Tested properties of water. Properties of water - chemical and physical properties of water in a liquid state

Peptides, or short proteins, are found in many foods - meat, fish, and some plants. When we eat a piece of meat, the protein is broken down during digestion into short peptides; they are absorbed into the stomach, small intestine, enter the blood, cells, then into DNA and regulate the activity of genes.

It is advisable to periodically use the listed drugs for all people after 40 years for prevention 1-2 times a year, after 50 years - 2-3 times a year. Other drugs - as needed.

How to take peptides

Since the restoration of the functional ability of cells occurs gradually and depends on the level of their existing damage, the effect can occur both 1-2 weeks after the start of taking peptides, and 1-2 months later. It is recommended to conduct a course within 1-3 months. It is important to take into account that a three-month intake of natural peptide bioregulators has a prolonged effect, i.e. works in the body for another 2-3 months. The effect obtained lasts for six months, and each subsequent course of administration has a potentiating effect, i.e. amplification effect already obtained.

Since each peptide bioregulator has a focus on a specific organ and does not affect other organs and tissues in any way, the simultaneous administration of drugs with different effects is not only not contraindicated, but is often recommended (up to 6-7 drugs at the same time).
Peptides are compatible with any drugs and biological supplements. Against the background of taking peptides, it is advisable to gradually reduce the doses of simultaneously taken drugs, which will positively affect the patient's body.

Short regulatory peptides do not undergo transformation in the gastrointestinal tract, so they can be safely, easily and simply used in encapsulated form by almost everyone.

Peptides in the gastrointestinal tract decompose to di- and tri-peptides. Further breakdown to amino acids occurs in the intestine. This means that peptides can be taken even without a capsule. This is very important when a person for some reason cannot swallow capsules. The same applies to severely weakened people or children, when the dosage needs to be reduced.
Peptide bioregulators can be taken both prophylactically and therapeutically.

For prevention violations of the functions of various organs and systems are usually recommended 2 capsules 1 time per day in the morning on an empty stomach for 30 days, 2 times a year.

For medicinal purposes, for the correction of violations functions of various organs and systems in order to increase the effectiveness of complex treatment of diseases, it is recommended to take 2 capsules 2-3 times a day for 30 days.

Peptide bioregulators are presented in encapsulated form (natural Cytomax peptides and synthesized Cytogene peptides) and in liquid form.

Efficiency natural(PC) 2-2.5 times lower than encapsulated. Therefore, their intake for medicinal purposes should be longer (up to six months). Liquid peptide complexes are applied to the inner surface of the forearm in the projection of the course of the veins or on the wrist and rubbed until completely absorbed. After 7-15 minutes, the peptides bind to dendritic cells, which carry out their further transport to the lymph nodes, where the peptides make a "transplant" and are sent with the blood flow to the desired organs and tissues. Although peptides are protein substances, their molecular weight is much smaller than that of proteins, so they easily penetrate the skin. The penetration of peptide preparations is further improved by their lipophilization, that is, the connection with a fatty base, which is why almost all peptide complexes for external use contain fatty acids.

Not so long ago, the world's first series of peptide drugs appeared for sublingual use—

A fundamentally new method of application and the presence of a number of peptides in each of the preparations provide them with the fastest and most effective action. This drug, getting into the sublingual space with a dense network of capillaries, is able to penetrate directly into the bloodstream, bypassing absorption through the mucosa of the digestive tract and metabolic primary deactivation of the liver. Taking into account direct entry into the systemic circulation, the rate of onset of the effect is several times higher than the rate when the drug is taken orally.

Revilab SL line- these are complex synthesized preparations containing 3-4 components of very short chains (2-3 amino acids each). In terms of peptide concentration, this is the average between encapsulated peptides and PC in solution. In terms of speed of action, it occupies a leading position, because. absorbed and hits the target very quickly.
It makes sense to introduce this line of peptides into the course at the initial stage, and then switch to natural peptides.

Another innovative series is a line of multicomponent peptide preparations. The line includes 9 preparations, each of which contains a range of short peptides, as well as antioxidants and building materials for cells. An ideal option for those who do not like to take many drugs, but prefer to get everything in one capsule.

The action of these new generation bioregulators is aimed at slowing down the aging process, maintaining a normal level of metabolic processes, preventing and correcting various conditions; rehabilitation after serious illnesses, injuries and operations.

Peptides in cosmetology

Peptides can be included not only in drugs, but also in other products. For example, Russian scientists have developed excellent cellular cosmetics with natural and synthesized peptides that affect the deep layers of the skin.

External aging of the skin depends on many factors: lifestyle, stress, sunlight, mechanical stimuli, climatic fluctuations, dieting hobbies, etc. With age, the skin becomes dehydrated, loses its elasticity, becomes rough, and a network of wrinkles and deep grooves appears on it. We all know that the process of natural aging is natural and irreversible. It is impossible to resist it, but it can be slowed down thanks to the revolutionary ingredients of cosmetology - low molecular weight peptides.

The uniqueness of peptides lies in the fact that they freely pass through the stratum corneum into the dermis to the level of living cells and capillaries. Restoration of the skin goes deep from the inside and, as a result, the skin retains its freshness for a long time. There is no addiction to peptide cosmetics - even if you stop using it, the skin will simply age physiologically.

Cosmetic giants create more and more "miraculous" means. We trustfully buy, use, but a miracle does not happen. We blindly believe the inscriptions on the banks, not suspecting that this is often just a marketing ploy.

For example, most cosmetic companies are in full production and advertising anti-wrinkle creams with collagen as the main ingredient. Meanwhile, scientists have come to the conclusion that collagen molecules are so large that they simply cannot penetrate the skin. They settle on the surface of the epidermis, and then washed off with water. That is, when buying creams with collagen, we are literally throwing money down the drain.

As another popular active ingredient in anti-aging cosmetics, it is used resveratrol. It really is a powerful antioxidant and immunostimulant, but only in the form of microinjections. If you rub it into the skin, a miracle will not happen. It has been experimentally proven that creams with resveratrol practically do not affect the production of collagen.

NPCRIZ (now Peptides), in collaboration with scientists from the St. Petersburg Institute of Bioregulation and Gerontology, has developed a unique peptide series of cellular cosmetics (based on natural peptides) and a series (based on synthesized peptides).

They are based on a group of peptide complexes with different application points that have a powerful and visible rejuvenating effect on the skin. As a result of application, skin cell regeneration, blood circulation and microcirculation are stimulated, as well as the synthesis of collagen-elastin skin skeleton. All this manifests itself in lifting, as well as improving the texture, color and moisture of the skin.

Currently, 16 types of creams have been developed, incl. rejuvenating and for problematic skin (with thymus peptides), for the face against wrinkles and for the body against stretch marks and scars (with bone and cartilage tissue peptides), against spider veins (with vascular peptides), anti-cellulite (with liver peptides), for eyelids from edema and dark circles (with peptides of the pancreas, blood vessels, bone and cartilage tissue and thymus), against varicose veins (with peptides of blood vessels and bone and cartilage tissue), etc. All creams, in addition to peptide complexes, contain other powerful active ingredients. It is important that the creams do not contain chemical components (preservatives, etc.).

The effectiveness of peptides has been proven in numerous experimental and clinical studies. Of course, to look beautiful, some creams are not enough. You need to rejuvenate your body from the inside, using from time to time various complexes of peptide bioregulators and micronutrients.

The line of cosmetic products with peptides, in addition to creams, also includes shampoo, mask and hair balm, decorative cosmetics, tonics, serums for the skin of the face, neck and décolleté, etc.

It should also be borne in mind that the appearance is significantly affected by the sugar consumed.
Through a process called glycation, sugar is destructive to the skin. Excess sugar increases the rate of collagen degradation, leading to wrinkles.

glycation belong to the main theories of aging, along with oxidative and photoaging.
Glycation - the interaction of sugars with proteins, primarily collagen, with the formation of cross-links - is a natural for our body, permanent irreversible process in our body and skin, leading to hardening of connective tissue.
Glycation products - A.G.E particles. (Advanced Glycation Endproducts) - settle in cells, accumulate in our body and lead to many negative effects.
As a result of glycation, the skin loses its tone and becomes dull, it sags and looks old. This is directly related to lifestyle: reduce your intake of sugar and flour (which is good for normal weight) and take care of your skin every day!

To counter glycation, inhibit protein degradation and age-related skin changes, the company has developed an anti-aging drug with a powerful deglycing and antioxidant effect. The action of this product is based on stimulating the deglycation process, which affects the deep processes of skin aging and helps to smooth out wrinkles and increase its elasticity. The drug includes a powerful complex to combat glycation - rosemary extract, carnosine, taurine, astaxanthin and alpha-lipoic acid.

Peptides - a panacea for old age?

According to the creator of peptide drugs V. Khavinson, aging largely depends on lifestyle: “No drugs will save if a person does not have a set of knowledge and the right behavior - this is the observance of biorhythms, proper nutrition, physical education and the intake of certain bioregulators.” As for the genetic predisposition to aging, according to him, we depend on genes by only 25 percent.

The scientist claims that peptide complexes have a huge reduction potential. But to elevate them to the rank of panacea, to attribute non-existent properties to peptides (most likely for commercial reasons) is categorically wrong!

Taking care of your health today means giving yourself a chance to live tomorrow. We ourselves must improve our lifestyle - play sports, give up bad habits, eat better. And of course, to the extent possible, use peptide bioregulators that help maintain health and increase life expectancy.

Peptide bioregulators, developed by Russian scientists several decades ago, became available to the general public only in 2010. Gradually, more and more people around the world learn about them. The secret to maintaining the health and youthfulness of many famous politicians, artists, scientists lies in the use of peptides. Here are just a few of them:
UAE Minister of Energy Sheikh Saeed,
President of Belarus Lukashenko,
Former President of Kazakhstan Nazarbayev,
King of Thailand
pilot-cosmonaut G.M. Grechko and his wife L.K. Grechko,
artists: V. Leontiev, E. Stepanenko and E. Petrosyan, L. Izmailov, T. Povaliy, I. Kornelyuk, I. Viner (rhythmic gymnastics coach) and many, many others...
Peptide bioregulators are used by athletes of 2 Russian Olympic teams - in rhythmic gymnastics and rowing. The use of drugs allows us to increase the stress resistance of our gymnasts and contributes to the success of the national team at international championships.

If in youth we can afford to do health prevention periodically, when we want, then with age, unfortunately, we do not have such a luxury. And if you don’t want to be in such a state tomorrow that your loved ones will be exhausted with you and will wait impatiently for your death, if you don’t want to die among strangers, because you don’t remember anything and everything around you seems to be strangers in fact, you should take action from today and take care not so much about themselves as about their loved ones.

The Bible says, "Seek and you will find." Perhaps you have found your own way of healing and rejuvenation.

Everything is in our hands, and only we can take care of ourselves. No one will do this for us!

From a physicochemical point of view, water (H2O) is a colorless liquid, tasteless and odorless, with a boiling point of 100 ° C, at 0 ° C it turns into ice. Water is part of many minerals and rocks, present in the soil. There is 1.39x1018 tons of water on the surface of the Earth, a little less in the atmosphere - 1.3x1013 tons. All living organisms on Earth contain water (from 45 to 98%).

In man, the amount of water is not constant. The younger the person, the more “watery” he is. In the womb, the fetus is almost one continuous liquid - 80-90%, the newborn is much denser - about 70% water, in the average teenager and young person 65% water, by old age we "shrink" by 20 percent.

The stronger sex is harder than the weak one - according to the studies of physiologists, with the same build in men, the proportion of the skeleton in the total mass is greater than in women.

Fat people are "thinner" than thin people because adipose tissue accumulates water. A sedentary-lying lifestyle contributes to fluid stagnation, and stagnant water does not have a good composition and energy either in nature or in man. The accumulation of stagnant fluid in the body leads to the "bogging" of the body and the development of various diseases. The constant change of the aquatic environment is the key to health and well-being.

In the body, water performs many functions: it cleans it from various toxins, cell decay products, and for this it must be clean itself, that is, it must not contain elements harmful to our body. At the same time, artificially purified water I partially loses its useful properties for the body. After all, all useful substances are absorbed only in the form of a solution, and the most important body fluids are solutions of various organic and inorganic elements and compounds in water. The work of the nervous system is based on the transmission of nerve impulses, and this happens with the help of electrolytes - potassium, sodium, magnesium, chlorine ions, etc., which are in the water. Glucose - the main source of food energy - enters every organ of the human body, dissolving in the blood. Therefore, water is the main chemical element in the human body, both in quantity and in value.

The thermoregulation of the body is largely dependent on water, it allows you to adapt to changes in ambient temperature. An increase in temperature increases the evaporation of water from the surface of the body, and it cools. Lowering the air temperature sharply reduces the evaporation of water, and heat is retained in the body. The loss of a large amount of water (by evaporation, as a result of vomiting, diarrhea) violates the constancy of the internal environment (salts are lost along with water), so the normal functioning of the body is unthinkable without maintaining the water-salt balance.

It is important to take into account the amount of water not only introduced into the body, but also allocated. If the amount of excreted water is less than the entered, this may indicate a deterioration in kidney function, cardiovascular insufficiency.

Based on the chemical composition of natural water, two large groups are distinguished: fresh water and sea water. Natural fresh water containing an increased amount of mineral salts, gases, various chemical elements is called mineral water. According to the observations of Japanese scientists, the properties of water can affect the formation of the fetus during conception. They suggest that an excess of alkali in drinking water leads to the birth of predominantly boys, the predominance of acids - girls.

A change in the chemical and physical state of water, its electrical conductivity leads to a change in metabolism, enhancing or slowing down the course of biochemical reactions. Similar transformations are observed in melted, magnetized water and in water obtained by electrolysis. The effect of ionized water on the body has been intensively studied in recent years. Based on the fact that plant foods alkalize the body (and this has a beneficial effect on physiological functions), it can be expected that negatively charged water, having alkaline properties, also has a beneficial effect on the body. Animal experiments and human observations confirm these assumptions.

In India, various water procedures were prescribed for patients with both external and internal diseases. Diaphoretic treatment was very common for edema on the face, limbs, with general dropsy, and in all cases when the patient's body was overflowing with dampness and moisture. Rubbing, baths, fumigation with steam, warm compresses, hot wet and dry poultices were popular. In case of skin diseases, especially if they were accompanied by itching, patients were bathed in artificial sulfur baths or natural mineral springs.

By and large, any natural water can be used for treatment, if it is not poisoned by human waste products, because its properties are not limited to the physical level. Water is fraught with many mysteries. It has the property of fixing the biofield, recording and storing the results of the impact of this biofield. Therefore, its properties can change depending on the information received from the surrounding living and non-living objects.

The memory of water can be used for healing. To do this, you need to put the medicine you need (tablet, pill, medicinal herbs) into a test tube or cone and shake it in water poured into a glass or clay vessel. This water is used as a medicine, as the vibrations of the medicine are recorded in it. In this case, you can get rid of allergies to drugs.

Everyone should know the properties of water - since they largely determine our life and ourselves as such ...

Chemical and physical properties of water in a liquid state - terms, definitions and comments

Strictly speaking, in this article we will briefly consider not onlychemical and physical properties of liquid water,but also the properties inherent in it in general as such.

You can read more about the properties of water in the solid state in our article - PROPERTIES OF WATER IN A SOLID STATE (read →).

Water- a super-significant substance for our planet. Without it, life on Earth is impossible; not a single geological process takes place without it. The great scientist and thinker Vladimir Ivanovich Vernadsky wrote in his works that there is no such component, the value of which could "compare with it in terms of its influence on the course of the main, most formidable geological processes." Water is present not only in the body of all living beings of our planet, but also in all substances on Earth - in minerals, in rocks ... The study of the unique properties of water constantly reveals more and more secrets to us, sets us new mysteries and throws new challenges.

Anomalous properties of water

Many physical and chemical properties of water surprise and fall out of the general rules and patterns and are abnormal, for example:

• In accordance with the laws established by the principle of similarity, within the framework of such sciences as chemistry and physics, we might expect that:
  • water will boil at minus 70°С, and freeze at minus 90°С;
  • water it will not drip from the tip of the tap, but pour in a thin stream;
  • ice will sink rather than float on the surface;
  • in glass water more than a few grains of sugar would not dissolve.
• Surface water has a negative electrical potential;
• When heated from 0°C to 4°C (3.98°C to be exact), water contracts;
• The surprisingly high heat capacity of water liquid state;

As noted above, in this material we list the main physical and chemical properties of water and make brief comments on some of them.

Physical properties of water

PHYSICAL PROPERTIES are properties that appear outside of chemical reactions.

Purity

The purity of water depends on the presence of impurities, bacteria, salts of heavy metals in it ..., to get acquainted with the interpretation of the term CLEAR WATER according to our website, you need to read the article PURE WATER (read →) .

Colour

Colour water– depends on the chemical composition and mechanical impurities

For example, let's take the definition of "Colors of the Sea", given by the "Great Soviet Encyclopedia".

The color of the sea. The color perceived by the eye when the observer looks at the surface of the sea. The color of the sea depends on the color of sea water, the color of the sky, the number and nature of clouds, the height of the Sun above the horizon, and other reasons.

The concept of the color of the sea should be distinguished from the concept of the color of sea water. The color of sea water is understood as the color perceived by the eye when viewing sea water vertically over a white background. Only a small part of the light rays falling on it is reflected from the surface of the sea, the rest of them penetrate deep into, where they are absorbed and scattered by water molecules, particles of suspended matter and tiny gas bubbles. The scattered rays reflected and emerging from the sea create the C. m. Water molecules scatter the blue and green rays most of all. Suspended particles scatter all rays almost equally. Therefore, sea water with a small amount of suspensions seems blue-green (the color of the open parts of the oceans), and with a significant amount of suspensions - yellowish-green (for example, Baltic). The theoretical side of the doctrine of the C. m. was developed by V. V. Shuleikin and C. V. Raman.

Great Soviet Encyclopedia. - M.: Soviet Encyclopedia. 1969-1978

Smell

Smell water– Pure water is usually odorless.

Transparency

Transparency water- depends on the mineral substances dissolved in it and the content of mechanical impurities, organic substances and colloids:

TRANSPARENCY OF WATER - the ability of water to transmit light. Usually measured by the Secchi disk. It depends mainly on the concentration of organic and inorganic substances suspended and dissolved in water. It can sharply decrease as a result of anthropogenic pollution and eutrophication of water bodies.

Ecological encyclopedic dictionary. - Chisinau I.I. Grandpa. 1989

TRANSPARENCY OF WATER - the ability of water to transmit light rays. It depends on the thickness of the water layer passed by the rays, the presence of suspended impurities, dissolved substances, etc. In water, red and yellow rays are absorbed more strongly, violet rays penetrate deeper. According to the degree of transparency, in order of decreasing it, waters are distinguished:

• transparent;
• slightly opalescent;
• opalescent;
• slightly cloudy;
• cloudy;
• very cloudy.

Dictionary of hydrogeology and engineering geology. - M.: Gostoptekhizdat. 1961

Taste

The taste of water depends on the composition of the substances dissolved in it.

Dictionary of hydrogeology and engineering geology

The taste of water is a property of water that depends on the salts and gases dissolved in it. There are tables of palpable concentration of salts dissolved in water (in mg / l), for example, the following table (according to Staff).

Temperature

Melting point of water:

MELTING POINT - The temperature at which a substance changes from solid to liquid. The melting point of a solid is equal to the freezing point of a liquid, for example, the melting point of ice, 0°C, is equal to the freezing point of water.

Boiling point of water : 99.974°C

Scientific and technical encyclopedic dictionary

BOILING POINT, the temperature at which a substance passes from one state (phase) to another, i.e. from liquid to vapor or gas. The boiling point increases as the external pressure increases and decreases as it decreases. It is usually measured at a standard pressure of 1 atmosphere (760 mm Hg). The boiling point of water at a standard pressure is 100 °C.

Scientific and technical encyclopedic dictionary.

Triple point of water

Triple point of water: 0.01 °C, 611.73 Pa;

Scientific and technical encyclopedic dictionary

TRIPLE POINT, temperature and pressure at which all three states of matter (solid, liquid, gaseous) can exist simultaneously. For water, the triple point is at a temperature of 273.16 K and a pressure of 610 Pa.

Scientific and technical encyclopedic dictionary.

Surface tension of water

Surface tension of water - determines the strength of adhesion of water molecules to each other, for example, how this or that water is absorbed by the human body depends on this parameter.

Adhesion and cohesion of water

Adhesion and cohesion are properties that determine the "stickiness of water" to other materials. Adhesion determines the "stickiness" of water to other substances, and cohesion is the stickiness of water molecules in relation to each other.

Capillarity

Capillarity is the property of water that allows water to rise vertically in porous materials. This property is realized through other properties of water, such as surface tension, adhesion and cohesion.

Hardness of water

Water hardness - determined by the amount of salt content, read more in the materials HARD WATER - WHAT IS IT (read →) and WATER MINERALIZATION (read →).

Marine vocabulary

WATER HARDNESS (Stiffness of Water) - a property of water, bled by the content of alkaline earth metal salts dissolved in it, ch. arr. calcium and magnesium (in the form of bicarbonate salts - bicarbonates), and salts of strong mineral acids - sulfuric and hydrochloric. The hardness of water is measured in special units, the so-called. degrees of hardness. The degree of hardness is the weight content of calcium oxide (CaO), equal to 0.01 g in 1 liter of water. Hard water is unsuitable for feeding boilers, as it contributes to the strong formation of scale on their walls, which can cause burnout of the boiler tubes. Boilers of large capacities and especially high pressures must be fed with completely purified water (condensate from steam engines and turbines, purified by filters from oil impurities, as well as distillate prepared in special evaporators).

Samoilov K.I. Marine Dictionary. - M.-L.: State Naval Publishing House of the NKVMF of the USSR, 1941

Scientific and technical encyclopedic dictionary

HARDNESS OF WATER, the inability of water to form foam with soap due to salts dissolved in it, mainly calcium and magnesium.

Scale in boilers and pipes is formed due to the presence of dissolved calcium carbonate in water, which enters the water upon contact with limestone. In hot or boiling water, calcium carbonate precipitates as hard lime deposits on surfaces inside boilers. Calcium carbonate also prevents soap from lathering. The ion-exchange container (3) is filled with granules coated with sodium-containing materials. with which the water comes into contact. Sodium ions, being more active, replace calcium ions. Since sodium salts remain soluble even when boiled, scale does not form.

Scientific and technical encyclopedic dictionary.

Water structure

under the structure water refers to a certain arrangement of water molecules in relation to each other. This concept is actively used in the theory of structured water- read our article STRUCTURED WATER - BASIC CONCEPTS (read →).

Water mineralization

Mineralization water:

Ecological Encyclopedic Dictionary

MINERALIZATION OF WATER - saturation of water inorganic. (mineral) substances present in it in the form of ions and colloids; the total amount of inorganic salts contained mainly in fresh water, the degree of mineralization is usually expressed in mg / l or g / l (sometimes in g / kg).

Ecological encyclopedic dictionary. - Chisinau: Main edition of the Moldavian Soviet Encyclopedia. I.I. Grandpa. 1989

Viscosity of water

Viscosity of water characterizes the internal resistance of liquid particles to its movement:

Geological dictionary

The viscosity of water (liquid) is a property of a liquid that causes the appearance of a friction force during movement. It is a factor that transfers motion from layers of water moving at a high speed to layers with a lower speed. The viscosity of water depends on the temperature and concentration of the solution. Physically, it is estimated by the coefficient. viscosity, which is included in a number of formulas for the movement of water.

Geological dictionary: in 2 volumes. - M.: Nedra. Edited by K. N. Paffengolts et al. 1978

There are two types of viscosity water:

• The dynamic viscosity of water is 0.00101 Pa s (at 20°C).
• The kinematic viscosity of water is 0.01012 cm2/s (at 20°C).

Critical point of water

critical point water called its state at a certain ratio of pressure and temperature, when its properties are the same in the gaseous and liquid state (gaseous and liquid phase).

Critical point of water: 374°C, 22.064 MPa.

The dielectric constant

Dielectric constant, in general, is a coefficient showing how much the force of interaction between two charges in a vacuum is greater than in a certain medium.

In the case of water, this figure is unusually high and for static electric fields is 81.

Heat capacity of water

Heat capacity water- water has a surprisingly high heat capacity:

Ecological dictionary

Heat capacity is the property of substances to absorb heat. It is expressed as the amount of heat absorbed by a substance when it is heated by 1°C. The heat capacity of water is about 1 cal/g, or 4.2 J/g. The heat capacity of the soil (at 14.5-15.5°C) ranges (from sandy to peaty soils) from 0.5 to 0.6 cal (or 2.1-2.5 J) per unit volume and from 0.2 up to 0.5 cal (or 0.8-2.1 J) per unit mass (g).

Ecological dictionary. - Alma-Ata: "Science". B.A. Bykov. 1983

Scientific and technical encyclopedic dictionary

SPECIFIC HEAT CAPACITY (symbol c), the heat required to raise the temperature of 1 kg of a substance by 1K. It is measured in J / K.kg (where J is JOUL). Substances with high specific heat, such as water, require more energy to raise the temperature than substances with low specific heat.

Scientific and technical encyclopedic dictionary.

Thermal conductivity of water

The thermal conductivity of a substance refers to its ability to conduct heat from its hotter parts to its colder parts.

Heat transfer in water occurs either at the molecular level, that is, it is transferred by molecules water, or due to the movement / movement of any volumes of water - turbulent thermal conductivity.

The thermal conductivity of water depends on temperature and pressure.

Fluidity

The fluidity of substances is understood as their ability to change their shape under the influence of constant stress or constant pressure.

The fluidity of liquids is also determined by the mobility of their particles, which at rest are unable to perceive shear stresses.

Inductance

Inductance determines the magnetic properties of closed electric current circuits. Water, with the exception of some cases, conducts electric current, and therefore has a certain inductance.

Density of water

Density water- is determined by the ratio of its mass to volume at a certain temperature. Read more in our material - WHAT IS THE DENSITY OF WATER (read →) .

Water compressibility

Water compressibility– is very small and depends on the salinity of the water and pressure. For example, for distilled water, it is 0.0000490. Under natural conditions, water is practically incompressible, but in industrial production for technical purposes, water is highly compressed. For example, for cutting hard materials, including such as metals.

Electrical conductivity of water

The electrical conductivity of water depends largely on the amount of salts dissolved in them.

Radioactivity

Water radioactivity- depends on the content of radon in it, the emanation of radium.

Physical and chemical properties of water

Dictionary of hydrogeology and engineering geology

PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF WATER — parameters that determine the physical and chemical characteristics of natural waters. These include indicators of hydrogen ion concentration (pH) and redox potential (Eh).

Dictionary of hydrogeology and engineering geology. - M.: Gostoptekhizdat. Compiled by: A. A. Makkaveev, editor O. K. Lange. 1961

Solubility

Different sources classify this property in different ways - some refer it to the physical, others to the chemical properties of the substance. Therefore, at this stage, we attributed it to the physicochemical properties of water, which is confirmed by one of the definitions of solubility given below.

Big Encyclopedic Dictionary

SOLUBILITY - the ability of a substance in a mixture with one or more other substances to form solutions. A measure of the solubility of a substance in a given solvent is the concentration of its saturated solution at a given temperature and pressure. The solubility of gases depends on temperature and pressure, the solubility of liquid and solid bodies practically does not depend on pressure.

Big Encyclopedic Dictionary. 2000

Directory of road terms

Solubility is the property of a material (substances) to form homogeneous systems having the same chemical composition and physical properties.

Directory of road terms, M. 2005

general chemistry

Solubility - the property of gaseous, liquid and solid substances to go into a dissolved state; expressed by the equilibrium mass ratio of solute and solvent at a given temperature.

General chemistry: A. V. Zholnin textbook; ed. V. A. Popkova, A. V. Zholnina. 2012

Physical Encyclopedia

Solubility - the ability of a substance to form solutions with other substances. It is quantitatively characterized by the concentration of a substance in a saturated solution. Solubility is determined by physical. and chem. the affinity of the molecules of the solvent and the solute, a cut is characterized by the so-called. energy of interchange of solution molecules. As a rule, solubility is high if the molecules of the solute and the solvent have similar properties (“like dissolves like”).

The dependence of solubility on temperature and pressure is established using the Le Chatelier-Brown principle. Solubility increases with increasing pressure and passes through a maximum at high pressures; The solubility of gases in liquids decreases with increasing temperature, while in metals it increases.

Physical encyclopedia. In 5 volumes. - M.: Soviet Encyclopedia. Editor-in-Chief A. M. Prokhorov. 1988

Acid-base balance (pH of water)

The acid-base balance of water is determined by the pH indicator, the value of which can vary from 0 to 14. A value of 7 - defines the acid-base balance of water as neutral, if less than 7 - acidic water, more than 7 - alkaline water.

Redox potential of water

The redox potential of water (ORP) is the ability of water to enter into biochemical reactions.

Chemical properties of water

CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF A SUBSTANCE are properties that appear as a result of chemical reactions.

Below are the Chemical properties of water according to the textbook “Fundamentals of Chemistry. Internet textbook" by A. V. Manuylov, V. I. Rodionov.

Interaction of water with metals

When water interacts with most metals, a reaction occurs with the release of hydrogen:

• 2Na + 2H2O = H2 + 2NaOH (violently);
• 2K + 2H2O = H2 + 2KOH (violently);
• 3Fe + 4H2O = 4H2 + Fe3O4 (only when heated).

Not all, but only sufficiently active metals can participate in redox reactions of this type. Alkali and alkaline earth metals of groups I and II react most easily.

When water interacts with noble metals such as gold, platinum..., there is no reaction.

Interaction water with non-metals

Among non-metals, for example, carbon and its hydrogen compound (methane) react with water. These substances are much less active than metals, but still able to react with water at high temperatures:

• C + H2O = H2 + CO (with strong heating);
• CH4 + 2H2O = 4H2 + CO2 (with strong heating).

Interaction water with electric current

When exposed to an electric current, water decomposes into hydrogen and oxygen. It is also a redox reaction, where water is both an oxidizing agent and a reducing agent.

Interaction of water with non-metal oxides

Water reacts with many non-metal oxides and some metal oxides. These are not redox reactions, but compound reactions:

• SO2 + H2O = H2SO3 (sulphurous acid);
• SO3 + H2O = H2SO4 (sulfuric acid);
• CO2 + H2O = H2CO3 (carbonic acid).

Interaction of water with metal oxides

Some metal oxides can also react with water.

We have already seen examples of such reactions:

CaO + H2O = Ca(OH)2 (calcium hydroxide (slaked lime).

Not all metal oxides are capable of reacting with water. Some of them are practically insoluble in water and therefore do not react with water. For example: ZnO, TiO2, Cr2O3, from which, for example, water-resistant paints are prepared. Iron oxides are also insoluble in water and do not react with it.

Hydrates and crystalline hydrates

Water forms compounds, hydrates and crystalline hydrates, in which the water molecule is completely preserved. .

For example:

• CuSO4 + 5H2O = CuSO4.5H2O;
• CuSO4 is a white substance (anhydrous copper sulfate);
• CuSO4.5H2O - crystalline hydrate (copper sulfate), blue crystals.

Other examples of hydrate formation:

• H2SO4 + H2O = H2SO4.H2O (sulfuric acid hydrate);
• NaOH + H2O = NaOH.H2O (caustic soda hydrate).

Compounds that bind water into hydrates and crystalline hydrates are used as desiccants. With their help, for example, remove water vapor from moist atmospheric air.

Biosynthesis

Water is involved in bio-synthesis as a result of which oxygen is formed:

6n CO 2 + 5n H 2 O \u003d (C 6 H 10 O 5) n + 6n O 2 (under the action of light)

Conclusion

We see that the properties of water are diverse and cover almost all aspects of life on Earth. As one of the scientists formulated … it is necessary to study water in a complex way, and not in the context of its individual manifestations.

In preparing the material, information from books was used- Yu. P. Rassadkina “Ordinary and extraordinary water”, Yu. Ya. Fialkov “Unusual properties of ordinary solutions”, Textbook “Fundamentals of Chemistry. Internet textbook" by A. V. Manuylov, V. I. Rodionov and others.

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Water(hydrogen oxide) is a binary inorganic compound, the chemical formula is H2O. The water molecule consists of two hydrogen atoms and one oxygen atom, which are interconnected by a covalent bond. Under normal conditions, it is a transparent liquid, colorless (in a small volume), odor and taste. In the solid state it is called ice, snow or hoarfrost, and in the gaseous state it is called water vapor. Water can also exist as liquid crystals (on hydrophilic surfaces). About 71% of the Earth's surface is covered with water (oceans, seas, lakes, rivers, ice) - 361.13 million km2. On Earth, approximately 96.5% of water is in the oceans, 1.7% of the world's reserves are groundwater, another 1.7% in the glaciers and ice caps of Antarctica and Greenland, a small part in rivers, lakes and swamps, and 0.001% in clouds (formed from particles of ice and liquid water suspended in the air). Most of the earth's water is salty and unsuitable for agriculture and drinking. The share of fresh water is about 2.5%, and 98.8% of this water is in glaciers and groundwater. Less than 0.3% of all fresh water is found in rivers, lakes and the atmosphere, and an even smaller amount (0.003%) is found in living organisms. It is a good highly polar solvent. Under natural conditions, it always contains dissolved substances (salts, gases). Water is of key importance in the creation and maintenance of life on Earth, in the chemical structure of living organisms, in the formation of climate and weather. It is the most important substance for all living beings on planet Earth.

Types of water

Water on Earth can exist in three main states - liquid, gaseous and solid, and acquire various forms that can simultaneously coexist with each other: water vapor and clouds in the sky, sea water and icebergs, glaciers and rivers on the surface of the earth, aquifers in the ground. Water is capable of dissolving many organic and inorganic substances.

According to the peculiarities of origin, composition or application, they distinguish, among other things:

Soft water and hard water - according to the content of calcium and magnesium cations

By isotopes of hydrogen in the molecule:

o Light water (almost the same as regular water in composition)

o Heavy water (deuterium)

o Extra heavy water (tritium)

fresh water

· Rainwater

· Sea water

· The groundwater

· Mineral water

Brackish water

Drinking water, Tap water

Distilled water and deionized water

· Wastewater

Storm water or surface water

Apyrogenic water

· Dead water and Living water - types of water with fabulous properties

Ice-nine (fictional material)

Holy water - a special kind of water with mystical properties according to religious teachings

Polivoda

· Structured water is a term used in various non-academic theories.

· Melt water

Chemical names of water

From a formal point of view, water has several different correct chemical names:

v Hydrogen oxide: a binary compound of hydrogen with an oxygen atom in the oxidation state?2

v Dihydrogen monoxide

v Hydrogen hydroxide: compound of the hydroxyl group OH - and the cation (H +)

v Hydroxy acid: water can be thought of as a combination of an H + cation, which can be replaced by a metal, and an “acid residue” OH -

v Oxidan

v Dihydromonoxide

The structure of the molecule

Hydrogen and oxygen atoms in a water molecule are located at the corners of an isosceles triangle with an O--H bond length of 0.0957 nm; bond angle H--O--H 104.5°; dipole moment 6.17 * 10 -30 C * m; polarizability of the molecule 1.45 * 10 -3 nm 3; the average quadrupole moment is 1.87 * 10 -41 C * m 2, the ionization energy is 12.6 eV, the proton affinity is 7.1 eV. When a water molecule interacts with other atoms, molecules, and ions, including other water molecules in condensed phases, these parameters change.

Physical properties

The physical properties of water are abnormal. The melting of ice at atmospheric pressure is accompanied by a decrease in volume by 9%. The temperature coefficient of volumetric expansion of ice and liquid water is negative at temperatures below -210°C and 3.98°C. The heat capacity C° during melting almost doubles and in the range 0-100°C is almost independent of temperature (there is a minimum at 35°C). At low pressures and temperatures up to 30 ° C, the viscosity of water decreases with increasing pressure. The high dielectric constant and dipole moment of water determine its good dissolving power with respect to polar and ionogenic substances. Due to the high values ​​of C °, water is also an important regulator of climatic conditions on earth, stabilizing the temperature on its surface. In addition, the proximity of the H--O--H angle to the tetrahedral one (109 ° 28 ") causes the friability of the structures of ice and liquid water and, as a result, the anomalous dependence of density on temperature. Therefore, large reservoirs do not freeze to the bottom, which makes the existence of they have life in them.Water also has the highest surface tension among liquids, second only to mercury.The relatively high viscosity of water is due to the fact that hydrogen bonds prevent water molecules from moving at different speeds.Water is a good solvent of polar substances.Each molecule of a solute is surrounded by molecules water, and the positively charged portions of the molecule of the solute attract oxygen atoms, and the negatively charged portions attract hydrogen atoms.Because the water molecule is small in size, many water molecules can surround each molecule of the solute.

Aggregate states

According to the state they distinguish:

· "Solid" - ice

"Liquid" - water

"Gas" - water vapor

At normal atmospheric pressure (760 mm Hg, 101 325 Pa), water solidifies at 0 °C and boils (turns into water vapor). At 100°C (0°C and 100°C were specifically chosen to melt ice and boil water when creating the Celsius temperature scale). As the pressure decreases, the melting (melting) temperature of ice slowly rises, and the boiling point of water falls. At a pressure of 611.73 Pa (about 0.006 atm), the boiling and melting points coincide and become equal to 0.01 ° C. This pressure and temperature is called the triple point of water. At lower pressures, water cannot be in a liquid state, and ice turns directly into steam. The temperature of sublimation (sublimation) of ice falls with decreasing pressure. At high pressure, there are modifications of ice with melting points above room temperature. As pressure increases, the boiling point of water increases. With an increase in pressure, the density of saturated water vapor at the boiling point also increases, while that of liquid water decreases. At a temperature of 374 °C (647 K) and a pressure of 22.064 MPa (218 atm), water passes the critical point. At this point, the density and other properties of liquid and gaseous water are the same. At higher pressure and/or temperature, the difference between liquid water and water vapor disappears. This state of aggregation is called "supercritical fluid". Water can be in metastable states -- supersaturated vapor, superheated liquid, supercooled liquid. These states can exist for a long time, but they are unstable and a transition occurs upon contact with a more stable phase. For example, you can get a supercooled liquid by cooling pure water in a clean vessel below 0 ° C, however, when a crystallization center appears, liquid water quickly turns into ice.

Isotope modifications of water. Isotopic composition

water modification isotopic property

There are 9 stable isotopic varieties of water. Their content in fresh water is on average the following (mol.%): 1 H 2 16 O - 99.13; 1 H 2 18 O - 0.2; 1 H 2 17 0-0.04; 1 H 2 O 16 O-0.03; the remaining five isotopic species are present in water in trace amounts. In addition to stable isotopic varieties, water contains a small amount of radioactive 3 H 2 (or T 2 O). The isotopic composition of natural water of different origin varies somewhat. The ratio 1 H / 2 H is especially unstable: in fresh waters - an average of 6900, in sea water - 5500, in ice - 5500-9000. The physical properties of D 2 O differ markedly from ordinary water. Water containing 18 O is closer in properties to water with 16 O. Both oxygen and hydrogen have natural and artificial isotopes. Depending on the type of hydrogen isotopes included in the molecule, the following types of water are distinguished:

Light water (the main component of water familiar to people).

· Heavy water (deuterium).

· Superheavy water (tritium).

tritium-deuterium water

tritium-protium water

Deuterium-protium water

The biological role and use of water

Water plays a unique role as a substance that determines the possibility of existence and the very life of all creatures on Earth. It acts as a universal solvent in which the main biochemical processes of living organisms take place. It dissolves both organic and inorganic substances quite well, providing a high rate of chemical reactions and, at the same time, a sufficient complexity of the resulting complex compounds.

Thanks to hydrogen bonding, water remains liquid over a wide range of temperatures, and it is precisely in the one that is widely represented on planet Earth at the present time.

Since ice has a lower density than liquid water, water in bodies of water freezes from above rather than from below. The resulting layer of ice prevents further freezing of the reservoir, this allows its inhabitants to survive. Application everywhere. Water is used in heavy and light industry, medicine, metallurgy, agriculture, cosmetology, food industry, etc.

Facts

On average, plants and animals contain more than 50% water.

· The composition of the Earth's mantle contains 10-12 times more water than the amount of water in the oceans.

· With an average depth of 3.6 km, the World Ocean covers about 71% of the planet's surface and contains 97.6% of the world's known free water reserves.

· If there were no depressions and bulges on the Earth, water would cover the entire Earth with a layer 3 km thick.

· If all the glaciers melted, then the water level in the earth's oceans would rise by 64 m and about 1/8 of the land surface would be flooded with water.

· Sea water with its usual salinity of 35 ‰ freezes at a temperature of? 1.91 ° ​​C.

· Sometimes water freezes at a positive temperature.

· Under certain conditions (inside nanotubes), water molecules form a new state in which they retain the ability to flow even at temperatures close to absolute zero.

Water reflects 5% of the sun's rays, while snow reflects about 85%. Only 2% of sunlight penetrates under the ocean ice.

Water is one of the few substances in nature that expand during the transition from a liquid phase to a solid one (in addition to water, antimony, bismuth, gallium, germanium and some compounds and mixtures have this property).

Water and water vapor burn with a violet flame in an atmosphere of fluorine. Mixtures of water vapor with fluorine within explosive concentrations are explosive. As a result of this reaction, hydrogen fluoride and elemental oxygen are formed.

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Hydrogen oxide (H 2 O), much better known to all of us under the name "water", without exaggeration, is the main liquid in the life of organisms on Earth, because all chemical and biological reactions take place either with the participation of water or in solutions.

Water is the second most important substance for the human body after air. A person can live without water for no more than 7-8 days.

Pure water in nature can exist in three states of aggregation: in solid - in the form of ice, in liquid, actually water, in gaseous - in the form of steam. No other substance in nature can boast of such a variety of aggregate states.

Physical properties of water

• at n.o. - it is a colorless, odorless and tasteless liquid;
• water has a high heat capacity and low electrical conductivity;
• melting point 0°C;
• boiling point 100°C;
• the maximum density of water at 4°C is 1 g/cm 3 ;
• water is a good solvent.

The structure of the water molecule

The water molecule consists of one oxygen atom, which is connected to two hydrogen atoms, while the O-H bonds form an angle of 104.5 °, while the common electron pairs are shifted to the oxygen atom, which is more electronegative compared to hydrogen atoms, therefore, by a partial negative charge is formed on the oxygen atom, respectively, on the hydrogen atoms - a positive one. Thus, the water molecule can be considered as a dipole.

Water molecules can form hydrogen bonds with each other, attracted by oppositely charged parts (hydrogen bonds are shown in the figure by a dotted line):

The formation of hydrogen bonds explains the high density of water, its boiling and melting points.

The number of hydrogen bonds depends on the temperature - the higher the temperature, the smaller the number of bonds formed: in water vapor there are only its individual molecules; in the liquid state, associates (H 2 O) n are formed; in the crystalline state, each water molecule is connected to neighboring molecules by four hydrogen bonds.

Chemical properties of water

Water "willingly" reacts with other substances:

• water reacts with alkali and alkaline earth metals at n.o.: 2Na + 2H 2 O \u003d 2NaOH + H 2
• with less active metals and non-metals, water reacts only at high temperatures: 3Fe + 4H 2 O \u003d FeO → Fe 2 O 3 + 4H 2 C + 2H 2 O → CO 2 + 2H 2
• with basic oxides at n.o. water reacts to form bases: CaO + H 2 O \u003d Ca (OH) 2
• with acid oxides at n.o.s. water reacts to form acids: CO 2 + H 2 O \u003d H 2 CO 3
• water is the main participant in hydrolysis reactions (for more details, see Hydrolysis of salts);
• water participates in hydration reactions, adding to organic substances with double and triple bonds.

Solubility of substances in water

• highly soluble substances - more than 1 g of the substance dissolves in 100 g of water at n.o.s.;
• poorly soluble substances - 0.01-1 g of the substance dissolves in 100 g of water;
• practically insoluble substances - less than 0.01 g of the substance dissolves in 100 g of water.

Completely insoluble substances do not exist in nature.