc.

Differentiated spellings, unlike other principles, do not regulate spelling, but explain the spelling of different letters in similar-sounding words: ramparts - oxen, campaign

Company, compliment - complement, genie - genie. With the help of differentiated spellings, the lexical and grammatical meanings of words are distinguished. Should not be considered as
differentiated writing those cases where the letter distinguishing homophones is easily checked by a strong position, for example: rarefy - rare and defuse - charge; interspersed - interspersed, between and interspersed - mixing, interfering.

Means that differentiate lexical and grammatical meaning. 1) letters: burn (n.) - burn (verb), ink (short welcome piece of music, m.p.) - ink (paint, f.p.); 2) capital or small letters: Eagle (city) - eagle (bird), Roman (name), novel (literary genre); 3) continuous, semi-continuous and separate spelling: about you (preposition), to a bank account (preposition and noun), despite age (preposition), not looking at the book (particle and gerund); 4) stress: cities (mi. h., im. p.), cities (singular h., r. p.) when (in an unstressed position - a union, in a stressed position - an adverb. (Compare: I don’t know, I will come when I have free time) that (in an unstressed position - a union, in a stressed position - a pronoun); 5) quotation marks: language (means of communication), with language "(captured enemy), Maxim Gorky (Russian writer), ship "Maxim Gorky".

Consolidated, semi-continuous and separate spellings are determined by special principles: lexical-morphological (the spelling depends on the part-of-speech belonging: despite youth and not looking out the window); lexico-syntactic (different spelling of phrases and words: fast-flowing days and fast-flowing streams from the mountains); and word-formation-grammatical (the spelling depends on the formal word-formation indicator: complex words with the first part in -iko are written in succession by a hyphen, words with a connecting vowel are written together: chemical-technological, dried fruits.

Spelling principles- These are the patterns that underlie the spelling system. Each spelling principle combines a group of rules that are an application of this principle to specific linguistic phenomena.

Morphological principle consists in requiring the same spelling of the same morphemes: prefixes, roots, suffixes, etc. For example: steppe - steppe, rowan - pine, sign - signature, to the wound - to water. This principle is leading in Russian orthography; the spelling of most of the words is subordinated to him.

The phonetic principle is that the spelling must match the pronunciation. This principle of spelling is usually manifested when alternations are transmitted in the same morpheme, for example: paint - painting, homeless - ownerless.

Traditional principle lies in the fact that the spelling fixed by tradition is recognized as correct. This, for example, is the spelling of Russian and borrowed words with unchecked vowels, unchecked, unpronounceable or double consonants in the root: dog, ax, station, football, health, alley, etc. In school practice, words with unchecked vowels and consonants are called dictionary words.

differentiating principle spelling is implemented in situations where it is necessary to distinguish between the same-sounding words by means of spelling: score (score) and ball (dance evening), burn (verb) and burn (noun), cry (verb) and cry (noun), carcass (masculine noun ) and ink (feminine noun), eagle (bird), and Eagle (city).

In addition to those mentioned, in Russian orthography there are principles that regulate continuous, separate and hyphenated spelling, the use of capital letters, word hyphenation rules, etc.

Modern Russian orthography is based on several principles. The main one is the morphological principle, the essence of which in the following morpheme (the significant part of the word root, prefix, suffix, ending) retains a single letter spelling, although the sounds included in this morpheme may change during pronunciation. Thus, the root bread in all related words is written in the same way, but is pronounced differently depending on what place the vowel or consonant sounds occupy in the word, cf. [chl "ieba], [chl" bavos]; the prefix under- in the words file and knock out is the same, despite the different pronunciation, cf. [ptp "il" it"] [padb "it"]; adjectives mocking and boastful have the same suffix -liv-; unstressed ending and stressed are indicated the same in the table - in the book, big - great, blue - mine, etc. .P.

Guided precisely by this principle, we check the truth of a particular morpheme by selecting related words or changing the form of the word so that the Morpheme is in a strong position (under stress, before p, l, m, n, j, etc.), those. would be clearly marked.

The role of the morphological principle in orthography is great, if we bear in mind that the system of intramorphemic alternations, due to various reasons, is widely developed in the Russian language.

Along with the morphological principle, the phonetic principle also operates, according to which words or their parts are written as they are pronounced. For example, prefixes on z change depending on the quality of the consonant following the prefix before the voiced consonant, the letter z is heard and written in prefixes (without-, voz-, out-, bottom-, raz-, rose-, through-, through-), and before a deaf consonant in the same prefixes, the letter c is heard and written, cf. object - exclaim, beat - drink, overthrow - send down, etc.

By the operation of the phonetic principle the spelling of vowels o - ё after sibilants in suffixes and endings of different parts of speech is also explained, where the choice of the corresponding vowel depends on the stress, cf. a scrap - a knife, brocade - nomadic, a candle - a cloud, etc.

The root vowel, even after Russian prefixes to a consonant, passes into ы and is also indicated by this letter in accordance with the phonetic principle, i.e. it is written as it is heard and pronounced prehistory, pre-July, draw, play, etc.

Valid in our spelling also historical or traditional principle, according to which words are written the way they were written before, in the old days. So, the spelling of vowels and, a, u after hissing is an echo of the ancient state of the phonetic system of the Russian language. Dictionary words, as well as borrowed ones, are written according to the same principle. Such spellings can be explained only with the involvement of the historical laws of the development of the language as a whole.

Exists in modern orthography and The principle of differentiated writing(semantic principle), according to which words are written depending on their lexical meaning, cf. burn (verb) and burn (noun), company (group of people) and campaign (any event), ball (dance party) and score (unit of assessment).

In addition to those named in spelling, it is necessary to note the principle of continuous, hyphenated and separate spelling of complex words, we write together or with a hyphen, and combinations of words - separately.

Summing up, we can say that the variety of Russian spelling rules is explained, on the one hand, by the peculiarities of the phonetic and grammatical structure of the Russian language, the specifics of its development, and, on the other hand, by interaction with other languages, both Slavic and non-Slavic. The result of the latter is a large number of words of non-Russian origin, the spelling of which has to be memorized.

1. The rules establishing the uniform spelling of significant parts of a word are based mainly on the morphological principle of Russian spelling. It lies in the fact that the significant part of the word should be written in the same way, uniformly, regardless of how it is pronounced in speech. Unstressed vowels are written as if they were under stress, and consonants - in the same way as in position before vowels, sonorant consonants (й, l, m, n, p) and consonant в. Examples: 1) at the root of the word export, instead of the sound [o], a reduced [b] is heard, instead of [h] - [s], but this root in all cases will be written with the letters o and z, which denote the sounds [o] and [ h] in strong positions, as in the word we take out; 2) the prefix will be written in the same way in all words, although it is pronounced differently: sandbank - refusal - to leave; 3) the suffix -liv- is written through and (lucky, friendly), since under the stress this sound is heard in it: talkative; 4) the ending of nouns is always written in the same way -om: with chalk; it can be checked with an accent: a table.

Unchecked spellings are called traditional: north, west, barrier. They do not contradict the morphological principle: parts of the word that cannot be verified must also be written uniformly: north, northerners, Severodvinsk.

In some few cases, deviations from the morphological principle are observed. For example, roots with alternating vowels are not written uniformly: dawn - dawn, spread - spread. This is due to the reflection of ancient sound alternations on the letter.

Another principle of Russian spelling is phonetic, according to which spelling and pronunciation must match. The operation of this principle applies mainly to the spelling of prefixes: harmless - powerless (at the end of the prefix, the sound that is heard is written); dissolve - dissolution (about only under stress). The rule of using the vowel y after a prefix ending in a solid consonant is based on the phonetic principle: search, previous. There are few phonetic spellings in Russian orthography.

2. The rules establishing separate and continuous spellings are based on the following principle: all words (both independent and functional) are written separately from each other, and all parts of words are written together: two days, without writing; two days, unwritten.

Semi-fused (hyphenated) spellings are observed mainly in compound words: southwest, pale yellow; in adverbs: firstly, in a comradely way.

Spelling norms sometimes lag behind the processes taking place in the language. So, the adverb under the armpits is currently understood not as a combination of two words, but as one word, but so far its separate spelling has been preserved. Therefore, if you encounter difficulties associated with separate, continuous and semi-continuous spelling of adverbs, as well as with the spelling of complex words, you need to refer to the spelling dictionary.

3. The method of transferring a word depends on its division into syllables, as well as on the morphemic composition. Accordingly, when transferring words, one should not break the syllable, transfer the part that does not form a syllable, and, if possible, take into account the structure of the word: open, write, length.

4. The use of uppercase and lowercase letters:

a) the first word in an independent sentence is written with a capital letter: Summer has come. The holidays have begun;

b) all proper names are written with a capital letter: Eugene Onegin, Petersburg. Names used in a common sense are written with a lowercase letter: clumsy bear (bear), try Napoleon (cake), undergo an x-ray (examination);

c) words formed from proper names are spelled differently. Adverbs - with a lowercase letter: Chekhov's lyrical, satire Gogol's. Adjectives with the suffix -sk- are also written with a lowercase letter: Pushkin's prose, Nabokov's plays. If these adjectives are used in compound names, they must be capitalized: Pushkin Readings, Nabokov Conference. The capital letter is written in adjectives with the suffixes -oe- (-ev-) and
-in-: Platonic philosophy, Dalev dictionary, Machine's diary;

d) in the names of the highest international organizations, the highest state bodies, positions and titles, all words are written in capital letters: the United Nations Organization, the Supreme Court of the Russian Federation, the Prosecutor General of the Russian Federation, the Hero of the Russian Federation;

e) in geographical and astronomical names, in the names of the most important historical events, all words are written in capital letters, except for generic designations such as ocean, island, war, constellation, etc.: Arctic Ocean, alpha Ursa Major, Great Patriotic War;

f) in the names of organizations and institutions, the first word, proper names and the words House, Palace are written with a capital letter: the State Academic Bolshoi Theater of Russia (Bolshoi and Russia are proper names), the Moscow Operetta Theater, the Central House of Books;

g) in the titles of works and documents, the first word and proper names are written with a capital letter: Old Testament, Rachmaninov's First Concerto for Piano and Orchestra. Titles of books, names of newspapers, magazines, movies, paintings, performances, product names, trademarks should be enclosed in quotation marks: Shakespeare's Romeo and Juliet, Crocodile magazine, Golden Key iris;

h) in the names of holidays and significant dates, as a rule, only the first word is written with a capital letter: New Year, March 8, Builder's Day, but: Victory Day (the second word is used with special meaning). If the date in the name of the holiday is indicated by a number, then the word following it is written with a capital letter; Wed: May 1 - May 1st.

Modern Russian literary language / Ed. P. A. Lekanta - M., 2009

Principles of Russian spelling

Russian orthography is based on three principles:

1. Phonemic- the spelling reflects the composition of the phonemes that form it: milk ([málako]; spring ([v "and e sná]). The phonemic principle is the main one in Russian spelling

2. Phonetic- spelling reflects the real sound. An example of this is the spelling of prefixes ONCE / ROS - RAS / ROS (it is written O under stress, without stress A; Z is written before a voiced consonant and before a vowel, C is written before a deaf consonant):

3. Traditional- writing reflects the historical tradition. An example is the spelling of the endings of adjectives, participles and some pronouns and masculine numerals, singular, genitive case: bad, done, mine, one. Phonetically, this ending sounds [óva], [wa], [vo].

Principles of Russian spelling

Spelling principles- These are the patterns that underlie the spelling system. Everyone spelling principle unites a group of rules that are an application of this principle to specific linguistic phenomena.

Morphologicalprinciple consists in requiring the same spelling of the same morphemes: prefixes, roots, suffixes, etc. For example: steppe- steppe, rowan- pine, sign- signature, to the wound- to the water. This principle is an leading in Russian spelling; the spelling of most of the words is subordinated to him.

Phoneticprinciple is that the spelling must match the pronunciation. The principle spelling usually manifests itself when writing alternations in the same morpheme, for example: paint-painting, homeless- ownerless.

Traditionalprinciple lies in the fact that the spelling fixed by tradition is recognized as correct. This, for example, is the spelling of Russian and borrowed words with unchecked vowels, unchecked, unpronounceable or doubled consonants in the root: dog, axe, station, football, health, alley and others. In school practice, words with unverifiable vowels and consonants are called vocabulary words.

differentiatingprinciple spelling is implemented in situations where it is necessary to distinguish between the same-sounding words by means of spelling: score(score) and ball(dance night), burn(verb) and burn(noun), cry(verb) and cry(noun), carcasses(masculine noun) and ink(feminine noun) eagle(bird), and Eagle(city).

In addition to those named Russian spelling has principles, regulating continuous, separate and hyphenated spelling, the use of capital letters, word hyphenation rules, etc.

The basic principle of Russian spelling

The leading principle of Russian spelling is morphological principle.

The essence of the morphological principle of Russian spelling is that significant parts (morphemes) common to related words retain a single style in writing, although they differ in pronunciation depending on the phonetic conditions in which the sounds that make up the significant parts of the word are found.

Regardless of pronunciation, the morphological principle of spelling is applied when writing roots and endings. Morphological is also the principle of graphically uniform design of spellings of words belonging to certain grammatical categories. These include:

1. spelling of feminine nouns with final hissing: rye, night, mouse, thing. Writing a soft sign at the end of these words does not have a phonetic meaning, but serves as an indicator of grammatical gender and graphically combines all nouns in one type of the 3rd declension ( new, blizzard, shadow, bed, notebook etc.);

2. writing an infinitive with a final sibilant: save, reach. And in this case, the soft sign is not a sign of softness, but serves as a formal sign of the indefinite form of the verb, and its spelling creates a graphic uniformity in the design of the infinitive ( shave, believe, write etc.);

3. writing the form of the imperative mood with the final hissing: multiply, assign, console. Also here, writing a soft sign serves the purposes of morphology: a uniform external design of the imperative is created ( correct, discard, discard, measure etc.).

In addition to the morphological principle, which is the main one in Russian orthography, phonetic spellings, i.e. spellings that match the pronunciation. The most striking example of such spellings is the writing of prefixes ending in h: without-, air-, from-, times-, bottom-, through-, through-. The final sound [z] in these prefixes before the deaf consonants of the root is stunned, which is reflected in the letter: soulless - stupid, lead - exclaim, publish - interpret, overthrow - send down, smash - disband, excessive - interlace. Phonetic spellings include the spelling of prefixes grew- under stress and race- without accent: painting - receipt. Also spelling s instead of initial and after prefixes ending in a hard consonant unprincipled, find, previous, play.

To differentiating include spellings that serve to distinguish homophones in writing: arson(noun) - set fire to(verb), ball - ball, campaign - company, Eagle(city) - eagle(bird).

Finally, there are also traditional, or historical, spellings An example would be the writing of a letter and after hard hissing w, w and after c: in the Old Russian language, the sounds [zh], [sh] and [ts] were soft and the writing of the letter after them was natural, as it corresponded to the pronunciation.

Continuous, semi-fused and separate spellings are associated with compound words of different parts of speech (nouns, adjectives, numerals, pronouns, adverbs), with the repetition of words, with the writing of foreign prefixes, etc.

Principles of Russian spelling, spelling

SPELLING - a system of spelling rules. The main sections of spelling:

writing morphemes in various parts of speech,
continuous, separate and hyphenated spelling of words,
the use of uppercase and lowercase letters,
hyphenation.

Principles of Russian spelling. The leading principle of Russian orthography is the morphological principle, the essence of which is that morphemes common to related words retain a single style in writing, and in speech they can change depending on phonetic conditions. This principle applies to all morphemes: roots, prefixes, suffixes and endings.

Also, on the basis of the morphological principle, a uniform spelling of words related to a certain grammatical form is drawn up. For example, ь (soft sign) is a formal sign of the infinitive.

The second principle of Russian spelling is phonetic spelling, i.e. words are spelled the way they are heard. An example is the spelling of prefixes on z-s (incompetent - restless) or a change in the root of the initial and on s after prefixes ending in a consonant (play).

There is also a differentiating spelling (cf.: burn (n.) - burn (vb)) and traditional spelling (the letter and after the letters zh, sh, ts - live, sew).

A spelling is a case of choice where 1, 2, or more different spellings are possible. It is also a spelling following the spelling rules.

The spelling rule is the spelling rule of the Russian language, which spelling should be chosen depending on the language conditions.

Basic principles of orthography

Spelling principles are the ideas that underlie the spelling rules of a particular language. There are three of them: morphological, phonetic and traditional.

The leading principle in Russian writing is the morphological principle. It consists in the uniform spelling of words and parts of words (morphemes). Uniformity in the spelling of significant parts of the word is achieved by the fact that in the same part of the word the same letters are written mainly, regardless of pronunciation: cube [p] - cube [b]; boot [k] - in a boot; distant - distance; run away, do The morphological principle makes it possible to identify words that are related in meaning and identical in structure.

With the maximum correspondence between the sound and graphic appearance of the word (i.e., the word is written as it is heard), it is customary to talk about the phonetic principle. In the spelling systems of other languages, where the word is written as close as possible to its pronunciation, the phonetic principle is the leading one. In Russian spelling, this spelling principle is partially represented. In accordance with the phonetic principle, prefixes are written in Russian in -з; -s (voiceless, powerless, used, expired) and the initial root letter s after the original Russian prefixes on a solid consonant (search, detective).

The spelling of prefixes on -з, -с is the only rule in Russian orthography based on the phonetic principle and consistently observing this principle.

The traditional principle suggests a large gap, a discrepancy between the spelling and pronunciation of a word. The spellings of words and morphemes that obey this principle should be memorized. In Russian, the traditional principle is present in the spelling of the endings of adjectives and words that change like adjectives (beautiful, third, which), in the presence / absence of the letter ь at the end of adverbs and particles (jump, marry, only, already).

The phonetic principle of spelling is traditionally understood as one in which successive chains of sounds in word forms are designated on the basis of a direct connection "sound - letter", without taking into account any other criteria.

Briefly, this principle is defined by the motto "write as you hear."

But a very important question is what sounds should be designated with the phonetic principle, with what detail.

In practical writing, which is any letter-sound writing, and with the phonetic principle of spelling, only phonemes can and should be indicated.

The phonetic principle of spelling with the advent of the concept and the term "phoneme" could be called the phonemic principle of spelling, but since the latter term is used in modern linguistic literature (by IMF scientists) in a different sense (see below, p. 145 et seq.), it is more convenient to leave the former name for it1.

The phonetic principle as a certain orthographic beginning is proclaimed when positional alternations of phonemes (if they occur) are specifically reflected in the letter. The phonetic principle is such a principle of designating phonemes when the phonemes of weak positions, with which the phonemes of strong positions alternate, are denoted by letters adequate to the phonemes of weak positions on the basis of a direct connection "phoneme - letter adequate to it"2.

But the designation of certain phonemes of strong positions also falls into the sphere of the phonetic principle. This is the designation of the stressed vowel /o/ after hissing (as is the case with the morphological principle), which is associated with the "transition" /e/ to /o/ and the peculiarity of the letter row e - e - o, for example: galchonok, hat, etc. .

The phonetic principle is the antagonist of the morphological principle. Orthograms written according to the phonetic principle may, if deemed appropriate, be written according to the morphological principle; that is why they are considered to be violations of the morphological principle.

There are few orthograms that correspond to the phonetic principle in Russian spelling. Let's consider them.

1. Writing prefixes with a final s: without-, voz-, vz-, out-, bottom-, times-, roses-, through- (through-).

Morphologically, these prefixes should always be written with z, i.e. it would be necessary to write not only painless, but also "non-party", not only escaped, but also "dirty", etc. This is how, without changing the graphical form, all the other prefixes are written: sang and passed, repaid and thanked, got hooked and ran up, etc.

Meanwhile, prefixes on -z we write based on the phonetic principle: they are written either with the letter z or with the letter c, depending on the pronunciation (see "Rules ...", § 50). According to the law of alternations, the sound /z/ before the next voiceless consonant is replaced by /s/, and this sound alternation, contrary to the morphological principle, is reflected in the letter:

It should be noted that the -z prefixes are not written completely phonetically. So, in the words ruthless and reckless, in place of the final spelling s in the prefix, /zh/ sounds silent, and in the place of the final spelling s in the prefix, /w/ sounds silent. In these words, there is an alternation of a different nature - alternation at the place of formation.

Thus, the phonetics of writing prefixes on -z has a limit: it is limited to showing on the letter either the voicedness or the deafness of the final consonant sound of the prefix before subsequent voiced (before which it is written z) and deaf (before which it is written with) consonants. There is one peculiar exception here. The word tasteless is spelled with the spelling variant bez-, although a deaf sound /s/ is pronounced in the prefix: be/s/tasty (before the subsequent deaf sound /f/ pronounced in place of the letter c). But since in writing we see the sign of a voiced consonant, namely the letter v, and not f, then we write the prefix without writing with the letter z (i.e., with the sign of a voiced consonant) in relation to the subsequent letter v (the sign of a voiced consonant), and not to the deaf sound denoted by it /f/. Here, the real sound recedes in our minds before the force of the impact of the letter1.

2. Writing the prefix rose-.

In writing this prefix, in addition to reflecting the alternation /z/ with /s/ - distributed, but painted, - the positional alternation of the stressed /o/ with the unstressed /a/ is also reflected. The "Rules ..." says: "... the prefix raz- (ras-) is always written not under stress, for example: distribute? )".

Thus, the prefix rose- has four written variants: rose-, rose-, times-, race-.

Withdrawal of unstressed variants of times- (ras-), i.e. the ability to write "give out" instead of the now accepted hand out (since there is a hand out); "Rescribing" instead of the currently accepted signature (since there is a signature), etc., interfere with some cases of stress on /a/: developed, developed, developed - from developed; developed (along with developed), developed (along with developed), developed (along with developed) - developed1.

But the phonetics of writing the vowel in the prefix roz- for a long time was limited to one exception: the word search?y with unstressed /a/ was written with o (since search). The latest edition of the Spelling Dictionary of the Russian Language (M., 1991) gives the spelling of this word with a - detective, detective (see p. 305).

3. Writing s instead of the initial and (according to pronunciation) in the root after prefixes 2 ending in a solid consonant: artless, refined, unprincipled, pre-July, etc. 3

These spellings are phonetic. After prefixes ending in a solid consonant, it is pronounced in accordance with the phonetic laws of the Russian language /ы/.

Before the publication in 1956 of the Rules of Russian Spelling and Punctuation, instead of the etymological one and after the prefixes, it was written only in Russian words (to play, search, etc.), in foreign roots, according to the rules, it was written and ("unprincipled", " uninteresting", etc.). Since in modern language such words as idea, interest, history and many others. etc., are no longer perceived as foreign, in 1956 it was considered expedient to give a single rule for both Russian and borrowed words. Indeed, writing is not always easy.

can determine if the root part of a word is a loanword. It is no accident, therefore, that there were also hesitations: unprincipled and unprincipled, uninterested and uninterested, which took place in the practice of the press before the publication of the "Rules ..." in 1956.

The spelling of the initial and root after solid consonants is preserved at the present time after Russian prefixes inter- and super-, as well as after foreign prefixes and particles. After the prefix inter- and it is written by virtue of the general rule, according to which after w it is not written s, and after super- - because the combinations of gy, ky, hy are not characteristic of the Russian language. After foreign prefixes, and is stored so that the writer can quickly see and understand the root, for example, in the word sub-inspector, etc., and thanks to this, understand the word faster. The rule is set forth in § 7 of the Rules of Russian Spelling and Punctuation.

4. Writing o in suffixes -onok, -onk(a) after hissing: galchonok, cap, etc. (cf .: owlet, hut, etc.). The morphological principle would correspond to writing with e.

Traditionally, it was considered phonetic to write е/о after sibilants and ц in the endings of nouns and adjectives, as well as to write е/о in the suffix -ok- (-ek-) after sibilants1. But these spellings can be regarded as morphological (see above, p. 109).

In the general system of Russian spelling, built on the morphological principle, spellings based on the phonetic principle, as falling out of the system, make writing more difficult than morphological ones, and therefore they should be given special attention.

It must be emphasized once again that such spellings as house, hold, floor, etc., are not within the scope of the phonetic principle (as they are not within the scope of any other orthographic principle). There are no spellings here.

Do not correspond to the phonetic principle and such spellings as country, bough, etc.3 The letters a and k are written not on the basis of a direct connection "phoneme - letter", but on the basis of morphological comparisons (country?, since countries; bough , since bitches?), i.e. on a morphological basis.

1 Phonemography called this way of writing Baudouin de Courtenay: "... phonemography means a one-sided, exclusively phonetic way of writing, which does not take into account the division of the sentence into syntagmas or syntactic elements and the drain - into morphemes, i.e. morphological elements. On the contrary , in morphemography, attention is drawn to mental relationship, i.e. associations by the similarity of a sentence with other sentences and words with other words "(Baudouin de Courtenay I.A. Influence of language on worldview and mood; the same in the book: Selected Works on General Linguistics, Moscow, 1963, vol. 2, p. 332.

2 The name "phonemic" (and not "phonetic") principle is used for these cases: Maslov Yu.S. (Introduction to linguistics. M., 1987. P. 259); Zinder L.R. (Essay on the general theory of writing. L., 1987. P. 91); Selezneva L.B. (Modern Russian letter ... Tomsk, 1981. P. 56).

1 The literal aspect of the rule about prefixes on -z was noted by Moiseev A.I. (Russian language: Phonetics. Morphology. Spelling. M., 1980. P. 233); Kuzmina S.M. (Theory of Russian spelling. M., 1981. P. 251).

1 See: Russian literary pronunciation and stress: Dictionary-reference book / Ed. R.I. Avanesov and S.I. Ozhegov. M., 1959. S. 484; Orthoepic dictionary of the Russian language. M., 1983. S. 480.

2 S instead of and (according to pronunciation) is also written in the prefix from-, if it follows another prefix: from the beginning, from childhood.