Communities) with each other and with the environment. This term was first proposed by the German biologist Ernst Haeckel in 1869. As an independent science, it stood out at the beginning of the 20th century along with physiology, genetics and others. The scope of ecology is organisms, populations and communities. Ecology considers them as a living component of a system called an ecosystem. In ecology, the concepts of population - communities and ecosystems have clear definitions.

A population (in terms of ecology) is a group of individuals of the same species, occupying a certain territory and, usually, to some extent isolated from other similar groups.

A community is any group of organisms of different species living in the same area and interacting with each other through trophic (food) or spatial relationships.

An ecosystem is a community of organisms with their environment interacting with each other and forming an ecological unit.

All ecosystems of the Earth are combined into or ecosphere. It is clear that it is absolutely impossible to cover the entire biosphere of the Earth with research. Therefore, the point of application of ecology is the ecosystem. However, an ecosystem, as can be seen from the definitions, consists of populations, individual organisms and all factors of inanimate nature. Based on this, several different approaches to the study of ecosystems are possible.

Ecosystem Approach.With the ecosystem approach, the ecologist studies the flow of energy in the ecosystem as well. The greatest interest in this case is the relationship of organisms with each other and with the environment. This approach makes it possible to explain the complex structure of interconnections in an ecosystem and give recommendations for rational nature management.

Community studies. With this approach, the species composition of communities and the factors that limit the distribution of specific species are studied in detail. In this case, clearly distinguishable biotic units (meadow, forest, swamp, etc.) are studied.
an approach. The point of application of this approach, as the name implies, is the population.
Habitat research. In this case, a relatively homogeneous area of ​​the environment where the given organism lives is studied. Separately, as an independent line of research, it is usually not used, but it provides the necessary material for understanding the ecosystem as a whole.
It should be noted that all the approaches listed above should ideally be applied in combination, but at the moment this is practically impossible due to the large scale of the objects under study and the limited number of field researchers.

Ecology as a science uses a variety of research methods to obtain objective information about the functioning of natural systems.

Ecological research methods:

• observation
• experiment
• population count
• simulation method

Ecological factors are any external factors that have a direct or indirect impact on the number (abundance) and geographical distribution of organisms.

Environmental factors are very diverse both in nature and in their impact on living organisms. Conventionally, all environmental factors are usually divided into three large groups - abiotic, biotic and anthropogenic.

Abiotic factors are factors of inanimate nature.

Climatic (sunlight, temperature, air humidity) and local (relief, soil properties, salinity, currents, wind, radiation, etc.). They can be direct and indirect.

Anthropogenic factors- these are those forms of human activity that, influencing the environment, change the living conditions of living organisms or directly affect individual species of plants and animals. One of the most important anthropogenic factors is pollution.

environment conditions.

Environmental conditions, or ecological conditions, are called abiotic environmental factors that change in time and space, to which organisms react differently depending on their strength. Environmental conditions impose certain restrictions on organisms.

The most important factors that determine the conditions for the existence of organisms in almost all living environments include temperature, humidity and light.

Temperature.

Any organism is able to live only within a certain temperature range: individuals of the species die at too high or too low temperatures. The limits of thermal endurance in different organisms are different. There are species that can tolerate temperature fluctuations over a wide range. For example, lichens and many bacteria are able to live at very different temperatures. Among animals, warm-blooded animals are characterized by the largest range of temperature endurance. The tiger, for example, tolerates both the Siberian cold and the heat of the tropical regions of India or the Malay Archipelago equally well. But there are also species that can only live within more or less narrow temperature limits. In the land-air environment, and even in many parts of the aquatic environment, the temperature does not remain constant and can vary greatly depending on the season of the year or on the time of day. In tropical areas, annual temperature fluctuations can be even less noticeable than daily ones. Conversely, in temperate regions, temperatures vary considerably at different times of the year. Animals and plants are forced to adapt to the unfavorable winter season, during which an active life is difficult or simply impossible. In tropical areas, such adaptations are less pronounced. In a cold period with unfavorable temperature conditions, there seems to be a pause in the life of many organisms: hibernation in mammals, leaf shedding in plants, etc. Some animals make long migrations to places with a more suitable climate.

Humidity.

Water is an integral part of the vast majority of living beings: it is necessary for their normal functioning. A normally developing organism constantly loses water and therefore cannot live in absolutely dry air. Sooner or later, such losses can lead to the death of the organism.

The simplest and most convenient indicator characterizing the humidity of a particular area is the amount of precipitation falling here for a year or another period of time.

Plants extract water from the soil using their roots. Lichens can capture water vapor from the air. Plants have a number of adaptations that ensure minimal water loss. All terrestrial animals need a periodic supply to compensate for the inevitable loss of water due to evaporation or excretion. Many animals drink water; others, such as amphibians, some insects and mites, absorb it through the integument of the body in a liquid or vapor state. Most desert animals never drink. They meet their needs with water from food. Finally, there are animals that receive water in an even more complex way - in the process of fat oxidation, for example, a camel. Animals, like plants, have many adaptations to conserve water.

Light.

There are light-loving plants that can develop only under the sun's rays, and shade-tolerant plants that can grow well under the forest canopy. This is of great practical importance for the natural regeneration of the forest stand: the young shoots of many tree species are able to develop under the cover of large trees. In many animals, normal light conditions manifest themselves in a positive or negative reaction to light. Nocturnal insects flock to the light, and cockroaches scatter in search of cover, if only a light is turned on in a dark room. Photoperiodism (the change of day and night) is of great ecological importance for many animals that are exclusively diurnal (most passerines) or exclusively nocturnal (many small rodents, bats). Small crustaceans hovering in the water column stay at night in surface waters, and during the day they sink to the depths, avoiding too bright light.

Light has almost no direct effect on animals. It serves only as a signal for the restructuring of the processes occurring in the body.

Light, humidity, temperature do not at all exhaust the set of ecological conditions that determine the life and distribution of organisms. Factors such as wind, atmospheric pressure, altitude are also important. The wind has an indirect effect: by increasing evaporation, it increases dryness. Strong wind helps to cool. This action is important in cold places, in the highlands or in the polar regions.

anthropogenic factors. Anthropogenic factors are very diverse in their composition. Man influences living nature by laying roads, building cities, farming, blocking rivers, etc. Modern human activity is increasingly manifested in environmental pollution with by-products, often poisonous products. In industrial areas, the concentrations of pollutants sometimes reach threshold values, that is, fatal for many organisms. However, in spite of everything, there will almost always be at least a few individuals of several species that can survive in such conditions. The reason is that in natural populations, resistant individuals occasionally come across. As pollution levels rise, resistant individuals may be the only survivors. Moreover, they can become the founders of a stable population that inherits immunity to this type of pollution. For this reason, pollution makes it possible for us, as it were, to observe evolution in action. However, not every population is endowed with the ability to resist pollution. Thus, the effect of any pollutant is twofold.

The law of optimum.

Many factors are tolerated by the body only within certain limits. The organism dies if, for example, the temperature of the environment is too low or too high. In an environment where the temperature is close to these extreme values, living inhabitants are rare. However, their number increases as the temperature approaches the average value, which is the best (optimum) for this species. And this pattern can be transferred to any other factor.

The range of factor parameters in which the body feels comfortable are optimal. Organisms with wide limits of resistance, of course, have a chance for a wider distribution. However, wide limits of endurance in one factor do not mean wide limits in all factors. The plant can be tolerant of large temperature fluctuations, but have narrow tolerances to water. An animal like a trout can be very demanding in terms of temperature, but eat a variety of foods.

Sometimes during the life of an individual, its tolerance (selectivity) may change. The body, getting into harsh conditions, after a while, as it were, gets used to it, adapts to them. The consequence of this is a change in the physiological optimum, and the process is called adaptation or acclimatization.

Law of the Minimum was formulated by the founder of the science of mineral fertilizers, Justus Liebig (1803-1873).

Yu. Liebig discovered that the yield of plants can be limited by any of the main nutrients, if only this element is in short supply. It is known that different environmental factors can interact, that is, the lack of one substance can lead to a deficiency of other substances. Therefore, in general, the law of the minimum can be formulated as follows: an element or environmental factor that is at a minimum, to the greatest extent, limits (limits) the vital activity of the organism.

Despite the complexity of the relationship between organisms and their environment, not all factors have the same ecological significance. For example, oxygen is a factor of physiological necessity for all animals, but from an ecological point of view, it becomes limiting only in certain habitats. If fish die in a river, the first thing to be measured is the oxygen concentration in the water, as it is highly variable, oxygen reserves are easily depleted and often lacking. If the death of birds is observed in nature, it is necessary to look for another reason, since the oxygen content in the air is relatively constant and sufficient from the point of view of the requirements of terrestrial organisms.

Questions for self-examination:

List the main environments of life.

What are environmental conditions?

Describe the living conditions of organisms in the soil, in aquatic and terrestrial-air habitats.

Give examples of organisms adapting to living in different habitats?

What are the adaptations of organisms that use other organisms as a habitat?

What effect does temperature have on different types of organisms?

How do animals and plants get the water they need?

What effect does light have on organisms?

How is the effect of pollutants on organisms manifested?

Justify what environmental factors are, how they affect living organisms?

What are the limiting factors?

What is acclimatization and what significance does it have in the dispersal of organisms?

How are the laws of optimum and minimum manifested?

Environmental factors, their impact on organisms

Temperature, physico-chemical, biological elements of the environment that have a constant or periodic, direct or indirect effect on organisms and populations are called environmental factors.

Environmental factors are divided as follows:

Abiotic - temperature and climatic conditions, humidity, chemical composition of the atmosphere, soil, water, illumination, relief features;

Biotic - living organisms and direct products of their vital activity;

Anthropogenic - man and the direct products of his economic and other activities.

Main abiotic factors

1. Solar radiation: ultraviolet rays are detrimental to the body. The visible part of the spectrum provides photosynthesis. Infrared rays increase the temperature of the environment and the body of organisms.

2. Temperature affects the rate of metabolic reactions. Animals with a constant body temperature are called homoiothermic, and with a variable - poikilothermic.

3. Humidity is characterized by the amount of water in the environment and inside the body. Animal adaptations are associated with the acquisition of water, the storage of fat as a source of water during oxidation, with the transition to hibernation in the heat. Plants develop root systems, thicken the cuticle on the leaves, reduce the area of ​​the leaf blade, and reduce the leaves.

4. Climate - a set of factors characterized by seasonal and daily periodicity, due to the rotation of the Earth around the Sun and its own axis. Animal adaptations are expressed in the transition to hibernation in the cold season, in stupor in poikilothermic organisms. In plants, adaptations are associated with the transition to a dormant state (summer or winter). With large losses of water, a number of organisms fall into a state of anabiosis - the maximum slowdown in metabolic processes.

5. Biological rhythms - periodic fluctuations in the intensity of the action of factors. Daily biorhythms determine the external and internal reactions of organisms to the change of day and night

Organisms adapt (adapt) to the influence of certain factors in the process of natural selection. Their adaptive capabilities are determined by the norm of reaction in relation to each of the factors, both constantly acting and fluctuating in their values. For example, the length of daylight hours in a particular region is constant, while temperature and humidity can fluctuate within fairly wide limits.

Environmental factors are characterized by the intensity of the action, the optimal value (optimum), the maximum and minimum values ​​within which the life of a particular organism is possible. These parameters are different for representatives of different species.

Deviation from the optimum of any factor, such as a decrease in the amount of food, can narrow the limits of endurance of birds or mammals in relation to a decrease in air temperature.

The factor, the value of which is currently on the limits of endurance or beyond them, is called limiting.

Organisms that can exist within a wide range of factor fluctuations are called eurybionts. For example, organisms that live in continental climates tolerate wide fluctuations in temperature. Such organisms usually have wide distribution areas.

Factor intensity minimum optimal maximum

Rice. 23. The effect of the environmental factor on living organisms: A - general scheme; B - scheme for warm-blooded and cold-blooded animals

Basic biotic factors

Organisms of one species enter into relationships of various nature both with each other and with representatives of other species. These relationships are respectively subdivided into intraspecific and interspecific.

Intraspecific relationships are manifested in intraspecific competition for food, shelter, a female, as well as in behavioral features, a hierarchy of relations between members of a population.

Interspecies relationships:

Mutualism is a form of mutually beneficial symbiotic relationship between two populations of different species;

Commensalism is a form of symbiosis in which the relationship is beneficial primarily for one of the two species living together (pilot fish and sharks);

Predation is a relationship in which individuals of one species kill and eat individuals of another species.

Anthropogenic factors are associated with human activities, under the influence of which the environment changes and forms. Human activity extends to almost the entire biosphere: mining, the development of water resources, the development of aviation and astronautics affect the state of the biosphere. As a result, destructive processes occur in the biosphere, which include water pollution, the "greenhouse effect" associated with an increase in the concentration of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere, ozone layer disturbances, "acid rains", etc.

Biogeocenosis

Biogeocenosis is a set of populations of different species living together and interacting with each other and with inanimate nature, forming a complex, self-regulating system in relatively homogeneous environmental conditions. The term was introduced by V.N. Sukachev.

The composition of biogeocenosis includes: biotope (non-living part of the environment) and biocenosis (all types of organisms inhabiting the biotope).

The totality of plants living in a given biogeocenosis is commonly called a phytocenosis, the totality of animals - zoocenosis, the totality of microorganisms - microbiocenosis.

Characteristics of biogeocenosis:

Biogeocenosis has natural boundaries;

In biogeocenosis, all environmental factors interact;

Each biogeocenosis is characterized by a certain circulation of substances and energy;

Biogeocenosis is relatively stable in time and is capable of self-regulation and self-development in the case of unidirectional changes in the biotope. The change of biocenoses is called succession.

Structure of biogeocenosis:

Producers - plants that produce organic substances in the process of photosynthesis;

Consumers - consumers of finished organic matter;

Decomposers - bacteria, fungi, as well as animals that feed on carrion and manure - destroyers of organic substances, converting them into inorganic ones.

The listed components of biogeocenosis constitute trophic levels associated with the exchange and transfer of nutrients and energy.

Organisms of different trophic levels form food chains in which substances and energy are transferred stepwise from level to level. At each trophic level, 5-10% of the energy of the incoming biomass is used.

Food chains usually consist of 3-5 links, for example: plants-cow-man; plants-ladybug-titmouse-hawk; plants-fly-frog-snake-eagle.

The mass of each subsequent link in the food chain decreases by about 10 times. This rule is called the ecological pyramid rule. Ratios of energy costs can be reflected in the pyramids of numbers, biomass, energy.

Artificial biocenoses created by people involved in agriculture are called agrocenoses. They have great productivity, but do not have the ability to self-regulate and stability, as they depend on the attention of a person to them.

Biosphere

There are two definitions of the biosphere.

1. The biosphere is the inhabited part of the geological shell of the Earth.

2. The biosphere is a part of the geological shell of the Earth, the properties of which are determined by the activity of living organisms.

The second definition covers a wider area: after all, atmospheric oxygen formed as a result of photosynthesis is distributed throughout the atmosphere and is present where there are no living organisms.

The biosphere, according to the first definition, consists of the lithosphere, the hydrosphere and the lower layers of the atmosphere - the troposphere. The limits of the biosphere are limited by the ozone screen, the upper limit of which is at a height of 20 km, and the lower one - at a depth of about 4 km.

The biosphere, according to the second definition, includes the entire atmosphere.

The doctrine of the biosphere and its functions was developed by Academician V.I. Vernadsky.

The biosphere is the area of ​​distribution of life on Earth, including living matter (substance that is part of living organisms). Bioinert substance is a substance that is not part of living organisms, but is formed due to their activity (soil, natural waters, air).

Living matter, which makes up less than 0.001% of the mass of the biosphere, is the most active part of the biosphere.

In the biosphere there is a constant migration of substances of both biogenic and abiogenic origin, in which living organisms play a major role. The circulation of substances determines the stability of the biosphere.

The main source of energy for sustaining life in the biosphere is the Sun. Its energy is converted into the energy of organic compounds as a result of photosynthetic processes occurring in phototrophic organisms. Energy is accumulated in the chemical bonds of organic compounds that serve as food for herbivorous and carnivorous animals. Organic food substances decompose in the process of metabolism and are excreted from the body. The isolated or dead remains, in turn, are decomposed by bacteria, fungi and some other organisms. The resulting chemical compounds and elements are involved in the circulation of substances.

The biosphere needs a constant influx of external energy, since all chemical energy is converted into thermal energy.

Biosphere functions:

Gas - release and absorption of oxygen and carbon dioxide, nitrogen reduction;

Concentration - the accumulation by organisms of chemical elements scattered in the external environment;

Redox - oxidation and reduction of substances during photosynthesis and energy metabolism;

Biochemical - is realized in the process of metabolism.

Energy - associated with the use and transformation of energy.

As a result, biological and geological evolution occur simultaneously and are closely interrelated. Geochemical evolution occurs under the influence of biological evolution.

The mass of all living matter of the biosphere is its biomass, which is approximately 2.4-1012 tons.

Land-dwelling organisms make up 99.87% of the total biomass, ocean biomass - 0.13%. The amount of biomass increases from the poles to the equator. Biomass (B) is characterized by:

a) productivity - the increase in the substance per unit area (P);

b) reproduction rate - the ratio of production to biomass per unit of time (P/B).

The most productive are tropical and subtropical forests.

The part of the biosphere that is under the influence of active human activity is called the noosphere - the sphere of the human mind. The term implies a reasonable influence of man on the biosphere in the modern era of scientific and technological progress. However, most often this influence is detrimental to the biosphere, which in turn is detrimental to humanity.

The circulation of substances and energy in the biosphere is due to the vital activity of organisms and is a necessary condition for their existence. Cycles are not closed, so chemical elements accumulate in the external environment and in organisms.

Carbon is taken up by plants during photosynthesis and released by organisms during respiration. It also accumulates in the environment in the form of fossil fuels, and in organisms in the form of reserves of organic substances.

Nitrogen is converted into ammonium salts and nitrates as a result of the activity of nitrogen-fixing and nitrifying bacteria. Then, after the use of nitrogen compounds by organisms and denitrification by decomposers, nitrogen is returned to the atmosphere. Sulfur is found in the form of sulfides and free sulfur in marine sedimentary rocks and soil. Turning into sulfates as a result of oxidation by sulfur bacteria, it is included in plant tissues, then, together with the remains of their organic compounds, it is exposed to anaerobic decomposers. The hydrogen sulfide formed as a result of their activity is again oxidized by sulfur bacteria.

Phosphorus is found in the composition of rock phosphates, in freshwater and ocean sediments, and in soils. As a result of erosion, phosphates are washed out and in an acidic environment become soluble with the formation of phosphoric acid, which is absorbed by plants. In animal tissues, phosphorus is a part of nucleic acids and bones. As a result of decomposition by decomposers of the remains of organic compounds, it again returns to the soil, and then to the plants.

Remember:

What is meant by the natural and social nature of man?

Answer. Man, like all other living beings, is a part of nature and a product of natural, biological evolution. Man, like an animal, is characterized by instincts, vital needs. There are also biologically programmed patterns of human behavior as a specific biological species. The biological factors that determine existence and development are determined by the set of genes in humans, the balance of hormones produced, metabolism and other biological factors. All this characterizes a person as a biological being, determines his biological nature. But at the same time, it differs from any animal and, above all, in the following features:

Produces its own environment (housing, clothing, tools), while the animal does not produce, only uses what is available;

It changes the surrounding world not only according to the measure of its utilitarian need, but also according to the laws of knowledge of this world, as well as according to the laws of morality and beauty, while an animal can change its world only according to the needs of its species;

It can act not only out of necessity, but also in accordance with the freedom of its will and imagination, while the action of an animal is oriented exclusively to the satisfaction of physical needs (hunger, the instinct of procreation, group, species instincts, etc.);

Able to act universally, the animal is only in relation to specific circumstances;

It makes its life activity an object (it relates meaningfully to it, purposefully changes it, plans it), while the animal is identical to its life activity and does not distinguish it from itself.

What factors are called biotic and abiotic?

Answer. Abiotic factors - conditions of the atmosphere, sea and fresh waters, soil or bottom sediments) and physical or climatic factors (temperature, pressure, wind, currents, radiation regime, etc.). The surface structure (relief), geological and climatic differences of the earth's surface create a huge variety of abiotic factors that play an unequal role in the life of animal, plant, and microorganism species that have adapted to them.

What is the diversity of anthropogenic factors?

Answer. Anthropogenic factors are very diverse. By nature, anthropogenic factors are divided into:

Mechanical - pressure from the wheels of cars, deforestation, obstacles to the movement of organisms, and the like;

Physical - heat, light, electric field, color, humidity changes, etc.;

Chemical - the action of various chemical elements and their compounds;

Biological - the influence of introduced organisms, breeding of plants and animals, forest plantations, and the like.

Landscape - artificial rivers and lakes, beaches, forests, meadows, etc.

According to the time of origin and duration of action, anthropogenic factors are divided into the following groups:

Factors produced in the past: a) those that have ceased to operate, but its consequences are still being felt now (destruction of certain types of organisms, overgrazing, etc.); b) those that continue to operate in our time (artificial relief, reservoirs, introductions, etc.);

Factors that are produced in our time: a) those that act only at the time of production (radio waves, noise, light); b) those that are valid for a certain time and after the end of production (persistent chemical pollution, cut down forest, etc.).

Questions after § 9

Describe the patterns of action of environmental factors on the body?

The ability of organisms to adapt to a certain range of variability of environmental factors is called ecological plasticity. This feature is one of the most important properties of all living things: by regulating their vital activity in accordance with changes in environmental conditions, organisms acquire the ability to survive and leave offspring. There are upper and lower endurance limits.

Environmental factors affect a living organism jointly and simultaneously. At the same time, the effect of one factor depends on the strength and combination of other factors acting simultaneously. This pattern is called the interaction of factors. For example, heat or frost is easier to bear in dry rather than moist air. The rate of evaporation of water from plant leaves (transpiration) is much higher if the air temperature is high and the weather is windy.

In some cases, the lack of one factor is partially compensated by the strengthening of another. The phenomenon of partial interchangeability of environmental factors is called the compensation effect. For example, the wilting of plants can be stopped both by increasing the amount of moisture in the soil and by lowering the air temperature, which reduces transpiration; in deserts, the lack of precipitation is compensated to a certain extent by increased relative humidity at night; in the Arctic, long daylight hours in summer compensate for the lack of heat.

At the same time, none of the environmental factors necessary for the body can be completely replaced by another. The absence of light makes plant life impossible, despite the most favorable combination of other conditions. Therefore, if the value of at least one of the vital environmental factors approaches a critical value or goes beyond it (below the minimum or above the maximum), then, despite the optimal combination of other conditions, individuals are threatened with death. Such factors are called limiting (limiting).

What is the optimum, the limits of endurance?

Answer. Environmental factors are quantified. In relation to each factor, it is possible to single out an optimum zone (a zone of normal life activity), a zone of oppression, and the limits of an organism's endurance. The optimum is the amount of the environmental factor at which the intensity of the vital activity of organisms is maximum. In the zone of oppression, the vital activity of organisms is suppressed. Beyond the limits of endurance, the existence of an organism is impossible. Distinguish lower and upper limits of endurance.

What is the limiting factor?

Answer. An environmental factor, the quantitative value of which goes beyond the limits of the endurance of the species, is called the limiting factor. Such a factor will limit the distribution of the species even if all other factors are favorable. Limiting factors determine the geographic range of a species. A person's knowledge of the limiting factors for a particular type of organism makes it possible, by changing the conditions of the environment, to either suppress or stimulate its development.

The environment that surrounds living beings consists of many elements. They affect the life of organisms in different ways. The latter react differently to various environmental factors. Separate elements of the environment interacting with organisms are called environmental factors. The conditions of existence are a set of vital environmental factors, without which living organisms cannot exist. With regard to organisms, they act as environmental factors.

Classification of environmental factors.

All environmental factors accepted classify(distributed) into the following main groups: abiotic, biotic and anthropic. in Abiotic (abiogenic) factors are physical and chemical factors of inanimate nature. biotic, or biogenic, factors are the direct or indirect influence of living organisms both on each other and on the environment. Antropical (anthropogenic) In recent years, factors have been singled out as an independent group of factors among biotic ones, due to their great importance. These are factors of direct or indirect impact of man and his economic activity on living organisms and the environment.

abiotic factors.

Abiotic factors include elements of inanimate nature that act on a living organism. Types of abiotic factors are presented in Table. 1.2.2.

Table 1.2.2. Main types of abiotic factors

climatic factors.

All abiotic factors manifest themselves and operate within the three geological shells of the Earth: atmosphere, hydrosphere and lithosphere. Factors that manifest themselves (act) in the atmosphere and during the interaction of the latter with the hydrosphere or with the lithosphere are called climatic. their manifestation depends on the physical and chemical properties of the geological shells of the Earth, on the amount and distribution of solar energy that penetrates and enters them.

Solar radiation.

Solar radiation is of the greatest importance among the variety of environmental factors. (solar radiation). This is a continuous stream of elementary particles (velocity 300-1500 km/s) and electromagnetic waves (velocity 300 thousand km/s), which carries a huge amount of energy to the Earth. Solar radiation is the main source of life on our planet. Under the continuous flow of solar radiation, life originated on Earth, has passed a long way of its evolution and continues to exist and depend on solar energy. The main properties of the radiant energy of the Sun as an environmental factor is determined by the wavelength. Waves passing through the atmosphere and reaching the Earth are measured in the range from 0.3 to 10 microns.

According to the nature of the impact on living organisms, this spectrum of solar radiation is divided into three parts: ultraviolet radiation, visible light and infrared radiation.

shortwave ultraviolet rays almost completely absorbed by the atmosphere, namely its ozone layer. A small amount of ultraviolet rays penetrates the earth's surface. The length of their waves lies in the range of 0.3-0.4 microns. They account for 7% of the energy of solar radiation. Shortwave rays have a detrimental effect on living organisms. They can cause changes in hereditary material - mutations. Therefore, in the process of evolution, organisms that are under the influence of solar radiation for a long time have developed adaptations to protect themselves from ultraviolet rays. In many of them, an additional amount of black pigment, melanin, is produced in the integument, which protects against the penetration of unwanted rays. That is why people get tanned by being outdoors for a long time. In many industrial regions there is a so-called industrial melanism- darkening of the color of animals. But this does not happen under the influence of ultraviolet radiation, but due to pollution with soot, environmental dust, the elements of which usually become darker. Against such a dark background, darker forms of organisms survive (well masked).

visible light manifests itself within the wavelength range from 0.4 to 0.7 microns. It accounts for 48% of the energy of solar radiation.

It also adversely affects living cells and their functions in general: it changes the viscosity of the protoplasm, the magnitude of the electrical charge of the cytoplasm, disrupts the permeability of membranes and changes the movement of the cytoplasm. Light affects the state of protein colloids and the flow of energy processes in cells. But despite this, visible light was, is and will continue to be one of the most important sources of energy for all living things. Its energy is used in the process photosynthesis and accumulates in the form of chemical bonds in the products of photosynthesis, and then is transmitted as food to all other living organisms. In general, we can say that all living things in the biosphere, and even humans, depend on solar energy, on photosynthesis.

Light for animals is a necessary condition for the perception of information about the environment and its elements, vision, visual orientation in space. Depending on the conditions of existence, animals have adapted to varying degrees of illumination. Some animal species are diurnal, while others are most active at dusk or at night. Most mammals and birds lead a twilight lifestyle, do not distinguish colors well and see everything in black and white (dogs, cats, hamsters, owls, nightjars, etc.). Life in twilight or in low light often leads to hypertrophy of the eyes. Relatively huge eyes, capable of capturing an insignificant fraction of light, characteristic of nocturnal animals or those that live in complete darkness and are guided by the organs of luminescence of other organisms (lemurs, monkeys, owls, deep-sea fish, etc.). If, in conditions of complete darkness (in caves, underground in burrows), there are no other sources of light, then the animals living there, as a rule, lose their organs of vision (European proteus, mole rat, etc.).

Temperature.

The sources of the creation of the temperature factor on Earth are solar radiation and geothermal processes. Although the core of our planet is characterized by an extremely high temperature, its influence on the surface of the planet is insignificant, except for the zones of volcanic activity and the release of geothermal waters (geysers, fumaroles). Consequently, solar radiation, namely, infrared rays, can be considered the main source of heat within the biosphere. Those rays that reach the Earth's surface are absorbed by the lithosphere and hydrosphere. The lithosphere, as a solid body, heats up faster and cools just as quickly. The hydrosphere is more heat-capacious than the lithosphere: it heats up slowly and cools slowly, and therefore retains heat for a long time. The surface layers of the troposphere are heated due to the radiation of heat from the hydrosphere and the surface of the lithosphere. The earth absorbs solar radiation and radiates energy back into the airless space. Nevertheless, the Earth's atmosphere contributes to the retention of heat in the surface layers of the troposphere. Due to its properties, the atmosphere transmits short-wave infrared rays and delays long-wave infrared rays emitted by the heated surface of the Earth. This atmospheric phenomenon is called greenhouse effect. It was thanks to him that life on Earth became possible. The greenhouse effect helps to retain heat in the surface layers of the atmosphere (most organisms are concentrated here) and smooths out temperature fluctuations during the day and night. On the Moon, for example, which is located in almost the same space conditions as the Earth, and on which there is no atmosphere, daily temperature fluctuations at its equator are manifested in the range from 160 ° C to + 120 ° C.

The range of temperatures available in the environment reaches thousands of degrees (hot volcanic magma and the lowest temperatures of Antarctica). The limits within which life known to us can exist are quite narrow and equal to approximately 300 ° C, from -200 ° C (freezing in liquefied gases) to + 100 ° C (boiling point of water). In fact, most species and much of their activity is tied to an even narrower range of temperatures. The general temperature range of active life on Earth is limited by the following temperatures (Table 1.2.3):

Table 1.2.3 Temperature range of life on Earth

Plants adapt to different temperatures and even extreme ones. Those that tolerate high temperatures are called fertile plants. They are able to tolerate overheating up to 55-65 ° C (some cacti). Species growing at high temperatures tolerate them more easily due to a significant shortening of the size of the leaves, the development of a felt (pubescent) or, conversely, wax coating, etc. Plants without prejudice to their development are able to withstand prolonged exposure to low temperatures (from 0 to -10 ° C) are called cold-resistant.

Although temperature is an important environmental factor affecting living organisms, its effect is highly dependent on the combination with other abiotic factors.

Humidity.

Humidity is an important abiotic factor that is predetermined by the presence of water or water vapor in the atmosphere or lithosphere. Water itself is a necessary inorganic compound for the life of living organisms.

Water is always present in the atmosphere in the form water couples. The actual mass of water per unit volume of air is called absolute humidity, and the percentage of vapor relative to the maximum amount that air can contain, - relative humidity. Temperature is the main factor affecting the ability of air to hold water vapor. For example, at a temperature of +27°C, the air can contain twice as much moisture as at a temperature of +16°C. This means that the absolute humidity at 27°C is 2 times greater than at 16°C, while the relative humidity in both cases will be 100%.

Water as an ecological factor is extremely necessary for living organisms, because without it metabolism and many other related processes cannot be carried out. The metabolic processes of organisms take place in the presence of water (in aqueous solutions). All living organisms are open systems, so they are constantly losing water and there is always a need to replenish its reserves. For a normal existence, plants and animals must maintain a certain balance between the intake of water in the body and its loss. Large loss of body water (dehydration) lead to a decrease in its vital activity, and in the future - to death. Plants satisfy their water needs through precipitation, air humidity, and animals also through food. The resistance of organisms to the presence or absence of moisture in the environment is different and depends on the adaptability of the species. In this regard, all terrestrial organisms are divided into three groups: hygrophilic(or moisture-loving), mesophilic(or moderately moisture-loving) and xerophilic(or dry-loving). Regarding plants and animals separately, this section will look like this:

1) hygrophilic organisms:

- hygrophytes(plants);

- hygrophiles(animal);

2) mesophilic organisms:

- mesophytes(plants);

- mesophiles(animal);

3) xerophilic organisms:

- xerophytes(plants);

- xerophiles, or hygrophobia(animals).

Need the most moisture hygrophilous organisms. Among plants, these will be those that live on excessively moist soils with high air humidity (hygrophytes). In the conditions of the middle belt, they include among herbaceous plants that grow in shaded forests (sour, ferns, violets, gap-grass, etc.) and in open places (marigold, sundew, etc.).

Hygrophilous animals (hygrophiles) include those ecologically associated with the aquatic environment or with waterlogged areas. They need a constant presence of a large amount of moisture in the environment. These are animals of tropical rainforests, swamps, wet meadows.

mesophilic organisms require moderate amounts of moisture and are usually associated with moderate warm conditions and good mineral nutrition conditions. It can be forest plants and plants of open places. Among them there are trees (linden, birch), shrubs (hazel, buckthorn) and even more herbs (clover, timothy, fescue, lily of the valley, hoof, etc.). In general, mesophytes are a broad ecological group of plants. To mesophilic animals (mesophiles) belongs to the majority of organisms that live in temperate and subarctic conditions or in certain mountainous land regions.

xerophilic organisms - This is a fairly diverse ecological group of plants and animals that have adapted to arid conditions of existence with the help of such means: limiting evaporation, increasing the extraction of water and creating water reserves for a long period of lack of water supply.

Plants living in arid conditions overcome them in different ways. Some do not have structural adaptations to carry the lack of moisture. their existence is possible in arid conditions only due to the fact that at a critical moment they are at rest in the form of seeds (ephemeris) or bulbs, rhizomes, tubers (ephemeroids), very easily and quickly switch to active life and in a short period of time completely pass annual cycle of development. Efemeri mainly distributed in deserts, semi-deserts and steppes (stonefly, spring ragwort, turnip "box, etc.). Ephemeroids(from Greek. ephemeri and to look like)- these are perennial herbaceous, mainly spring, plants (sedges, grasses, tulips, etc.).

A very peculiar category of plants that have adapted to endure drought conditions is succulents and sclerophytes. Succulents (from the Greek. juicy) are able to accumulate a large amount of water in themselves and gradually use it. For example, some cacti of the North American deserts can contain from 1000 to 3000 liters of water. Water accumulates in leaves (aloe, stonecrop, agave, young) or stems (cacti and cactus-like spurges).

Animals obtain water in three main ways: directly by drinking or absorbing through the integument, along with food and as a result of metabolism.

Many species of animals drink water and in large enough quantities. For example, caterpillars of the Chinese oak silkworm can drink up to 500 ml of water. Some species of animals and birds require regular water consumption. Therefore, they choose certain springs and regularly visit them as watering places. Desert bird species fly daily to the oases, drink water there and bring water to their chicks.

Some animal species do not consume water by direct drinking, but can consume it by absorbing it with the entire surface of the skin. In insects and larvae that live in soil moistened with tree dust, their integuments are permeable to water. The Australian Moloch lizard absorbs rainfall moisture with its skin, which is extremely hygroscopic. Many animals get moisture from succulent food. Such succulent foods can be grass, succulent fruits, berries, bulbs and tubers of plants. The steppe tortoise living in the Central Asian steppes consumes water only from succulent food. In these regions, in places where vegetables are planted or on melons, turtles cause great damage by eating melons, watermelons, and cucumbers. Some predatory animals also get water by eating their prey. This is typical, for example, of the African fennec fox.

Species that feed exclusively on dry food and do not have the opportunity to consume water get it through metabolism, that is, chemically during the digestion of food. Metabolic water can be formed in the body due to the oxidation of fats and starch. This is an important way of obtaining water, especially for animals that inhabit hot deserts. For example, the red-tailed gerbil sometimes feeds only on dry seeds. Experiments are known when, in captivity, the North American deer mouse lived for about three years, eating only dry grains of barley.

food factors.

The surface of the Earth's lithosphere constitutes a separate living environment, which is characterized by its own set of environmental factors. This group of factors is called edaphic(from Greek. edafos- soil). Soils have their own structure, composition and properties.

Soils are characterized by a certain moisture content, mechanical composition, content of organic, inorganic and organo-mineral compounds, a certain acidity. Many properties of the soil itself and the distribution of living organisms in it depend on the indicators.

For example, certain types of plants and animals love soils with a certain acidity, namely: sphagnum mosses, wild currants, alders grow on acidic soils, and green forest mosses grow on neutral ones.

Beetle larvae, terrestrial mollusks and many other organisms also react to a certain acidity of the soil.

The chemical composition of the soil is very important for all living organisms. For plants, the most important are not only those chemical elements that they use in large quantities (nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium and calcium), but also those that are rare (trace elements). Some of the plants selectively accumulate certain rare elements. Cruciferous and umbrella plants, for example, accumulate 5-10 times more sulfur in their body than other plants.

Excess content of certain chemical elements in the soil can negatively (pathologically) affect animals. For example, in one of the valleys of Tuva (Russia), it was noticed that sheep were suffering from some specific disease, which manifested itself in hair loss, deformation of hooves, etc. Later it turned out that in this valley in the soil, water and some plants there was high selenium content. Getting into the body of sheep in excess, this element caused chronic selenium toxicosis.

The soil has its own thermal regime. Together with moisture, it affects soil formation, various processes taking place in the soil (physico-chemical, chemical, biochemical and biological).

Due to their low thermal conductivity, soils are able to smooth out temperature fluctuations with depth. At a depth of just over 1 m, daily temperature fluctuations are almost imperceptible. For example, in the Karakum Desert, which is characterized by a sharply continental climate, in summer, when the soil surface temperature reaches +59°C, in the burrows of gerbil rodents at a distance of 70 cm from the entrance, the temperature was 31°C lower and amounted to +28°C. In winter, during a frosty night, the temperature in the burrows of gerbils was +19°C.

The soil is a unique combination of physical and chemical properties of the surface of the lithosphere and the living organisms that inhabit it. The soil cannot be imagined without living organisms. No wonder the famous geochemist V.I. Vernadsky called the soil bio-inert body.

Orographic factors (relief).

The relief does not refer to such directly acting environmental factors as water, light, heat, soil. However, the nature of the relief in the life of many organisms has an indirect effect.

Depending on the size of the forms, the relief of several orders is rather conditionally distinguished: macrorelief (mountains, lowlands, intermountain depressions), mesorelief (hills, ravines, ridges, etc.) and microrelief (small depressions, irregularities, etc.). Each of them plays a certain role in the formation of a complex of environmental factors for organisms. In particular, relief affects the redistribution of factors such as moisture and heat. So, even slight depressions, a few tens of centimeters, create conditions of high humidity. From elevated areas, water flows into lower areas, where favorable conditions are created for moisture-loving organisms. The northern and southern slopes have different lighting and thermal conditions. In mountainous conditions, significant amplitudes of heights are created in relatively small areas, which leads to the formation of various climatic complexes. In particular, their typical features are low temperatures, strong winds, changes in the humidification regime, the gas composition of the air, etc.

For example, with rising above sea level, the air temperature drops by 6 ° C for every 1000 m. Although this is a characteristic of the troposphere, but due to the relief (highlands, mountains, mountain plateaus, etc.), terrestrial organisms may find themselves in conditions that are not similar to those in neighboring regions. For example, the mountainous volcanic massif of Kilimanjaro in Africa at the foot is surrounded by savannahs, and higher up the slopes are plantations of coffee, bananas, forests and alpine meadows. The peaks of Kilimanjaro are covered with eternal snow and glaciers. If the air temperature at sea level is +30°C, then negative temperatures will already appear at an altitude of 5000 m. In temperate zones, a decrease in temperature for every 6°C corresponds to a movement of 800 km towards high latitudes.

Pressure.

Pressure is manifested in both air and water environments. In atmospheric air, the pressure varies seasonally, depending on the state of the weather and the height above sea level. Of particular interest are the adaptations of organisms that live in conditions of low pressure, rarefied air in the highlands.

The pressure in the aquatic environment varies depending on the depth: it grows by about 1 atm for every 10 m. For many organisms, there are limits to the change in pressure (depth) to which they have adapted. For example, abyssal fish (fish of the deep world) are able to endure great pressure, but they never rise to the surface of the sea, because for them it is fatal. Conversely, not all marine organisms are capable of diving to great depths. The sperm whale, for example, can dive to a depth of 1 km, and seabirds - up to 15-20 m, where they get their food.

Living organisms on land and aquatic environment clearly respond to pressure changes. At one time it was noted that fish can perceive even slight changes in pressure. their behavior changes when atmospheric pressure changes (eg, before a thunderstorm). In Japan, some fish are specially kept in aquariums and the change in their behavior is used to judge possible changes in the weather.

Terrestrial animals, perceiving slight changes in pressure, can predict changes in the state of the weather with their behavior.

Pressure unevenness, which is the result of uneven heating by the Sun and heat distribution both in water and in atmospheric air, creates conditions for mixing water and air masses, i.e. the formation of currents. Under certain conditions, the flow is a powerful environmental factor.

hydrological factors.

Water as an integral part of the atmosphere and lithosphere (including soil) plays an important role in the life of organisms as one of the environmental factors, which is called humidity. At the same time, water in the liquid state can be a factor that forms its own environment - water. Due to its properties, which distinguish water from all other chemical compounds, it in a liquid and free state creates a set of conditions for the aquatic environment, the so-called hydrological factors.

Such characteristics of water as thermal conductivity, fluidity, transparency, salinity manifest themselves in different ways in water bodies and are environmental factors, which in this case are called hydrological. For example, aquatic organisms have adapted differently to varying degrees of water salinity. Distinguish between freshwater and marine organisms. Freshwater organisms do not amaze with their species diversity. Firstly, life on Earth originated in sea waters, and secondly, fresh water bodies occupy a tiny part of the earth's surface.

Marine organisms are more diverse and quantitatively more numerous. Some of them have adapted to low salinity and live in desalinated areas of the sea and other brackish water bodies. In many species of such reservoirs, a decrease in body size is observed. So, for example, the shells of mollusks, edible mussel (Mytilus edulis) and Lamarck's heartworm (Cerastoderma lamarcki), which live in the bays of the Baltic Sea at a salinity of 2-6% o, are 2-4 times smaller than individuals that live in the same sea, only at a salinity of 15% o. The crab Carcinus moenas is small in the Baltic Sea, while it is much larger in desalinated lagoons and estuaries. Sea urchins grow smaller in lagoons than in the sea. The crustacean Artemia (Artemia salina) at a salinity of 122% o has a size of up to 10 mm, but at 20% o it grows to 24-32 mm. Salinity can also affect life expectancy. The same Lamarck's heartworm in the waters of the North Atlantic lives up to 9 years, and in the less saline waters of the Sea of ​​\u200b\u200bAzov - 5.

The temperature of bodies of water is a more constant indicator than the temperature of land. This is due to the physical properties of water (heat capacity, thermal conductivity). The amplitude of annual temperature fluctuations in the upper layers of the ocean does not exceed 10-15 ° C, and in continental waters - 30-35 ° C. What can we say about the deep layers of water, which are characterized by a constant thermal regime.

biotic factors.

Organisms that live on our planet not only need abiotic conditions for their life, they interact with each other and are often very dependent on each other. The totality of factors of the organic world that affect organisms directly or indirectly is called biotic factors.

Biotic factors are very diverse, but despite this, they also have their own classification. According to the simplest classification, biotic factors are divided into three groups, which are caused by plants, animals and microorganisms.

Clements and Shelford (1939) proposed their own classification, which takes into account the most typical forms of interaction between two organisms - co-actions. All coactions are divided into two large groups, depending on whether organisms of the same species or two different ones interact. The types of interactions of organisms belonging to the same species is homotypic reactions. Heterotypic reactions name the forms of interaction between two organisms of different species.

homotypic reactions.

Among the interaction of organisms of the same species, the following coactions (interactions) can be distinguished: group effect, mass effect and intraspecific competition.

group effect.

Many living organisms that can live alone form groups. Often in nature you can observe how some species grow in groups plants. This gives them the opportunity to accelerate their growth. Animals are also grouped together. Under such conditions, they survive better. With a joint lifestyle, it is easier for animals to defend themselves, get food, protect their offspring, and survive adverse environmental factors. Thus, the group effect has a positive effect on all members of the group.

Groups in which animals are combined can be of different sizes. For example, cormorants, which form huge colonies on the coasts of Peru, can exist only if there are at least 10 thousand birds in the colony, and there are three nests per 1 square meter of territory. It is known that for the survival of African elephants, the herd must consist of at least 25 individuals, and the herd of reindeer - from 300-400 heads. A pack of wolves can number up to a dozen individuals.

Simple aggregations (temporary or permanent) can turn into complex groups consisting of specialized individuals that perform their own function in this group (families of bees, ants or termites).

Mass effect.

A mass effect is a phenomenon that occurs when a living space is overpopulated. Naturally, when united in groups, especially large ones, there is also some overpopulation, but there is a big difference between group and mass effects. The first gives advantages to each member of the association, and the other, on the contrary, suppresses the vital activity of all, that is, it has negative consequences. For example, the mass effect is manifested in the accumulation of vertebrates. If large numbers of experimental rats are kept in one cage, then acts of aggressiveness will appear in their behavior. With prolonged keeping of animals in such conditions, embryos dissolve in pregnant females, aggressiveness increases so much that rats gnaw off each other's tails, ears, and limbs.

The mass effect of highly organized organisms leads to a stressful state. In humans, this can cause mental disorders and nervous breakdowns.

Intraspecific competition.

Between individuals of the same species there is always a kind of competition in obtaining the best living conditions. The greater the population density of a particular group of organisms, the more intense the competition. Such competition of organisms of the same species among themselves for certain conditions of existence is called intraspecific competition.

Mass effect and intraspecific competition are not identical concepts. If the first phenomenon occurs for a relatively short time and subsequently ends with a rarefaction of the group (mortality, cannibalism, reduced fertility, etc.), then intraspecific competition exists constantly and eventually leads to a wider adaptation of the species to environmental conditions. The species becomes more ecologically adapted. As a result of intraspecific competition, the species itself is preserved and does not destroy itself as a result of such a struggle.

Intraspecific competition can manifest itself in anything that organisms of the same species can claim. In plants that grow densely, competition may occur for light, mineral nutrition, etc. For example, an oak tree, when it grows alone, has a spherical crown, it is quite spreading, since the lower side branches receive a sufficient amount of light. In oak plantations in the forest, the lower branches are shaded by the upper ones. Branches that receive insufficient light die off. As the oak grows in height, the lower branches quickly fall off, and the tree takes on a forest shape - a long cylindrical trunk and a crown of branches at the top of the tree.

In animals, competition arises for a certain territory, food, nesting sites, etc. It is easier for mobile animals to avoid tough competition, but it still affects them. As a rule, those that avoid competition often find themselves in unfavorable conditions, they are forced, like plants (or attached animal species), to adapt to the conditions with which they have to be content.

heterotypic reactions.

Table 1.2.4. Forms of interspecies interactions

	Species occupy		Species occupy
Form of interaction (co-shares)	same territory (living together)		different territories (live separately)
	View A	View B	View A	View B
Neutralism
Comensalism (type A - comensal)
Protocooperation
Mutualism
Amensalism (type A - amensal, type B - inhibitor)
Predation (type A - predator, type B - prey)
Competition

0 - interaction between species does not benefit and does not harm either side;

Interactions between species produce positive consequences; -interaction between species has negative consequences.

Neutralism.

The most common form of interaction occurs when organisms of different species, occupying the same territory, do not affect each other in any way. A large number of species live in the forest, and many of them maintain neutral relationships. For example, a squirrel and a hedgehog inhabit the same forest, but they have a neutral relationship, like many other organisms. However, these organisms are part of the same ecosystem. They are elements of one whole, and therefore, with a detailed study, one can still find not direct, but indirect, rather subtle and imperceptible connections at first glance.

There is. Doom, in his Popular Ecology, gives a playful but very apt example of such connections. He writes that in England old single women support the power of the royal guards. And the connection between guardsmen and women is quite simple. Single women, as a rule, breed cats, while cats hunt mice. The more cats, the less mice in the fields. Mice are enemies of bumblebees, because they destroy their holes where they live. The fewer mice, the more bumblebees. Bumblebees are not known to be the only pollinators of clover. More bumblebees in the fields - more clover harvest. Horses graze on clover, and the guardsmen like to eat horse meat. Behind such an example in nature, one can find many hidden connections between various organisms. Although in nature, as can be seen from the example, cats have a neutral relationship with horses or jmels, they are indirectly related to them.

Commensalism.

Many types of organisms enter into relationships that benefit only one side, while the other does not suffer from this and nothing is useful. This form of interaction between organisms is called commensalism. Commensalism often manifests itself in the form of coexistence of various organisms. So, insects often live in the burrows of mammals or in the nests of birds.

Often one can also observe such a joint settlement, when sparrows nest in the nests of large birds of prey or storks. For birds of prey, the neighborhood of sparrows does not interfere, but for the sparrows themselves, this is a reliable protection of their nests.

In nature, there is even a species that is named like that - the commensal crab. This small, graceful crab readily settles in the mantle cavity of oysters. By this, he does not interfere with the mollusk, but he himself receives a shelter, fresh portions of water and nutrient particles that get to him with water.

Protocooperation.

The next step in the joint positive co-action of two organisms of different species is protocooperation, in which both species benefit from interaction. Naturally, these species can exist separately without any losses. This form of interaction is also called primary cooperation, or cooperation.

In the sea, such a mutually beneficial, but not obligatory, form of interaction arises when crabs and intestinales are combined. Anemones, for example, often take up residence on the dorsal side of crabs, camouflaging and protecting them with their stinging tentacles. In turn, the sea anemones receive from the crabs the bits of food left over from their meal, and use the crabs as a vehicle. Both crabs and sea anemones are able to freely and independently exist in the reservoir, but when they are nearby, the crab, even with its claws, transplants the sea anemones onto itself.

The joint nesting of birds of different species in the same colony (herons and cormorants, waders and terns of different species, etc.) is also an example of cooperation in which both parties benefit, for example, in protection from predators.

Mutualism.

Mutualism (or obligate symbiosis) is the next stage of mutually beneficial adaptation of different species to each other. It differs from protocooperation in its dependency. If during protocooperation the organisms that enter into a relationship can exist separately and independently of each other, then under mutualism the existence of these organisms separately is impossible.

This type of coaction often occurs in quite different organisms, systematically remote, with different needs. An example of this would be the relationship between nitrogen-fixing bacteria (bubble bacteria) and legumes. Substances secreted by the root system of legumes stimulate the growth of bubble bacteria, and the waste products of bacteria lead to deformation of the root hairs, which begins the formation of bubbles. Bacteria have the ability to assimilate atmospheric nitrogen, which is deficient in the soil but an essential macronutrient for plants, which in this case is of great benefit to leguminous plants.

In nature, the relationship between fungi and plant roots is quite common, called mycorrhiza. The fungus, interacting with the tissues of the root, forms a kind of organ that helps the plant more effectively absorb minerals from the soil. Mushrooms from this interaction receive the products of photosynthesis of the plant. Many types of trees cannot grow without mycorrhiza, and certain types of fungi form mycorrhiza with the roots of certain types of trees (oak and porcini, birch and boletus, etc.).

A classic example of mutualism is lichens, which combine the symbiotic relationship of fungi and algae. The functional and physiological connections between them are so close that they are considered as a separate group organisms. The fungus in this system provides the algae with water and mineral salts, and the algae, in turn, gives the fungus organic substances that it synthesizes itself.

Amensalism.

In the natural environment, not all organisms positively influence each other. There are many cases when one species harms another in order to ensure its life. This form of coaction, in which one type of organism suppresses the growth and reproduction of an organism of another species without losing anything, is called amensalism (antibiosis). The suppressed species in a pair that interacts is called amensalom, and the one who suppresses - inhibitor.

Amensalism is best studied in plants. In the process of life, plants release chemicals into the environment, which are factors influencing other organisms. Regarding plants, amensalism has its own name - allelopathy. It is known that, due to the excretion of toxic substances by the roots, the Volokhatenky Nechuiweter displaces other annual plants and forms continuous single-species thickets over large areas. In fields, wheatgrass and other weeds crowd out or overwhelm crop plants. Walnut and oak oppress grassy vegetation under their crowns.

Plants can secrete allelopathic substances not only by their roots, but also by the aerial part of their body. Volatile allelopathic substances released by plants into the air are called phytoncides. Basically, they have a destructive effect on microorganisms. Everyone is well aware of the antimicrobial preventive effect of garlic, onion, horseradish. Many phytoncides are produced by coniferous trees. One hectare of common juniper plantations produces more than 30 kg of phytoncides per year. Often conifers are used in settlements to create sanitary protection belts around various industries, which helps to purify the air.

Phytoncides negatively affect not only microorganisms, but also animals. In everyday life, various plants have long been used to fight insects. So, baglitsa and lavender are a good way to fight moths.

Antibiosis is also known in microorganisms. Its first time was opened By. Babesh (1885) and rediscovered by A. Fleming (1929). Penicillu fungi have been shown to secrete a substance (penicillin) that inhibits bacterial growth. It is widely known that some lactic acid bacteria acidify their environment so that putrefactive bacteria that need an alkaline or neutral environment cannot exist in it. The allelopathic chemicals of microorganisms are known as antibiotics. More than 4 thousand antibiotics have already been described, but only about 60 of their varieties are widely used in medical practice.

Protection of animals from enemies can also be carried out by isolating substances that have an unpleasant odor (for example, among reptiles - vulture turtles, snakes; birds - hoopoe chicks; mammals - skunks, ferrets).

Predation.

Theft in the broad sense of the word is considered to be a way of obtaining food and feeding animals (sometimes plants), in which they catch, kill and eat other animals. Sometimes this term is understood as any eating of some organisms by others, i.e. relationships between organisms in which one uses the other as food. With this understanding, the hare is a predator in relation to the grass that it consumes. But we will use a narrower understanding of predation, in which one organism feeds on another, which is close to the first in a systematic way (for example, insects that feed on insects; fish that feed on fish; birds that feed on reptiles, birds and mammals; mammals, that feed on birds and mammals). An extreme case of predation, in which a species feeds on organisms of its own species, is called cannibalism.

Sometimes a predator selects a prey in such quantity that it does not negatively affect the size of its population. By this, the predator contributes to a better state of the prey population, which, moreover, has already adapted to the pressure of the predator. The birth rate in the populations of the prey is higher than is required for the usual maintenance of its numbers. Figuratively speaking, the prey population takes into account what the predator must select.

Interspecies competition.

Between organisms of different species, as well as between organisms of the same species, interactions arise due to which they try to get the same resource. Such co-actions between different species are called interspecific competition. In other words, we can say that interspecific competition is any interaction between populations of different species that adversely affects their growth and survival.

The consequences of such competition may be the displacement of one organism by another from a certain ecological system (the principle of competitive exclusion). At the same time, competition promotes the emergence of many adaptations through the process of selection, which leads to the diversity of species that exist in a particular community or region.

Competitive interaction may involve space, food or nutrients, light, and many other factors. Interspecific competition, depending on what it is based on, can lead either to the establishment of an equilibrium between two species, or, with more intense competition, to the replacement of a population of one species by a population of another. Also, the result of competition may be such that one species will displace the other in a different place or force it to move to other resources.