Problematic chronological method of studying history. Research methods

First ever The calendar was invented in ancient Egypt 7 thousand years ago. People at that time began to try to determine the cyclical nature of time. They began to count the seasons of the year, trying to count the time that had passed since the beginning of history.

In ancient Egypt, for successful harvesting, you needed to know exactly Nile flood time which is repeated annually. So the first calendar was created and began to serve people. Soon the ancient Maya, the ancient Germans, in ancient Judea, had their own calendars.

Pagan Russia also had its own calendar, where they were guided by the sun and moon, before Prince Vladimir forced all the people to be baptized in 988. The year according to this calendar began in the spring, when the forces of nature awakened.

In ancient times, each country had its own calendar, and in different calendars neither the number of days in a year nor the starting point of the beginning of the year coincided. For example, in Russia, the year for some time began on September 1. And in ancient Egypt - in May.

Gregorian calendar

Now we live according to the Gregorian calendar. His introduced by Pope Gregory in the 16th century ad. True, the Pope did not come up with anything new. He just improved a little. Julian calendar, that is, the calendar introduced by Julius Caesar in ancient Rome. It is according to Caesar's calendar that the year begins on January 1, there are 365 days in a year, and one year out of every four years is a leap year. The beginning of a new era according to the Gregorian calendar was from the Nativity of Christ.

On November 9, 1989, an event took place that marked the beginning of a new historical era. The fall of the Berlin Wall, the impact of this event not only on the past, present and future of Europe and the world as a whole, but also on relations between Russia and Germany were discussed at the House of the Russian Historical Society by leading historians and diplomats of the two countries.

A.A. Gromyko in the Kremlin office. Photos from open sources

This July marked the 110th anniversary of the birth of Andrey Andreyevich Gromyko, a Soviet diplomat and statesman who served as Minister of Foreign Affairs of the USSR in 1957-1985, and from 1985 to 1988 - Chairman of the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet of the USSR.

In the photo: Meeting of the zemstvo society of the city of Bogorodsk

115 years ago, the “Regulations on provincial and district zemstvo institutions” began to create a system of local zemstvo self-government in rural areas in 34 provinces of European Russia.

Today our country celebrates the day of one of the main symbols of Russia - the white-blue-red tricolor. This holiday was established on the basis of the Decree of the President of the Russian Federation of August 20, 1994 "On the Day of the State Flag of the Russian Federation."

Photos from the website of the Russian State Library

“The court is fast, just, merciful and equal for all” – this is the name of the exhibition in the Russian State Library, prepared by the staff of the Center for Legal Information of the Department of Official and Regulatory Publications for the anniversary date.

On July 26–27 (August 6–7), 1714, during the Northern War of 1700–1721, a battle took place between the Russian and Swedish fleets, which resulted in one of the most significant victories of the Russian Navy.

Georgy Vilinbakhov, photo from open sources

On August 2, 2019, a press conference was held at the TASS news agency by Georgy Vilinbakhov, member of the Council of the Russian Historical Society, Deputy Director General of the State Hermitage for Research, State Heraldry Master of the Russian Federation.

The largest historian of culture, publicist, translator, thinker, one of the brightest representatives of the philosophy of the Silver Age, the author of classical works about Pushkin, Turgenev, Chaadaev, the era of the social movement under Nicholas I and other significant subjects and figures in Russian history - all this can be said about Mikhail Osipovich Gershenzon.

This year, April 16, marks the 85th anniversary of the establishment of the title of Hero of the Soviet Union. The Battle of Borodino Panorama Museum devoted an exhibition to this event, which tells about the “tragedy that has become a triumph” - this is how the attempt to pass the Northern Sea Route by the members of the expedition on the Chelyuskin steamer, undertaken in 1933-1934, is often characterized.

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April 1, 2019 marks the 210th anniversary of the birth of Nikolai Vasilyevich Gogol - a classic of Russian literature, the author of The Inspector General, The Overcoat, Dead Souls and other brilliant works.

As a rule, holidays and memorable dates do not appear from scratch. Some of them have a long history. This can also be said about Defender of the Fatherland Day - a holiday on which we are accustomed to honoring representatives of the domestic Armed Forces and other law enforcement agencies that ensure the security of our country.

One of the most mournful and heroic pages of the Great Patriotic War: on January 27, the whole country remembers the feat of the besieged Leningrad - 75 years ago, the blockade was completely lifted from the city, which lasted exactly 872 days.

A quarter of a century ago, on December 12, 1993, there was a vote on the new Constitution of the Russian Federation. On December 25, it was published and entered into force throughout the Russian Federation.

The adoption of any of the world religions has always become, if not a turning point, then a very important stage in the "life" of any nation or state. Having adopted Islam in VII, the Arabs not only emerged from the historical "shadow", but also made the greatest conquests, reaching Poitiers in the north and the Indian Ocean in the south, and created, in addition, a huge Arab caliphate.

Today, shortly before the new year, we would like to talk about the main calendars of the peoples of the world and the chronology systems that exist on the planet, because not everyone knows what date it is customary to celebrate this very new year, and not everyone knows what year we generally celebrate.

And there is nothing unusual that we are confused, because time is an amazing substance that cannot be touched and felt, the fourth dimension of our three-dimensional physical world. According to modern physicists - theorists, adherents of string theory, time does not exist.

But we are born, grow up, grow up, grow old and go somewhere... And our only constant companions on this planet are the measures of time - seconds, minutes, hours, years. Despite the fact that our planet is not so big, we do not yet have a single calendar - a single system of chronology.

The main existing systems of reckoning

And, if in one part of the earth it is now 2014, then in another it is already 2500, in the third the 8th millennium has come! In this article we want to talk about some of the currently existing systems of chronology among various peoples of the world. And let's start with ourselves, namely with our ancestors, calendars and chronology of the Slavic peoples.

By the way, you can also learn this information from the video on our channel in the voice acting of good speakers, so choose what is easier for you to read or watch and let's go further ...

Chronology and Calendars of the Slavs

Our ancestors - the Ancient Slavs used the calendar, which is now known under the name - "Slavic Aryan" or "Vedic". It is still used by Yngliists - Old Believers, representatives of the most ancient stream of Slavic Aryans.

And it’s good that they kept it, because lately, more and more people are returning to their roots and want to study and use this valuable knowledge. Moreover, they are not outdated, but on the contrary, they provide answers to many questions that interest us today.

Slavic-Aryan calendar

The Slavic Aryan calendar was officially used in Russia for 7208 years! And time in that calendar was measured in "Circles of Life". One circle of life was equal to 144 years (as the year used to be called).

In one circle of life, our planet, which the Ancient Slavs called Mirgard, made a revolution around the center of the Universe, visiting all 16 "houses" in succession - so many constellations were distinguished by the Slavs, in contrast to the Chinese stellar calendar with its only 12 Constellation Houses.

What is the year of the Slavs now?

Now, according to the Slavic Aryan calendar, we live in 7523 years. The years are officially counted from the “Creation of the World in the Star Temple” - most sources say that there is a direct, rather than allegorical meaning here - meaning the signing of a peace treaty, between our Ancestors - representatives of the “Power of the Great Race” (Russia, Aryans) and “ Empire of the Great Dragon" (Modern China).

And the famous icon depicting, as they say, George the Victorious, killing the Dragon, actually illustrates those ancient events. Since China symbolizes a dragon or a snake.

What were the months, weeks and hours of the Slavs

Slavic-Aryan calendar calculated on the basis of the 16-digit system of calculus.

Respectively, The day of the Slavs consisted of 16 hours. They started in the evening. Each hour had its own name and was approximately equal to 90 minutes.

The month consisted of 40 days, and was called forty years.. (A reflection of this is the tradition that has survived to this day to celebrate the 40th day with the remembrance of the departed, which we have already written about separately, and 9 days exactly the same as it was Slavic week).

In addition, nine sorokovniks (months) - a whole summer (year) - is a complete cycle of our Earth's circulation around Yarila (Sun). Summer consisted of three seasons, three forties each - Spring, Winter, Autumn. Each sorokovnik had its own name and these names were very poetic and accurate:

"Fortieth White Radiance"

"Fortieth Awakening of Nature"

"Fortieth of Sowing and Naming".

Weeks in the calendar of our ancestors of the Slavs, as I said, consisted of nine days and were named after the planets of our solar system. There were even smaller parts of the measurement of time: an hour, a fraction, an instant, a moment, a sig.

To understand and admire the wisdom of our ancestors, I will say that - 1 sig is approximately equal to 30 oscillations of the electromagnetic wave of the cesium atom, taken as the basis for modern atomic clocks, and such a small fraction still does not exist in more than one clock in the world.

This fact alone shows how distorted the truth is by those who seek to show our ancient ancestors as illiterate savages!

Gregorian and Julian calendars

Julian calendar

The Julian calendar was introduced by Gaius Julius Caesar himself, the great commander and ruler of Rome. And it happened in 45 BC. With the introduction of Christianity into Russia by Vladimir Svyatoslavovich, the Grand Duke, approximately in the year 1000, the Julian calendar also began to spread widely among the Slavic peoples and was used simultaneously with the Vedic.

All holidays of the Orthodox Church are calculated from that time to this day according to church calendar- The Julian calendar.

Moreover, modern astronomers have recognized that the Julian calendar (old style) is actually more accurate from an astronomical point of view than the widely used Gregorian (new style), since it lags less behind astronomical (natural) cycles.

Gregorian calendar. New and modern chronology

So, in the summer of 7208, Peter the Great issues a Decree, according to which, on the territory of Russia, all previously existing calendars are abolished and the new chronology will start from the Nativity of Christ, then the year was 1700.

Why New Year's Day January 1st

The beginning of the year began to be celebrated on January 1, instead of the magical day of the autumn equinox, as was the case with the Slavs. This calendar is called the Gregorian calendar in honor of Pope Gregory 13, and is valid both in Europe and in the territories of the countries of the former USSR and in many other countries of the world, for the convenience of people.

Have you ever wondered why the beginning of the year is celebrated on January 1st? On December 24, the entire Catholic world celebrates Christmas - the birthday of the baby Jesus. It is from this day that the current calendar begins.

Jesus was a Jew, and on the 8th day the Jews celebrate the rite of circumcision of male babies. This day was the transition from the old year to the new year! It is amazing that every year, gathering with loved ones around the New Year's table, we celebrate the Jewish rite of circumcision of the baby Jesus! But what is interesting is that in fact the Jews themselves have and widely use their own Jewish calendar.

Hebrew or Judaic calendar

The chronology according to the Jewish calendar is conducted from the creation of the world by the Lord. Which, according to the beliefs of the Jews, took place on October 7, 3761 BC - which is called Era from Adam.

The Jewish calendar is lunisolar. That is, both celestial bodies exert their influence on the length of the year. The average year is approximately equal to the Gregorian, but sometimes the values ​​\u200b\u200bcan fluctuate, and the difference is 30-40 days.

Another interesting point is that the Jewish calendar does not consist of numbers, but the letters of the alphabet are used. And it is read from right to left, like all books in Hebrew. Each month of the Jewish calendar has a zodiac sign.

Since ancient times, it has been customary to designate the 12 signs of the zodiac with the symbols of its constellations. Months are counted from spring, but New Year begins in autumn and is called Rosh Hashanah. In the evening, when three stars are visible in the sky, a new day begins.

Islamic calendar

In most countries whose dominant religion is Islam, there is a calendar - Islamic or Hijri. It is used both for religious purposes and as the main determinant of time.

Islamic is a purely lunar calendar. The beginning of the month is a new moon, the week also consists of seven days, but the day off is Friday, there are only 12 months in a year.

The Muslim calendar is based on the year when the Prophet Muhammad made the Hajj from Mecca to Medina. (It was July 16, 622 Gregorian).

What year is it in the islamic calendar

Therefore, the Muslim New Year begins on the 1st of the month of Muharram. October 26, 2014 according to the Gregorian calendar 1436 Islamic calendar.

Islamic New Year is not a holiday in our understanding. On the eve of the evening, it is best for the faithful to fast, and on spend as much time as possible in prayers and good deeds in the name of the Almighty.

Oriental or Chinese calendar

In most countries of the Asian world, despite the official operation of the Gregorian calendar, the majority of the population uses the chronology system created several thousand years ago (approximately 3 thousand years BC) during the reign of Emperor Huang Di.

And its distinctive feature is that it is both solar-lunar. That is, all months begin with the beginning of a new moon.

When is Chinese New Year 2015?

New Year according to the Eastern calendar is celebrated on The second new moon after the winter solstice is between January 21st and February 21st.. And the New Year is a big and noisy holiday, with bright lights, firecrackers, festive processions and a lot of noise.

The Chinese calendar system is based on the astronomical cycles of the Sun, Earth, Moon, Jupiter and Saturn. The 60-year cycle includes a 12-year Jupiter cycle and a 30-year Saturn cycle.

The ancient Asians and the creators of this chronology system believed that the normal movement of Jupiter brings happiness, goodness and virtue.

They divided the path of Jupiter into twelve equal parts and gave them the name of a certain animal, thus the peoples of Asia created solar-Jupiter 12-year calendar cycle.

There is a legend according to which, when the Buddha decided to celebrate the first New Year, he invited all the animals living on earth. However, only 12 came to the holiday. Then the Buddha, as a gift, decided to give their names to the years, so that every person born in the year of a certain animal acquires the character traits of this animal, both good and bad.

For example, now, December 11, 2014, is the year of the Blue Wood Horse, and c On February 19, 2015, the Year of the Blue Wood Goat will begin..

Thai calendar

When travelers first come to the countries of the south - east Asia. They see with amazement that the term on the packaging of goods has long exceeded the middle of the third millennium.

What year is it in Thailand?

And there is, in the Kingdom of Thailand, Cambodia, Laos, Myanmar and some other countries in 2015 will come - the year 2558! The chronology in these countries and among many Buddhists is from the day of Buddha Shakyamuni's departure to nirvana. Welcome to the future!

Moreover, almost every world religion created its own calendar, from events that people wanted to perpetuate. So, for example, representatives of a fairly common religion at the present time - the Baha'is - created their own calendar.

Baha'i calendar

The Baha'i calendar is currently synchronized with the Gregorian calendar for convenience. It was originally introduced by the Báb. Nowruz - the first day of the New Year is celebrated on the day of the spring equinox (March 20-22).

The Baha'i calendar is based on a solar year of 365 days, 5 hours, and 50 incremental minutes. In the Baha'i calendar, a year consists of 19 months of 19 days each (i.e. 361 days in total) with the addition of four (five in a leap year) days.

Celtic calendar (Irish)

For a long time, it was the Irish calendar that was used in the North Scandinavian countries, as well as in modern Ireland. The year was divided into four seasons. There are 13 months and one day in a year. Months are synchronized according to the lunar cycle. The names of the months correspond to the vowels of Ogham, the Celtic tree alphabet.

That is, this is the famous Druid calendar - a very complex system where the calculation of time takes into account both lunar and solar cycles.

Segments of time, approximately equal to our months, were given the names of trees. The biggest holidays were the days of equinox and solstice. However, about the Celtic calendar, modern researchers are hotly debating. Many scholars believe that the knowledge of the Druid Calendar is based on a misconception by several authors whose writings have become too widely circulated.

We do not undertake to judge, we just want to acquaint the reader with some of the existing or existing systems of chronology.

In an article devoted to world chronology systems, it is impossible to keep silent about the famous "Mayan Calendar".

Mayan calendar

We owe the popularization of knowledge about the Maya Indian tribes, not least, to the mystic and novelist Frank Waters, the author of many novels and the ancient civilizations of the Maya, the inhabitants of Central America who have gone into centuries.

The main book about the Mayan calendar, which also touches on the predictions of the ancient Mayan astrologers, was the "Book of the Hopi". An equally important role was played by “Mysticism of Mexico: The Coming of the Sixth Age of Consciousness” - this is an unusual mixture of Mayan and Aztec philosophy, where the author suggested that the end of the Mayan calendar will be the backdrop for the transformation of the spiritual consciousness of people around the world.

However, people have chosen to simplify the information presented in the book, perhaps for the sake of sensation, perhaps due to misunderstanding. And so the legend was born, according to which the Mayan Indians predicted the end of the world in 2012, and the Mayan calendar ended on this date.

On the contrary, scientists, researchers of this ancient artifact, say that the Mayan calendar has not yet been deciphered! The information contained in it may not even belong to the Mayan civilization, but is much older. And scientists all over the world are working on the code of this calendar.

Almost any calendar is a mathematical system, Russian mathematician Vladimir Pakhomov, published a book: “ The calendar is a coded message”, which simply stirred up public opinion.

The fact is that the author, with the help of knowledge of mathematical laws, managed to present the calendar as a numerical mathematical matrix. With the help of which you can "decipher" the messages contained in ancient calendars. The scientist is sure that these messages hide the knowledge that was saved for us by our ancient ancestors who came from distant planets.

But whether it is true or not, today we will not tell you, since this is a separate and very long story, which we will gradually tell about on our learning and self-development portal over time. And today we say goodbye to you, we wish you a good New Year, no matter what calendar and chronology system you do it, and next time we will tell you how it is customary to celebrate the New Year among other peoples of the world.

And of course, do not forget to subscribe and watch our video channel for learning and self-development, where every day we publish new interesting and useful videos on dozens of topics related to health, sports, business, travel and self-development. For example, we advise you to watch why events in a person's life are often repeated, as well as dozens of other interesting and useful videos about self-development.

A calendar is usually called some system with the help of which it becomes possible to differentiate the flow of time into certain intervals, which helps to streamline the course of life. Throughout the history of mankind, there have been a huge number of calendars, and they were based on different principles. In this article, we will discuss calendars, and also talk about what form our modern time reference system can take.

Origin of the word "calendar"

Before proceeding to the description of the types of number systems themselves, let's find out where the word denoting them comes from. The term "calendar" etymologically goes back to the Latin verb caleo, which translates as "proclaim". Another variant that has become the origin of the word "calendar" is the calendarium. The last in ancient Rome was called the debt book. Caleo preserves for us the memory that in Rome the beginning of each month was solemnly proclaimed in a special way. And as for the debt book, its significance is due to the fact that all interest on debts and loans in Rome was paid on the first day.

Origin of the calendar system

The fact that time flows in a certain circle, humanity has long realized on the basis of cyclically repeating events and phenomena, of which there are quite a lot. This, for example, is the change of day and night, the seasons, the rotation of the celestial spheres, and so on. Based on them, various types of calendars developed over time. The basic unit of time of any of them is a day, which includes one rotation of the Earth around its own axis. Then the moon played an important role in history, the change of phases of which forms the so-called synodic month. It is named after the Greek word "synodos", which translates as "rapprochement". We are talking about the convergence in the sky of the sun and moon. And finally, the change of four seasons makes up the tropical year. Its name comes from the Greek "tropos", meaning "turn".

Why do different peoples living on the same planet have different types of calendars? The answer is that the length of the circle, the synodic month, and the tropical year are not correlated with each other, which provides a lot of choice in the calendar.

Three types of calendar

On the basis of the values ​​described, attempts were made at various times to compile a calendar suitable for society. Some of them were guided only by lunar cycles. Thus, lunar calendars appeared. As a rule, they numbered twelve months, focused only on the movement of the night star, and did not correlate with the change of seasons. Others, on the contrary, made their calculations only on the basis of the circle of the seasons, regardless of the moon and its rhythm. This approach gave rise to solar calendars. Still others took into account both cycles - solar and lunar. And, starting from the latter, they tried, one way or another, to reconcile both with each other. They gave rise to mixed solar-lunar calendars.

Moon calendar

Now let's discuss the nuances of time based solely on the movement of the moon. The lunar calendar, as already mentioned, is based on the synodic month - the cycle of changing lunar phases from new moon to full moon. The average duration of such a month is 29.53 days. Therefore, in most lunar calendars, a month lasts 29 or 30 days. The year usually consists of twelve months. Thus, it turns out that the length of the year is about 354.36 days. As a rule, it is rounded up to 354, while periodically introducing a leap year of 355 days. They do it differently everywhere. For example, the Turkish cycle is known, where there are three leap years for eight years. Another option, with a ratio of 30/11, is offered by the Arabic system, on the basis of which the traditional Muslim calendar is compiled.

Since the lunar calendars have nothing to do with the movement of the sun, they gradually diverge from it due to a difference of more than ten days a year. So, the solar calendar cycle of 34 years corresponds to 35 lunar years. Despite this inaccuracy, this system satisfied many peoples, especially at an early stage of development, when they were characterized by a nomadic lifestyle. The moon is easily observable in the sky, and this calendar does not require significant complex calculations. Over time, however, when the role of agriculture increased, its capabilities turned out to be insufficient - a more rigid binding of months to the seasons and the range of agricultural work was required. This stimulated the development of the solar calendar.

Lack of the lunar calendar

In addition to the fact that a calendar based entirely on the lunar cycle differs significantly from the tropical year, it has another significant drawback. It consists in the fact that, due to a very complex orbit, the duration of the synodic month is constantly changing. The difference in this case can be up to six hours. It should be said that the starting point of the new month in the lunar calendar is not the new moon, which is difficult to observe, but the so-called neomenia - the first appearance of the young moon at sunset. This event follows the new moon 2 or 3 days later. At the same time, the time of neomenia depends on the time of year, the duration of the current month and the location of the observer. This means that a calendar calculated in one place will be completely inaccurate for another area. And in general, no system based on lunar cycles is capable of accurately reflecting the real movement of the night star.

solar calendar

The history of the calendar cannot be complete without mentioning the solar cycle. I must say that today it is the main form of time calculation. It is based on 365.24 days. To make the calculations more accurate, leap years are periodically introduced, which collect the accumulated "surplus" in one "extra" day. There are various systems of leap years, due to which many types of calendars based on the movement of the sun are known. The reference point is traditionally considered Therefore, one of the requirements of the solar calendar is that every year this event falls on the same date.

The first system of leap years had its weak point was that for 128 years it gained one extra day, and the equinox point shifted, respectively, back. This inaccuracy was tried to correct in various ways. For example, Omar Khayyam proposed a special 33-year cycle, which then became the basis of the Persian calendar. Later, at the initiative of Pope Gregory, the Gregorian calendar was introduced, which is the main civil calendar of modern society. He also gradually gains one extra day, but this period stretches from 128 years to 3300.

Another attempt to improve the Julian system was made by Milutin Milanković. He developed the so-called New Julian calendar, which gained an error per day already in 50,000 years. This is done thanks to a special rule regarding secular years (they can be considered leap years only if, when divided by 900, the remainder is 2 or 6). The disadvantage of the Gregorian and New Julian calendars, with their accuracy, is the fact that the date of the equinox becomes floating, and falls on different days every year.

Solar-lunar calendar

Finally, let's touch on the solar-lunar calendar. Its essence is to reconcile the movement of the sun with the movement of the moon in one cycle. To do this, it was necessary to periodically extend the year by one month. This year was called embolismic. In ancient Greece and Babylon, three additional months were introduced over the course of eight years. Its error is one and a half days for the entire eight-year period. A longer cycle, according to the history of the calendar, was adopted in China, although it was known in both Babylon and Greece. Its error is one day in 219 years.

Varieties of calendars

Now let's talk about what varieties of the calendar exist today. It will be about constructive, not about astronomical features. So, today flip, wall, pocket and tear-off calendars are most in demand.

Flip calendars

Another name for this type of printed publication is "house". Although some options may have a different design, including a plastic stand. The latter often form one unit with a pencil holder and staple compartments. The bottom line is that the flip calendar is designed so that the tables of the months are located on different pages that need to be flipped in a timely manner. Together with the calendar, various information or simply beautiful images that are included in the overall design of the room are very conveniently located on them. Such products are used most often in offices, conveniently located in the corner of the desktop. The flip calendar also often serves as a gift or souvenir.

Wall calendar

Many in the kitchen have such a calendar attached to the wall, refrigerator door or door. Wall calendars are very popular because they are easy to use and their aesthetic value these days makes them a great home decoration. Sometimes they are combined with the technology of "houses". In this case, wall calendars, as a rule, are real albums dedicated to a particular topic. And the function, in fact, of calculating time fades into the background in them.

Pocket calendar

This type is probably the most common in our time. Pocket calendars are small cards, on one side of which there is, in fact, a calendar plate, and on the other - some kind of drawing. Very often, such products serve as bookmarks, business cards. Often they are used for advertising purposes. Pocket calendars are a kind of postcards that carry an additional function. You can easily put them in your wallet and carry them with you, taking them out as needed.

Tear-off calendars

The Soviet tear-off calendar is familiar to everyone. Once they were found in almost every home, but today their popularity has fallen somewhat, although they are still often found. These products are real books, where each page is dedicated to one day of the year. When a new day dawns, the old page is torn off. That is why it is called detachable. There is some text on the back of the page. As a rule, each such calendar is dedicated to a topic and represents a fairly informative source within its framework.

Church calendars

A few words should also be said about what a church calendar is, since many, when they come to church or read church literature, are faced with a double dating system. In fact, the church Orthodox calendar means the usual Julian calendar. Just for two thousand years, he began to lag behind the real astronomical course of time by almost two weeks. The Catholic Church corrected this, resulting in the Gregorian calendar. But the Orthodox did not accept this reform. The Russian Orthodox Church and several other independent jurisdictions, for example, still adhere to the Julian calendar. But most Orthodox churches in the world still switched to the New Julian calendar, which currently coincides with the Gregorian.

The church calendar thus has at least three varieties. In some countries, in addition, churches use their own national calendars. For example, in Egypt, the Coptic system of chronology is common. Other religious organizations also have their own calendars. Known, for example, Vedic, Buddhist, Islamic, Baha'i and other systems of time organization.

Mayan calendar

In conclusion, let's say a few words about what the ancient Mayan calendar is. In fact, this is not one, but a whole system of different reckonings. The civil calendar for the year of the Mayan Indians was sunny and consisted of 365 days. Its main purpose was to streamline agricultural life. There was also a ritual calendar called the Tzolkin. It translates as "counting days." It is somewhat unusual in its structure. So, the calendar for the year according to Tzolkin contained not 365, but 260 days. The latter were divided into two cycles - twenty-day and thirteen-day. The days of the first of them had their own name, and the second contained only a serial number. The Mayan time counting system also included such periods as tuns (360 days), katuns (20 tuns), baktuns (20 katuns). The epoch of 260 katuns was considered the largest. In terms of the counting system familiar to us, this is 5125 years. In 2012, one such era, called the fifth sun, ended, and a new era of the sixth began.

There are a variety of types of calendars, and the word itself comes from the ancient calendarium (from Latin - debt book), according to which debtors in ancient Rome paid the due interest on the day of calends. In general, a calendar is a system for calculating time intervals, based on the periodicity of the movement of the Moon and the Sun, which is where almost all types of calendars originated.

Separation

Quite a long time ago, both solar and lunar calculations of time intervals went out of use, remaining only at the disposal of zealous gardeners. However, they are constantly used for confessional purposes, which is where the ongoing disagreement of ministers of various cults about the methods of counting comes from. Today, the types of calendars differ, rather, in the design of the list of days of the year, where they are divided into months and weeks, indicating weekdays and holidays.

The layout can be very different. Everyone uses either a desktop version, or a flip-flop, or a wall-mounted one. All types of calendars in the modern world are reference periodicals, where the days, weeks, months of the current year are sequentially listed, often with related information of a very different nature.

Quite often, on each page, somewhere on the side, the position of the Sun or Moon on a given day is indicated, but not all types of calendars provide this information.

Dates

Each people from time immemorial had their own ways of dating the events that took place. Many ancient calendars count time from the creation of the world. For example, among the Jews, the world arose in 3761 BC, but the Alexandrian calendar designated this date as the twenty-fifth of May, 5493 BC. For the Romans, time began with the legendary day of the foundation of their capital in 753 BC, and the Parthians began their records and calculations when the first king reigned on the throne.

It is very entertaining to study ancient calendars, many of which are historical monuments. For the Egyptians, with each dynasty of the pharaohs, a new countdown began. All world religions based their own calendar: the Gregorian calendar shows the year 7525 from the creation of the world, the Islamic - only 1438, according to the Buddhist - humanity has been living in the era of Nirvana for more than two and a half thousand years, and the Baha'i calendar is probably the youngest, there are only 174 year. The invention of the calendar with the development of each civilization was inevitable.

Causes

Each nation needed calendars for different purposes. For example, the Egyptians marked the interval between the risings of Sirius with end points, because just at that time the Nile-breadwinner flooded every year. It was necessary to accurately calculate the harvest, otherwise the river would take away, as well as the time of sowing, when the great stream subsided, leaving life-giving silt behind. And the Egyptians coped very well with this task: they succeeded in inventing the calendar to glory. Scientists all over the world note the amazing accuracy of ancient Egyptian calculations.

And Ancient Russia kept a calendar for all four annual seasons, widely using both the solar and lunar calendars. It was not so easy: every nineteen years it was necessary to include an additional seven months in the general course. However, already in the most hoary antiquity, the Russians had a week - a seven-day week - long before they were told about the Lord's work in creating the world. In 988, Christianity was established, and the account went from the creation of Adam, in the Byzantine way, although Russia stubbornly did everything in its own way, and even the Byzantine calendar acted here with some deviations from the main reckoning. For example, the Byzantines celebrated the new year on September 1, and the Russians out of habit - on March 1. Nowhere else such "special" calendars were used.

Number systems

When translating a certain date from one chronology to another, it is quite easy to get confused. And in general, time is the most amazing substance, it is impossible to feel it - to smell it, to touch it. This is the fourth dimension of the physical three-dimensional world.

There are theoretical physicists today who study string theory, they are sure that time does not exist at all. However, we must somehow celebrate our birth, growth, maturation, old age, departure from this world. Our planet is very small, but there is no single calendar and a single system for calculating time yet.

Moon calendar

The lunar year is not equal to the solar year, it is not tied to the annual movement of our star, therefore the calendar, compiled according to the phases of the moon, is quite shifted relative to the solar one: almost eleven days run in a year, and one lunar excess runs in thirty-four solar years. But the change in the phases of the moon is much easier to observe, it is generally one of the most easily observed phenomena, which is why the lunar calendar has always been extremely popular.

However, the Moon has a very, very complex orbit, and this movement affects the compilation of the calendar, and therefore its shortcomings eventually ceased to enjoy the indulgence of people. All agricultural work is usually tied to the changes of the seasons, which are controlled not by the Moon, but by the Sun. And with rare exceptions (for example, the Islamic calendar), lunar ones were inevitably replaced by solar or lunisolar ones. Moreover, with increasingly developing communications, it was quite difficult to use the lunar calendar: in different latitudes and at different times of the year, the time of the moon changes, and therefore residents of different countries could not meet the specific terms of contracts.

lunisolar calendar

The beginning of the month in this type of calendars is, as in the lunar one, neomenia, that is, the first appearance of a thin crescent of the emerging Moon at the setting Sun. The synodic month is twenty-nine and a half days long, and the tropical year is three hundred and sixty-five and a quarter days long. So there are 12.36 months in a tropical year.

Thus, the lunisolar annual calendar consisted of twelve months (usual) or thirteen. The calendar year cannot be equal to the tropical one in any way, therefore, the insertion of additional months is necessary, which from time immemorial was done by people in Ancient Russia.

solar calendar

Also a rather complicated calculation, since the tropical year is not equal to the calendar year. However, the solar calendar is closest to the one we use today. Here, too, in an ordinary year there are three hundred and sixty-five days, and in a leap year - three hundred and sixty-six, and in order to bring the length of the calendar year closer to the tropical year, the insertion of leap years always took place.

The Julian calendar inserted an extra day every four years. Thus, in four hundred years, one hundred leap days must be added. However, there are also errors in this calculation. The average length of the year is somewhat longer than the tropical one, accumulating one extra day in one hundred and twenty-eight years, shifting the date of the vernal equinox.

China

The oldest known on Earth (sixteenth century BC) is the Chinese calendar of the Shang era. In general, even then in China, the chronology was not going in one and only way. Solar - for agricultural work, and solar-lunar for other needs, moreover, it was also in two versions. The first is Xia, named after the first dynasty in East Asia and is now extremely popular. He counted the year from spring. The second is Zhuan, named after the first ancestor of the Qin dynasty. He counted the new year in autumn.

Modern China also uses the Gregorian, but the lunar calendar has not been forgotten. For all traditional holidays, the dates are determined by the Chinese calendar of the moon. For example, the Spring Festival - the eastern new year - is variable according to the lunar calculation, it occurs on the second new moon from the winter solstice (between January 21 and February 21).

Apocalypse?

It is impossible to remain silent in an article about the types of calendars about one of the most famous - this is the Mayan calendar. The popularity of the knowledge of these ancient civilizations began not so long ago, we owe much to the novelist and mystic, the author of the most interesting novels on this subject, Frank Waters. Now almost every person on earth knows about the inhabitants of America who left a long time ago, but who left obscure traces in abundance. "The Hopi Book" is the main, most in-depth consideration of this calendar. The philosophy of the Aztecs and Mayans about the onset of the sixth and last era of consciousness is very unusual in terms of outlook.

The author suggested that the end of the calendar warns of the transformation of the consciousness of people around the world. But people greatly simplified this information, which the author cited in the book, and prepared for the inevitable apocalypse that the Indians foreshadowed with a specific date in 2012. By the way, the calendar ended on this date. Apparently, the Mayan monuments have not yet been fully deciphered, and the date is determined incorrectly, otherwise how could humanity survive this fateful day?

Scientists

The researchers say so: the ancient artifact is not as simple as one might think. The information that is embedded in it, it is quite possible that they do not even belong to them. She is much, much older. Scientists around the world are trying to decipher this code. Yes, and almost any calendar is a separate mathematical system and can be a coded message, as the well-known mathematician Pakhomov assures everyone, more and more exciting public opinion.

Mathematical laws can represent the calendar as a numerical matrix that will decipher a variety of messages from a variety of ancient calendars. So says this scientist, and many colleagues agree with him. It is possible that the calendars are messages with hidden knowledge that the ancestors have kept for us.

poster calendar

Office and industrial premises, as well as ordinary residential buildings and apartments, are very often decorated not with paintings, but with a beautiful modern poster. Such a poster calendar is widespread because its production has a fairly low cost and is made not only quickly, but also to the taste of the buyer. This is a classic combination of a beautiful photo or slide and a beautifully designed calendar grid for the whole year - economical, convenient, beautiful, and has been in great demand for many years.

Images are possible very different, since the slide library can be replenished endlessly. The poster calendar can be varnished or laminated. Printing houses currently have a powerful printing base, and if a real designer works on an image, this product may well be compared in terms of emotional impact with the highest art.

Desk calendar

Such a product is also usually located on the wall, but this is an even more interesting type of printed matter. Its thematic design, coupled with a very often used accompanying text, is not just a useful thing in the household, it is also a wonderful gift.

Custom design, high quality printing. Usually a loose-leaf calendar consists of six or twelve sheets. In the first case, the print will be double-sided, and in the second, it will be single-sided. In addition, almost always there is a cover and a substrate. This is the most prestigious of all types of calendars. It is made in A2 or A3 format - large, colorful and bright. Sheets are clamped with a spring or special paper clips.

Desk calendar

This is a more modest reminder of the rapidly passing time, however, such a calendar still has many beneficial advantages. Its format allows you to be always in front of your eyes, strictly informative, compact, accessible to any vision compared to a pocket calendar or telephone.

The desktop calendar, made of a "house", easily unfolds and folds, and the desktop flip can serve as an organizer at the same time. It is convenient for traveling, besides, many printing companies supply it with high aesthetic qualities.