New time is the period of development of European states from the 17th to the 18th century. Sometimes scholars also include the Renaissance, in addition, some include the 19th century. The twentieth century is always considered separately, and is defined as "modernity".

periodization

The era of the New Age is based on the bourgeoisie and spiritual guidelines, making them a single whole. Since this period includes as many as three centuries, each of them has its own historical "face" and cultural characteristics. This is:

• XVII century - the century of the era of the birth and formation of rationalism;
• XVIII century - the century of Enlightenment and the "third estate";
• XIX century - the century of the classics, the heyday of the bourgeoisie and at the same time its crisis.

New time covers two stages. In the 17th century, the domination of France and Spain progressed, the endless revolutions of the bourgeoisie in England. This is the beginning of the formation of a modern picture of the world and philosophy.

The stage of formation of manufactories was completed, a free economy and a liberal political system were formed. In addition, people began to strive for freedom and the right to choose an ideology. All this contributed to the development of the ideology of the Enlightenment.

Character traits

The era of the New Age is a period of contradictions, as people needed to change the old way of life for a more relevant one, rethink values, accept technological progress and become part of it. It is characterized by the following features:

• The main role began to be played by an individual. All attention was directed to the spirituality of a person, a sense of sharpening of one's own "I" was awakened, which contributed to the discovery of self-consciousness as a different reality.
• The personality began to reach out for elitist humanism, which glorified the freedom of creativity. Its main feature was universality, that is, each person received the right to freedom, life, wealth, etc.
• The consciousness of people began to form, which was directed to the development of technological progress, to change the daily way of life and to the formation of an economic order.
• The struggle between the church and the state became more intense, but ended with the fact that the authorities could not subdue religion.

On the one hand, a person, due to the constant pressure of the material condition, turned into an economic tool. But on the other hand, it entered into a confrontation with total technogenic and economic dependence.

The periodization of the New Time is extremely interesting and peculiar, it should be noted. After all, it combines and develops two epochs at once - the New and the Enlightenment. The second is dominated by equality and justice of the late 17th - 18th century.

At this time, more stylistic genres of art appeared than in any other. At the end of the 19th century, cinema appeared and began to develop. And in the period of the 17th-19th centuries, the subway and underground tunnels were first built.

Social aspect

If we talk about the culture of the New Age, it should be noted that this was a period when society woke up and decided to change its not very pleasant environment in order to see themselves and the world around them with a fresh look.

Scientists have dubbed this period of history "New" because it really became one. Especially when compared with the Middle Ages. For the first time, an individual and his personality became the most significant figure, and a legal community began to take shape. In addition, the pressure in the field of culture and science has disappeared.

Conditions were created to ensure freedom and emancipation from slavery. As a result of all of the above, a person has developed the concept and awareness of his own "I".

Thanks to this, there was a change from conservative social relations to a fast and impetuous bourgeois hostel, in which harsh market relations were established in conditions of enormous competition.

While the bourgeoisie was trying to improve the economy, human consciousness began to strive to understand the nature and spirituality of man. At this time, interest in philosophy and natural sciences increased very sharply.

As Protestantism spread to northern and central Europe, the level of education rose sharply. This was facilitated by familiarity with the Bible. But also her reading influenced the development of religious fanaticism. We can say that there was a rethinking and reassessment of the role of man, people came to understand that for a long time they were limited in education, that is, they were deprived of cultural, creative, scientific education. The era became an omen of happiness, people began to understand what can be done and what is not.

In modern times, the formation of the bourgeoisie and industrial society took place. But it also brought many revolutions: the Dutch (1566-1609), English (1640-1688), Great French (1789-1794). These events involved the broad masses of the population, all this was aggravated by culture and discoveries.

scientific progress

Due to the development of production, there was an urgent need for research. The leader was mechanics and its discoveries in the field of motion of bodies. The scientific culture of modern times developed rapidly. Mathematical achievements played a huge role. The universe began to be seen no longer as a living being, but as a faceless phenomenon that governs natural laws that can be studied and understood. And religion began to be seen as a secondary or even non-existent factor.

The main features of culture

Returning to the periodization of the New Age, it should be noted that the dominance of science began with the scientific revolution, which is associated with the heliocentric theory of Copernicus. It provoked a protest in the religious community. Fanatics have associated it with the theory of Giordano Bruno, who was condemned by the Inquisition. It wasn't until the 20th century that Catholics recognized them as being right. And Kepler proved that the motion of the planets occurs in a continuous ellipse.

Galileo Galilei invented the telescope and with its help he was able to prove that the planets are homogeneous. After these discoveries, a division of natural and human sciences was formed in science.

In modern times, God began to be perceived as an architect and mathematician, who once launched the mechanism of the planet's movement, but does not interfere in its existence. This is a significant moment in the history of the culture of the New Age, because this is how the formation of philosophy - deism - happened. Rationalism has become the main tool for studying the universe.

Philosophy almost always outstrips science in development, and sometimes turns into a mechanism for its movement. The problem of the formation of science was that society was divided into two opposing camps. Some were for rationality, others were sensualists. The second argued that the sensual and empirical way of knowledge is the most reliable. The first believed that a person does not have enough feelings for knowledge. The only way to understand the world around us is the mind.

During the formation of the culture of the New Age, interest in sexual differences increased, the cult of the woman's body appeared and developed. And in the 19th century, ladies began to fight for freedom of speech and social liberation. The bourgeoisie began to regard the house as a fortress. And love has become the primary reason for marriage. The age at its entry for men was 30 years, and for girls - 25. Children began to be brought up taking into account their behavior and aspirations. Education spread to the whole society, and boys and girls began to be taught separately.

Art

This is an inseparable part of the culture of modern times. In art, one of the main styles was the baroque, characterized by dynamics and expression. It originated in Italy, and in this era began to be called "new art". If you translate the name of the style into Russian, then it will take on the meaning "fancy".

Baroque began to appear in all spheres of life, both in clothing and in architecture. Women's dresses in this style supplanted all the narrowed lace French clothes. Architecture tried to balance forms, that is, combine light and airy with massive elements. The influence of this style is most noticeable in the decoration of French buildings. In England, the style became more conservative and acquired the features of classicism.

But later, the Baroque in France began to replace classicism. Its main feature is the predominance of antique forms. It combines rigor and conciseness. The style is based on rationalism, it carries the symbolism of personal interests, central power and unification under it.

Music in classicism manifested itself in the works of Mozart, Beethoven, Gluck, Salieri.

In the New Age, another style was formed - rococo. Some take it for a kind of baroque, and its occurrence is usually associated with a person's desire to leave the familiar world and plunge into the world of illusions and fantasies. The rococo style is focused on creating something new, graceful and airy. In it one can see the ethnic elements of the East, especially in artistic culture. In the literature there was a direction "sentimentalism".

great figures

They should also be noted with attention, talking about the features of the culture of the New Age. During this era, science developed very actively. It was during this period that the basic principles of natural science were laid. All the information that was acquired by doctors, healers, alchemists, acquired a structured form. Thanks to this, new norms and ideals of the structure of science were formed. They were associated with mathematics and experimental verification of not only natural processes, but also religious dogmas.

The main difference of the New Age was a sharp drop in the authority of the church and the rise of science. Galileo began to study the methodology of science, and Newton mastered mechanics and its principles. Thanks to the efforts of Bacon, Hobbes, Spinoza, philosophy was freed from scholasticism. And its basis was not faith, but reason. Society became increasingly independent of religion.

This is the age of the birth of people with new actions and thoughts. Science was formed not from the knowledge of one particular person, but based on facts and verification.

Discoveries

The era of the New Age is symbolized not only by great changes in art and science, but also by geographical discoveries. It is impossible not to note the progress in the field of mathematics, medicine, philosophy, astronomy.

This is the period of the reformation, when the attitude towards religion and faith as such has completely changed. It was just a huge upheaval in culture.

New time was based on the principle of humanism and human creativity and development. The image of a man who created himself became the ideal of the era.

In the late 16th and early 17th century, great geographical discoveries were made, and travel was made that was previously impossible. Cultural figures of the New Age gave impetus to incredible progress. To a greater extent, this happened because of the need of the capitalists to expand their well-being. And they decided that it was time to find a mythical country - India. The two most powerful maritime powers at that time (Spain and Portugal) set off in search.

In 1492, the Spanish navigator H. Columbus set sail from his native shores, and after exactly 33 days he ran into the Colombian shores, mistaking them for India. He died without knowing that America was discovered. But later, A. Vespucci proved the discovery of a new side of the world.

The way to India was opened in 1498 by another navigator - Vasco da Gama. This discovery provided new trading opportunities with the countries of the Indian Ocean coast.

Magellan made the first trip around the world, which lasted 1081 days. But, unfortunately, only 18 people survived from the whole team, so people did not dare to repeat his feat for a long time.

The culture and science of modern times developed very rapidly, all views on these areas were rethought in principle. Copernicus studied not only astronomy and mathematics, but also paid great attention to medicine and legal education.

D. Bruno became a revolutionary, but he had to say goodbye to life, proving that there are many planets in the world. And also that the Sun is a star, and besides it, there are millions of them. But G. Galileo, having made a telescope, proved the theory of Bruno and Copernicus.

I. Gutenberg invented printing, which contributed to the growth of education. And the intellectually developed person, who later became a model of the culture of the New Age, began to be considered the standard.

However, this is not all. If we talk about literary and artistic culture, then the poet F. Petrarch has been read for almost seven hundred years, and the Italian D. Boccaccio wrote a collection that said that a person has the right to joy. M. de Cervantes wrote the famous novel "Don Quixote", he expressed ideas that are still relevant today. W. Shakespeare's dramaturgy became the pinnacle of literature.

Peculiarities

A little more is worth talking about the features of the culture of the New Age. Here's how it differs:

• the ideals of humanity and the equality of people before the law, regardless of class and clan;
• the development of rational thinking and the rejection of metaphysics;
• the development of natural science used for development and progress.

This ideology became the basis of the transformation that took place in the process of revolutions.

The formation of Russian culture

About this in the end. The 17th century was a turning point not only in Europe, but also in Russia. Petersburg becomes the capital, and as a result of the reforms, the formation of a bureaucratic state begins. There is an expansion of the territory, the country gets access to the Baltic and Black Seas, this contributes to the establishment of ties with Europe.

Peter I actively took up the development and formation of the state and the departure from the Middle Ages. As a result, the formation of the Russian national culture of the New Age began to take place.

The economy and social life began to develop dynamically. This also affects culture. Religion again finds itself under political power, and when you try to evaluate the action of Peter, it is quickly eradicated.

New cities with a fairly developed infrastructure are being intensively built, and education is being brought to the fore.

In the middle of the 18th century, the monarchy flourished, at this time social thinking and self-awareness grew. Freedom becomes its center, which contributes to the formation of a new layer of society - the intelligentsia.

The second half of the century is the most significant in the development of art. There is a development of all possible genres and types, and the creative process is not limited by anything. Beauty and nobility, as well as patriotism, come forward.

The Late Middle Ages is a term used by historians to describe a period in European history between the 14th and 16th centuries.
The Late Middle Ages was preceded by the Mature Middle Ages, and the subsequent period is called the Modern Age. Historians differ sharply in defining the upper limit of the Late Middle Ages. If in Russian historical science it is customary to define its end as the English Civil War, then in Western European science the end of the Middle Ages is usually associated with the beginning of the Church Reformation or the era of the Great Geographical Discoveries. The late Middle Ages is also called the Renaissance.
Around 1300, the period of European growth and prosperity ended with a series of disasters, such as the Great Famine of 1315-1317, which happened due to unusually cold and rainy years that ruined the harvest. Famine and disease were followed by the Black Death, a plague that wiped out more than a quarter of the European population. The destruction of the social order led to massive unrest, it was at this time that the famous peasant wars raged in England and France, such as the Jacquerie. The depopulation of the European population was completed by the devastation caused by the Mongol-Tatar invasion and the Hundred Years' War. Despite the crisis, already in the XIV century. in Western Europe began a period of progress in the sciences and arts, prepared by the emergence of universities and the spread of scholarship. The revival of interest in ancient literature led to the beginning of the Italian Renaissance. Antiquities, including books, accumulated in Western Europe at the time of the Crusades, especially after the sack of Constantinople by the crusaders and the subsequent decline of culture in the Balkans, due to which Byzantine scholars began to migrate to the West, especially to Italy. The spread of knowledge was greatly facilitated by the invention in the 15th century. typography. Previously expensive and rare books, including the Bible, gradually became available to the public, and this, in turn, prepared the European Reformation.
The growth of the Ottoman Empire hostile to Christian Europe on the site of the former Byzantine Empire caused difficulties in trade with the East, which prompted Europeans to search for new trade routes around Africa and to the west, across the Atlantic Ocean and around the world. The voyages of Christopher Columbus and Vasco da Gama marked the beginning of the era of the Great Geographical Discoveries, which strengthened the economic and political power of Western Europe.
The genesis of capitalism has its own chronology, acting on two levels: pan-European (that is, tending to become world-historical) and local-historical (more precisely, national). Although the dating of its beginning at these levels may differ significantly (delay at the last level), nevertheless, not a single national economic organism remained aloof from one form or another of interaction with this process. In the same way, the scatter of individual regions is significant in terms of the forms and rhythms of the process that logically and to a large extent historically preceded the genesis of capitalism - the so-called primitive accumulation.
The main prerequisite for the emergence of capitalist forms of production was the development of productive forces, the improvement of tools. By the beginning of the XVI century. shifts have taken place in a number of branches of handicraft production. In industry, the water wheel was increasingly used. Significant progress was observed in the textile craft, in cloth making. They began to produce thin woolen taki, dyed in different colors. In the XIII century. the spinning wheel was invented, and in the XV century. self-spinning wheel, performing 2 operations - twisting and winding the thread. This made it possible to increase the productivity of spinners. There were also shifts in weaving - the vertical loom was replaced by a horizontal one. Great successes were achieved in mining and metallurgy. In the XV century. they began to make deep mines with drifts - branches diverging in different directions and adits - horizontal and inclined exits for mining ore in the mountains. They began to build houses. In the cold working of metals, turning, drilling, rolling, drawing and other machines were used. In Western European languages, the term "engineer" is found in the XIII-XIV centuries. (from Latin - ingenium - "innate abilities, intelligence, wit, ingenuity." Through French and German, the word "engineer" entered Russia in the 17th century. With the invention of printing, a new branch of production began to develop - typography. In the XIII-XIV centuries clocks with a spring and a pendulum were known.In the 15th century, pocket watches appeared.Charcoal was used as fuel, from the 15th century, coal began to be used.Great successes were achieved in the 14th-15th centuries in shipbuilding and navigation.The size increased vessels, technical equipment, which led to the expansion of world trade, shipping.But still, the 16th century, despite numerous technical discoveries and innovations, was not yet marked by a genuine technical and technological revolution.In addition to the spread of pumps for pumping water from mines, which allowed them deepen, blower bellows in metallurgy, which made it possible to proceed to the smelting of iron ore, and mechanical machines (drawing, nailing, stocking nyh), productive labor in industry largely remained manual.
The development of industry and the increase in demand for agricultural products contributed to the growth of agricultural production. But there was no drastic change in agricultural implements, they were the same - a plow, a harrow, a scythe, a sickle, but they were also improved - they became lighter, made of the best metal. In the second half of the XV century. a light plow appeared, where 1-2 horses were harnessed, and which was controlled by 1 person. The areas of cultivated lands have increased due to the melioration of arid and wetlands. Improved agricultural practices. Fertilization of the soil with manure, peat, ash, marl, etc. was practiced. Along with the three-field, multi-field and grass sowing appeared. The expansion of commodity economy in the city and in the countryside created the preconditions for the replacement of small-scale individual production by large-scale capitalist production.
Finally, the nature of the genesis of the capitalist structure also depended on the geographical position of a given country in relation to the new direction of international trade routes - to the Atlantic. After the discovery of the New World and the sea route to India, the transformation of the Mediterranean Sea into the far periphery of the new, northwestern hub of international maritime communications played an important role in the backward movement - the withering and gradual disappearance of the sprouts of early capitalism in the economy of Italy and Southwest Germany.
Capitalist production requires money and labor. These prerequisites were created in the process of primitive accumulation of capital. Of course, the existence of a market for "free" labor power is a necessary condition for the emergence of capitalist forms of social production. However, the forms of forcible separation of the worker from the means of production that actually or legally belonged to him differ from one country to another to the same extent as the forms and rates of formation of the capitalist system itself. The intensity of the process of primitive accumulation in itself is not yet an indicator of the intensity
The emergence of capitalism gave birth to new classes - the bourgeoisie and wage workers, which were formed on the basis of the decomposition of the social structure of feudal society.
Along with the formation of new classes, new forms of ideology developed, reflecting their needs, in the form of religious movements. The 16th century was marked by a major crisis in the Roman Catholic Church, which manifested itself in the state of its doctrine, cult, institutions, its role in the life of society, in the nature of education and the morals of the clergy. Diverse attempts to eliminate "corruption" through internal church transformations were not successful.
Under the influence of the innovative theological ideas of Martin Luther, which gave a powerful impetus to various opposition speeches against the Catholic Church, the Reformation movement began in Germany from the Latin "reformation" - transformation), which rejected the power of the papacy, Reformation processes, leading to a split in the Roman Church to create new creeds, appeared with varying degrees of intensity in almost all countries of the Catholic world, affected the position of the church as the largest landowner and an organic component of the feudal system, affected the role of Catholicism as an ideological force that had defended the medieval system for centuries.
The Reformation took on the character of broad religious and socio-political movements in Europe in the 16th century, putting forward demands for the reform of the Catholic Church and the transformation of the orders sanctioned by its teaching.
Throughout the 16th century The political map of Europe has changed significantly. At the turn of the XV and XVI centuries. the process of unification of the English and French lands was basically completed, a single Spanish state was formed, which in 1580 also included Portugal (until 1640). The concept of the Empire, called from the end of the XV century. The "Holy Roman Empire of the German Nation" was increasingly associated with purely German lands. In Eastern Europe, a new state appeared - the Commonwealth, uniting the Kingdom of Poland and the Grand Duchy of Lithuania.
At the same time, under the blows of the Ottoman Empire, the Kingdom of Hungary collapsed. Other Central European monarchies, united under the rule of the Austrian Habsburgs, lost their political independence. Most of the territories of South-Eastern Europe were under foreign domination.
Common to the development of most European states in the period under review was a sharp increase in centralization tendencies, which manifested itself in the acceleration of the processes of unification of state territories around a single center, in the formation of government bodies different from the Middle Ages, in a change in the role and functions of the supreme power.
Europe in the 16th century states of various types coexisted and were in complex interconnections - from monarchies going through different stages of development to feudal, and at the end of the century, early bourgeois republics. At the same time, the absolute monarchy becomes the predominant form of government. In Soviet historiography, the point of view was established, according to which the transition from estate-representative monarchies to absolutist-type monarchies is associated with the entry into the historical arena of new social forces in the person of the emerging bourgeoisie, creating a certain counterbalance to the feudal nobility; according to F. Engels, a situation arises when “state power temporarily acquires a certain independence in relation to both classes, as an apparent mediator between them).
The lower chronological limit of absolutism can conditionally be attributed to the end of the 15th-beginning of the 16th century. The idea of ​​the 16th and the first half of the 17th centuries is widespread. as a period of "early absolutism", although English absolutism (the existence of which, however, some schools and trends in foreign historiography deny) passed during the 16th century. the stage of maturity and entered a period of protracted crisis, which was resolved by the bourgeois revolution of the middle of the 17th century.
Absolutism continues the earlier annexation of the outlying territories, sharply restrains the centrifugal, separatist aspirations of the feudal nobility, limits urban liberties, destroys or changes the functions of the old local governments, forms a powerful central authority that puts all spheres of economic and social life under its control, secularizes the church and monastic landownership, subordinates the church organization to its influence.
The organs of class representation (the Estates General in France, the Cortes in Spain, etc.) are losing the significance that they had in the previous period, although in a number of cases they continue to exist, forming a bizarre symbiosis with the new bureaucratic apparatus of absolutism.

Europe in the Early Modern Period (Late Middle Ages)

"Europe in the Early Modern Times (Late Middle Ages)"

New story , or a new time in the history of mankind, is era of capitalism. It covers the period from the English bourgeois revolution of the XVII century. to the Great October Socialist Revolution of 1917. New history is divided into two periods: from the English bourgeois revolution in the middle of the 17th century. (1640) to the Paris Commune (1871) and from the Paris Commune to the Great October Socialist Revolution. New time was a stage of great changes in all spheres of life. It occupies a shorter period when compared with the Middle Ages or with the ancient world, but in history this period is of the utmost importance. Many historians call it "the time of the great breakthrough", and there are explanations for this. It was during this period that the foundations of the capitalist mode of production were laid, the level of productive forces increased significantly, the forms of organization of production changed, thanks to the introduction of technical innovations, labor productivity increased and the pace of economic development accelerated. This period was also a turning point in Europe's relations with other civilizations. If before that the West was a relatively closed region, then what happened in the XV-XVII centuries. The great geographical discoveries pushed the boundaries of the Western world, expanded the horizons of Europeans. The development of trade relations has deepened the process of formation of national markets, pan-European and world. In the XVI-XVII centuries. Europe became the birthplace of the first early bourgeois revolutions.

Transition to an industrial society:

During the New Age, qualitative changes took place in the life of the peoples of the Northern Hemisphere, and then of the whole world. They were due to the beginning of the transition from a traditional society to an industrial one, which is commonly called modernization. The new time, in short, has led to a change in the political system in many countries. The rapid development of trade, especially during the period of geographical discoveries, the emergence of banking, the emergence of manufactories began to increasingly contradict the traditional economy and political system. The emerging new class, the bourgeoisie, begins to play a significant role in the state. In many countries that have reached the limit of contradiction between the capitalist mode of production and the federal system, they have led to bourgeois revolutions. The Great English (1640-1660) and Great French Revolutions (1789-1794) initiated the process of establishing the bourgeoisie as the ruling class in the political organization of European society. In the 19th century bourgeois revolutions swept other European countries. In 1820-1821, 1848 revolutions took place in Italy. A whole series of revolutions of 1854-1856. shook Spain. In 1848 there were revolutionary uprisings in Germany. France played the role of the leader of social revolutions in Europe. After the Great Bourgeois Revolution of 1789-1794. she survived three more in 1830, 1848 and 1871. Along with the bourgeoisie in the social revolutions of the XIX century. the proletariat is active. In the form of major uprisings, he seeks to defend his rights. The uprising of the Lyon weavers in France (1830 and 1839), the uprising of the Silesian weavers in Germany (1839), the Chartist movement in England testify to the growing strength of the working class. By the middle of the XIX century. the political organization of the working class of Europe, the First International, is organized. Capitalism is finally victorious in Europe. The industrial revolution begins, and the obsolete manufactory is replaced by the factory. Most European countries in modern times are going through a difficult time of changing forms of power, a crisis of absolute monarchy. As a result of changes in the political system, parliamentary democracy is emerging in the most progressive countries. In the same period, the system of international relations began to take shape.

Geographic discoveries:

New time - the time of inventors and practitioners, the time of great geographical discoveries. In 1492, the Genoese Christopher Columbus discovered a new continent - America, in 1498 the Portuguese navigator Vasco da Gama established a sea route to India, in 1519 the Portuguese Magellan made the first trip around the world. In connection with these events, European trade, stretching across the oceans, became truly global. Spain and Portugal became colonial powers. The opening of a new sea route was a heavy blow to the traditional trade of the Arabs, Turks, Venetians. The new economic center of Europe, and in fact, of the whole world, moved to the shores of the North Sea - first to Holland, then to England and Northern France. In these countries, both industry and trade developed simultaneously. Later, the exploitation of the gold and silver mines, sugar and tobacco plantations of America, based on the extensive use of the labor of slaves captured in Africa, brought enormous wealth mainly to Holland and England. These countries were ahead of Spain and Portugal in economic development, where feudal relations continued to exist. The success of the travels contributed to change in many areas of European life. New goods began to appear on the European markets, which arrived from the East and the West - cotton products, porcelain, cocoa, and tobacco. The opened up opportunities for new sea routes led to an increase in the requirements for shipbuilding and navigation, for the training of craftsmen for the production of maps, compasses and other tools. Maritime schools were founded in Portugal, Spain, England, Holland and France. Sea voyages made an important revolution in the sphere of ideas about the earth, the study of the movement of stars acquired practical value. At this time, the greatest inventions that expanded the possibility of observing nature, the telescope and microscope, found mass application. After geographical discoveries, the market for selling goods and obtaining raw materials for production expanded significantly, merchant capital grew rapidly, the bourgeoisie and merchants grew rich. During this period, the exchange of agricultural products for goods manufactured in the city developed, and the volume of goods produced increased. The development of commodity production and the increase in demand for handicraft products were accompanied by a stratification of artisans. Production based on the division of labor was called "manufactory". The very word "manufactory" means "manufacturing". But the manufacture is already an industrial enterprise with significant capital and hired workers who produce products for a wide market.

The first manufactories arose in Italy in the 14th century. At the end of the XV - beginning of the XVI century. manufactories were created in Germany, England, the Netherlands, France. In the XVI-XVII centuries. cloth and silk, weapons and glass, optical and other manufactories were distributed in all European countries. In Russia, the first manufactories appeared in the 17th century. Manufactory production in Russia began to develop most rapidly at the beginning of the 18th century, and manufactories were widely developed in the 18th - first half of the 19th centuries.

Creation of the first colonial empires:

Spanish colonial empire: Spain was the first to embark on the path of building an empire, declaring all the lands discovered by its navigators in the New World as its property. The very first Spanish colony was founded on Fr. Hispaniola (modern Haiti), then Cuba, Jamaica and other islands of the West Indies were captured. At the beginning of the XVI century. The Spaniards began to explore the mainland. For many centuries, highly developed civilizations existed here. inca(in Peru) Mayan and Aztecs(in what is now Mexico).

The first victim of the Spaniards was the power of the Aztecs, captured in 1519-1521. detachment of conquistadors (from the Spanish word conquest- conquest) under the command of Hernan Cortes. The Mayan city-states followed. In 1532-1534. it was the turn of the Inca state, defeated by the conquistadors led by F. Pissarro. On the ruins of the conquered states, the colonies of New Spain and Peru were formed.

Portuguese colonial empire:

The Portuguese used somewhat different methods to build their empire. Having established themselves first in the fortifications they built on the coast of India, they quickly began to spread their dominance throughout South Asia. The Portuguese followed the established trade routes in this part of the world, seeking to establish control over their key points. To begin with, they captured the ports to the west of India, through which the trade of the Arab states and Persia was carried out, and in 1511 they occupied Malacca, the largest port in Southeast Asia, located at the crossroads of the most important trade routes off the coast of Asia. The "spice islands" became the most valuable acquisition. In 1517 the Portuguese established trade relations with China, in 1542 with Japan. In 1557 they founded Macau, the first European colony in China. From the countries of the Far East, such valuable goods as tea, silk, porcelain were delivered to Europe.

The Portuguese were creating a colonial empire that was different from the Spanish. Spain sought to directly seize the vast undeveloped territories where the extraction of precious metals was organized and plantations were created - large agricultural holdings in which tea, sugar cane, cotton and other crops were grown. Instead of large colonies, the Portuguese created a network of strongholds, trying to bring under their control the richest trade of the East Indies. In contrast to the Spanish territorial empire, Portugal created the world's first trading empire of a global, that is, worldwide, scale. Common to the two powers was the establishment of a law according to which the right to trade with their colonies belonged only to their own subjects and was very strictly regulated by the royal power. In 1580, when Portugal was captured by Spain, a gigantic colonial empire was formed, which lasted until 1640.

Reformation and counter-reformation in Europe:

Reformation in the 16th century - the most important turning point in the history of the Western European Christian Church, a spiritual upheaval, as a result of which a number of dogmatic provisions were revised, new confessional movements and national church organizations arose. Reflecting the crisis of Catholicism, the Reformation at the same time made it possible to overcome it by adapting the Christian faith to the needs and ethical demands of contemporary society.

Anti-clerical sentiments were widespread in its most diverse layers at all stages of the Middle Ages: numerous "heresiarchs", political thinkers, humanist writers, representatives of the national clergy - supporters of the "cathedral movement" criticized the mores of the Roman curia, clergy and monasticism. Political claims against the Roman Catholic Church were expressed by secular rulers and the European nobility, who demanded the secularization of its property and lands. The burghers advocated the "cheapening" of the church, as well as the rejection of some of the provisions of its ethical teachings - from the condemnation of wealth and entrepreneurial activity.

By the beginning of the XVI century. these demands merged into a single stream and led to the realization of the need for a profound reform of church doctrine and organization. The most important prerequisites for the Reformation at the turn of the 15th-16th centuries were the general rise in education, the success of book printing, the spread of new principles of humanistic ethics and the Renaissance concept of man - the master of his own destiny. The intellectual needs that have matured in society have led to a rethinking of the theory of the "one-saving role" of the Catholic Church, as well as the significance of church sacraments (baptism, communion, chrismation, repentance, priesthood, marriage and unction) in individual salvation. The beginning of the European Reformation was laid in Germany.

Counter-Reformation and "Catholic Reform" in Europe:

The successes of Protestantism dealt a strong blow to the positions of the Catholic Church, which was losing its former power over the Christian world. This forced the papacy to take a number of measures aimed at combating the "Protestant heresy". The Church's policy to stop the spread of new teachings was called the "Counter-Reformation". It was actively supported by the sovereigns of the countries that remained Catholic - Spain, France, parts of the German and Italian states.

In these countries, the Inquisition became more active, condemning thousands of Protestants to a painful death at the stake as heretics. The Catholic Church encouraged denunciations of Protestants; the property of the convicted was handed over to scammers.

The Inquisition closely monitored the spread of "harmful" ideas in the universities, censorship of printed publications was introduced. In Catholic countries, the works of Protestant theologians were listed in the "index of forbidden books" and indulged in public burning. The importation of this literature or its underground publication was punishable by death.

One of the most effective means in the struggle for the minds of believers was the Jesuit order, founded in 1540. Its creator and first general was the Spanish nobleman and theologian Ignatius Loyola (1491-1556). He drew up a program of action and spiritual commandments for members of the Society of Jesus (Jesuits), the main purpose of which was to strengthen the position of the Catholic Church around the world, which Loyola divided into "provinces" that covered not only Europe, but also Asia and America, where Jesuit missionaries were sent . Each region was headed by a “provincial”, under which there was a council - a collegium subordinate to the general of the order.

Unlike medieval monks, the Jesuits lived in the world and tried not to differ in appearance from secular faces. They participated in political and public life in order to influence them in the interests of the Catholic Church: they entered into the confidence of sovereigns, ministers, court favorites, encouraging them to pursue a policy approved by the papacy.

The Jesuits were engaged in "trapping souls" among all walks of life and did it very subtly: in order to attract believers to themselves, they opened schools, hospitals, orphanages and the elderly. At the same time, the Jesuit colleges and schools were distinguished by the highest level of education. In the XVI-XVII centuries. the Jesuits were considered the best teachers in Europe, many outstanding historians and political thinkers came from the environment of the order.

The ability to intrigue and subjugate people to one's will made the concept of "Jesuit" a symbol of cunning and political unscrupulousness. In their eyes, the end justifies any means. In the name of the cause of the church, the Jesuits even allowed murder, which was considered a mortal sin. They prepared a series of assassination attempts on Protestant sovereigns and politicians in France, the Netherlands, England and supported Catholic conspiracies in Protestant countries. Strict discipline reigned in the order, which did not allow ordinary members to talk about the moral side of their actions. If a Jesuit received an order from a superior, he had to obey unconditionally, as if he were an inanimate being, the charter of the society read.

Many leaders of the Catholic Church realized that the preaching of Protestantism is successful due to the fact that it makes the Bible - the main authority for Christians - more accessible to believers by translating it into popular languages. The Reformation brought with it church enlightenment: people were taught to read and write, the basics of faith, catechisms were compiled - a summary of the foundations of faith in the form of questions and answers - which were memorized. Pastors ensured that those who did not know the basics of the faith did not receive the sacrament. Thanks to the Reformation, many Christians learned better what they should have believed.

The Catholic Church, with its Latin service and Latin Bible beyond the comprehension of the majority, was losing in this respect. She had to make up for lost time. In the second half of the 16th century, Catholic theologians - supporters of the "Catholic reform" - also took up the translation of the Bible into national languages. The network of Catholic schools and universities expanded.

The most far-sighted representatives of the Catholic Church were ready to accept some of the criticism of the papacy and the clergy. They did not support the principle of papal theocracy, they proposed to abandon the assertion of the infallibility of the pope and insisted that he must obey the collective decisions of the councils. However, the conservative part of the Catholic clergy resisted all attempts at reform.

The Council of Trent, which sat intermittently from 1545 to 1563, was to resolve the disagreements. The conservatives won in fierce disputes about reforms: they insisted on the supremacy of the pope over the cathedral, achieved strict observance by the clergy of all church rituals and papal prescriptions, and strengthened the inquisition. Contradictions in the Catholic Church were overcome, but it was a triumph for its reactionary part

Main trends in socio-economic development:

A characteristic feature of the economic life and economy of the early modern period is the coexistence of new and traditional features. Material culture (tools, technologies, people's skills in agriculture and crafts) retained medieval routine. XVI-XVII centuries did not know truly revolutionary advances in technology or new sources of energy. The water wheels known since antiquity, as well as windmills and the muscular strength of people and animals, remained the dominant types of engines; the main source of energy is charcoal. Techniques of "high" agriculture and complex crop rotations came into practice during the classical Middle Ages and have changed little since then. Some shifts took place in traditional crafts - the invention of a wide loom and self-spinning wheel contributed to the progress of textile production. However, the medieval guild system hindered the introduction of technical innovations. This period was the last stage in the development of pre-industrial agrarian civilization in Europe, which ended with the onset of the industrial revolution of the 18th century. in England. industrial colonial counter-reformation imperialism

On the other hand, several areas of accelerated development clearly emerged in the European economy, where new technologies and forms of labor organization were more widely used. The progress of mining and metallurgy, in which production was carried out on a share basis with the investment of large capital, made it possible to increase the smelting of iron, cast iron, steel, which in turn led to the rise of weapons, the production of artillery and firearms, in which Europe XV-XVI centuries . knew no equal. The consequence of the spread of firearms was a revolution in military affairs, the transition from heavily armed knightly cavalry and light cavalry to infantry armed with arquebuses, the loss of the feudal militia of its former importance, changes in fortification, in all strategy and tactics of war.

Rapid progress was also observed in the so-called. “new industries” that did not have medieval guild traditions, these included printing - the most important invention of Johannes Gutenberg (1445), both technically and culturally, the production of paper, glass, soap, mirrors, cotton and silk fabrics.

In the XV-XVII centuries. a dense network of communications connected the cities and countries of Europe. The development of trade and means of communication led to the formation of internal and all-European markets, and the establishment of regular ties with Africa, Asia and America laid the foundations of the world market.

An important factor in the economic development of the early modern era was the emergence of the capitalist way of life. It was a natural result of the evolution of small-scale commodity production under market conditions. By the end of the XV century. most of the European peasantry was personally free and enjoyed economic independence, like urban artisans. However, the economy of a small producer is extremely unstable: constantly working for the market, it either prospers and grows larger, or goes bankrupt. This trend was observed in the XVI-XVII centuries. both in the city and in the countryside, where hired labor for wages spread.

The slow natural evolution of the feudal economy to capitalism was accelerated by the process of "primitive capital accumulation" - a number of historical factors that contributed, on the one hand, to the rapid expropriation of small producers (for example, the forcible enclosure of peasant lands in England, the "price revolution", the public debt system, which increased the tax burden). On the other hand, they facilitated the formation of large capital in the hands of the merchants and entrepreneurs: such factors include non-equivalent trade with the colonies of the New World, the protectionist policy of states that contributed to the enrichment of the merchants, the same “price revolution”, the benefits of which were able to use the major food suppliers and raw materials to European markets.

Capitalism has taken hold in the urban economy, despite the moderating influence of the shop floor. Property and social stratification affected the guild artisans - the basis of the medieval burghers, the struggle within the guilds, their "closure", the subordination of the "senior" guilds to the "junior" ones by the end of the 15th century. put some of the masters in unequal conditions. The rise in prices in the 16th century, which especially hit the urban population, who bought both food and raw materials, accelerated this process. A free labor market was formed in the city at the expense of half-ruined craftsmen, "eternal apprentices", the plebs and peasants who came to work. This created opportunities for the organization of large-scale production - manufactory.

Imperialism: At the turn of the 19th and 20th centuries, capitalism entered a new and final stage of its development - imperialism, or monopoly capitalism. At this time, powerful associations of the largest industrialists and bankers were formed - monopolies. They seized control of the entire economic life of the capitalist countries, subjugated the bourgeois parliaments and the state apparatus. In their hands were schools, universities, scientific institutions, the press, theater, cinema. The imperialists carry the exploitation of the peoples of their own countries to the extreme, enslave and rob the peoples of other countries, especially the backward ones. At the end of the 19th century, when the capture of the colonies had already been completed, predatory wars began between the imperialist countries for the redistribution of colonies, for the redivision of the world. World War I 1914-1918 was an imperialist war for the redivision of the world.

At the turn of the XIX and XX centuries. Russia, where the contradictions of imperialism have become particularly acute, has become the country of the most advanced labor movement in the world. A truly revolutionary Marxist party arose in Russia, the Bolshevik party headed by Lenin. When in 1914 the capitalists, in pursuit of profits, unleashed a world war, the Bolsheviks, led by Lenin, consistently fought for peace, for the proletarian revolution. In 1917, the proletarian revolution won in Russia under the leadership of the Leninist Communist Party.

Bourgeois revolutions were limited only to the replacement of feudalism by capitalism. The Great October Socialist Revolution abolished private ownership of the means of production and all exploitation of man by man, tore out the very roots of exploitation. Since 1917, the period of the collapse of capitalism and the victory of socialism began - first in Russia, then in other countries. This revolution stirred up the peoples of the colonial and dependent countries and gave a powerful impetus to their national liberation movement. The dictatorship of the proletariat was established in Russia - a new type of democracy, democracy for the working people.

October 1917 opened a new period in world history - the latest history.

And the creation of a vessel capable of covering vast distances on the high seas. Interestingly, the first of these inventions was made long before the advent of the New Age.

The ship on which the discoverers set off on long voyages was the caravel. These ships, small by modern standards (for example, the Santa Maria, the flagship of Columbus on his first voyage, had a displacement of 130 tons) literally changed the map of the world. The whole era of great geographical discoveries is firmly connected with caravels. Quite characteristic is the name that the caravel received in the Dutch language, - oceaanvaarder, literally - " ship for the ocean».

However, the prerequisites alone are not enough, so there must be a motive that forced you to go on long and dangerous journeys. This motive was the following fact. In the second half of the 15th century, the Turks, having conquered the weakened Byzantine Empire, blocked the caravan routes to the east, along which spices were delivered to Europe. Thus, trade that brought super-profits was interrupted. It was the desire to find an alternative access to the riches of the East that became the incentive for navigators of the late 15th - early 16th centuries. Therefore, the point of view that considers the date of the end of the Middle Ages to be 1453 - the capture of Constantinople by the Turks looks reasonable.

It is interesting to note that in this way it was the expansion of Muslim civilization that served as the catalyst that caused the accelerated development of European civilization.

cultural change

The science

Thanks to the culture of the Renaissance, the medieval worldview, the central element of which was faith and asceticism, gradually fell into decay. It was supplanted by the growing interest in the ancient heritage, man and the sciences studying him.

Main events

Great geographical discoveries

The Great Geographical Discoveries is a period in the history of mankind that began in the 15th century and lasted until the 17th century, during which Europeans discovered new lands and sea routes to Africa, America, Asia and Oceania in search of new trading partners and sources of goods that were in great demand in Europe.

Colonization of America

Colonization of America- this is a long process of the conquest of the territories of North and South America by Europeans, which took place from the moment this part of the world was discovered in 1492 until the end of the 18th century.

Reformation and counter-reformation

Reformation (lat. reformatio - correction, transformation)- a mass religious and socio-political movement in Western and Central Europe of the 16th - early 17th centuries, aimed at reforming Catholic Christianity in accordance with the Bible. Its beginning is considered to be the speech of Martin Luther, doctor of theology at Wittenberg University: on October 31, 1517, he nailed his “95 Theses” to the doors of the Wittenberg Castle Church, in which he opposed the existing abuses of the Catholic Church, in particular against the sale of indulgences.

counter-reformation in Western Europe - a church movement that had as its goal to restore the prestige of the Catholic Church and faith.

Thirty Years' War

Thirty Years' War(1618-1648) - the first military conflict in the history of Europe, affecting to one degree or another almost all European countries (including Russia). The war began as a religious clash between Protestants and Catholics in Germany, but then escalated into a struggle against Habsburg hegemony in Europe. The last significant religious war in Europe, which gave rise to the Westphalian system of international relations.

Peace of Westphalia and the Westphalian system of international relations

Peace of Westphalia denotes two peace agreements in Latin - Osnabrück and Münster, signed on May 15 and October 24, 1648, respectively. They ended the Thirty Years' War in the Holy Roman Empire.

The Peace of Westphalia resolved the contradictions that led to the Thirty Years' War:

• The Peace of Westphalia equalized the rights of Catholics and Protestants (Calvinists and Lutherans), legalized the confiscation of church lands, carried out before 1624, and proclaimed the principle of religious tolerance, which further reduced the significance of the confessional factor in relations between states;
• The Peace of Westphalia put an end to the desire of the Habsburgs to expand their possessions at the expense of the territories of the states and peoples of Western Europe and undermined the authority of the Holy Roman Empire: the heads of the independent states of Europe, who had the title of kings, were equal in rights with the emperor;
• According to the norms established by the Peace of Westphalia, the main role in international relations, which previously belonged to monarchs, passed to sovereign states.

English revolution

English Revolution in the 17th century(also known as the English Civil War) - the process of transition in England from an absolute monarchy to a constitutional one, in which the power of the king is limited by the power of parliament, and civil liberties are also guaranteed. The revolution opened the way for the industrial revolution in England and the capitalist development of the country.

The revolution took the form of a conflict between the executive and legislature (parliament against the king), which culminated in a civil war, as well as a religious war between Anglicans and Puritans. In the English Revolution, although it played a secondary role, it was also an element of the national struggle (between

new time

New time(or new story) - a period in the history of mankind, located between the Middle Ages and modern times.

The concept of "new history" appeared in European historical and philosophical thought in the Renaissance as an element of the three-term division of history proposed by humanists into ancient, middle and new. From the point of view of humanists, the flourishing of secular science and culture during the Renaissance, that is, not a socio-economic, but a spiritual and cultural factor, was the criterion for determining the "new time", its "novelty" in comparison with the previous era. However, this period is rather contradictory in its content: the High Renaissance, the Reformation and humanism coexisted with a massive surge of irrationalism, the development of demonology, a phenomenon that received the name "witch hunt" in literature.

The concept of "new time" was perceived by historians and established itself in scientific use, but its meaning remains conditional in many respects - not all peoples entered this period at the same time. One thing is certain: in this period of time, a new civilization, a new system of relations, a Eurocentric world, a “European miracle” and the expansion of European civilization to other regions of the world are taking place.

periodization

As a rule, in Soviet historiography, within the framework of formational theory, its beginning was associated with the English revolution of the middle of the 17th century, which began in 1640. Among other events that are accepted as the starting point of the New Age are events related to the Reformation (), the discovery of the New World by the Spaniards in 1492, the fall of Constantinople () or even the beginning of the French Revolution ().

It is even more difficult to determine the end time of this period. In Soviet historiography, the point of view was undividedly dominated, according to which the period of modern history ended in 1917, when the socialist revolution took place in Russia. According to the most common modern point of view, consideration of the events associated with the New Age should be completed with the First World War (-).

The discussion on the periodization of modern history continues today.

At the same time, two sub-stages are usually distinguished within the era of the New Age, the Napoleonic Wars serve as their border - from the Great French Revolution to the Congress of Vienna.

Changes

Political changes

The end of the Middle Ages was marked by the growing importance of centralized state administration. Striking examples of this growth are the completion of feudal civil strife - such as the War of the Scarlet and White Roses in England, the unification of the regions - Aragon and Castile in Spain.

cultural change

Great geographical discoveries

One of the most important changes was the expansion of the territory of the cultural ecumene known to Europeans. In a very short period (the end of the 15th century - the beginning of the 16th century), European navigators circled Africa, laid a sea route to India, discovered a new continent - America and circumnavigated the world. It is noteworthy that it was the discovery of America by Columbus (1492) that is considered to be the symbolic end of the Middle Ages.

These travels would have been impossible without the prerequisites, the main of which are: the invention of the compass and the creation of a vessel capable of covering vast distances on the high seas. Interestingly, the first of these inventions was made long before the advent of the New Age.

The ship on which the discoverers set off on long voyages was the caravel. These ships, small by modern standards (for example, the Santa Maria, the flagship of Columbus on his first voyage, had a displacement of 130 tons) literally changed the map of the world. The whole era of great geographical discoveries is firmly connected with caravels. Quite characteristic is the name that the caravel received in the Dutch language, - oceaanvaarder, literally - " ship for the ocean".

However, the prerequisites alone are not enough, so there must be a motive that forced you to go on long and dangerous journeys. This motive was the following fact. In the second half of the 15th century, the Turks, having conquered the weakened Byzantine Empire, blocked the caravan routes to the east, along which spices were delivered to Europe. Thus, trade that brought super-profits was interrupted. It was the desire to find an alternative access to the riches of the East that became the incentive for navigators of the late 15th - early 16th centuries. Therefore, the point of view that considers the date of the end of the Middle Ages to be 1453 - the capture of Constantinople by the Turks looks reasonable.

It is interesting to note that in this way it was the expansion of Muslim civilization that served as the catalyst that caused the accelerated development of European civilization.

The science

Not only the ideas of Europeans about the Earth have undergone significant changes, but the place of the Earth itself in the Universe has undergone a revision - even more radical. In 1543, the book of Nicolaus Copernicus “On the Revolutions of the Celestial Spheres” came out from under the printing press, in which the rejection of the Ptolemaic geocentric system that had prevailed for almost one and a half thousand years was proclaimed. It is interesting that, starting his astronomical work, Copernicus was by no means going to create something fundamentally new. Like his medieval predecessors, he considered it his task to clarify the data from the Almagest, the main work of Ptolemy, without affecting the foundations. Although the discrepancies between the data from the Almagest and the results of observations were known even before him, only Copernicus had the courage to abandon the inertia of thinking and engage not in “correcting” the work of the ancient astronomer, but to propose something fundamentally new.

First page of Copernicus' On the Revolutions of the Celestial Spheres

Technique and production

The development of technology at the turn of the 15th-16th centuries had an even greater impact on the daily life of people. One of the most important innovations of the time proved to be printing. The invention and implementation of a seemingly simple technology had a revolutionary impact on the speed of replication and dissemination of information, as well as its availability (printed books were much cheaper than handwritten ones). Johannes Gutenberg is considered to be the inventor of printing. Around 1440 he built his printing press. As is often the case with inventions, certain elements of printing technology were known before Gutenberg. Thus, book scribes began to reproduce illustrations and curly capital letters with the help of stamps two hundred years before Gutenberg. However, then it was possible to develop a technology for making stamps (letters) not from wood, but from metal. And it was he who introduced the most important idea - typing from individual letters instead of making a board - a stamp for the entire page. Even in those areas of production where technical progress was not very noticeable (or did not exist at all) compared to the Middle Ages, cardinal changes took place, this time due to a new type of labor organization. With the onset of the New Age, the handicraft production of the Middle Ages was replaced by a manufactory type of production. At manufactories, labor remained manual, but unlike medieval workshops, a division of labor was introduced, due to which labor productivity increased significantly. At manufactories, craftsmen worked not for themselves, but for the owner of the manufactory.

The development of mining and metallurgy was of great importance. However, the most important improvement in the process of iron smelting - the replacement of the cheese-blast furnace with the so-called shtukofen (the ancestor of the modern blast furnace) occurred back in the heyday of the Middle Ages, approximately in the XIII century. By the beginning of the 15th century, such furnaces had been significantly improved. Water wheels were used to drive the bellows. By the 16th century, such wheels, sometimes reaching enormous sizes (up to ten meters in diameter), were used to lift ore from mines and for other operations. A kind of encyclopedia of mining and metallurgy was the book " De re metallica libri xii"(" The Book of Metals "). This twelve-volume treatise was published in 1550. Its author was Professor Georg Agricola (Bauer) (-).

The main events of the New Age

Peace of Westphalia

English revolution

American Revolutionary War

French revolution

Russian-Turkish war 1787-1792

Russo-Swedish war 1788-1790

Napoleonic Wars

Greek revolution

Decembrist revolt

Russian-Turkish war of 1828-1829

July Revolution of 1830

First Opium War

Revolutions of 1848-1849

Crimean War

American Civil War

The American Civil War (the war of the North and the South; English American Civil War) of 1861-1865 was a war between the abolitionist states of the North and the 11 slave states of the South.

The fighting began with the shelling of Fort Sumter on April 12, 1861, and ended with the surrender of the remnants of the army of the southerners under the command of General C. Smith on May 26, 1865. During the war, about 2 thousand battles took place. More US citizens died in this war than in any other war in which the United States of America participated.

Mexican–American War

Revolution -1907 in Russia

World War I

• On July 28, Austria-Hungary, in response to the assassination of the Archduke by a Serbian terrorist, declared war on Serbia.
• On July 30, Russia began mobilizing the army in response, in response to which Germany presented an ultimatum to Russia demanding that the mobilization be stopped within 12 hours.
• On August 1, Germany declared war on Russia.
• On August 2, Germany occupied Luxembourg and presented an ultimatum to Belgium to allow troops to pass through its territory to France.
• On August 3, Germany declared war on France.
• On August 4, Germany invaded Belgium. On the same day, Great Britain, fulfilling allied obligations to Russia and France, declared war on Germany.

Notes

Links

• Kareev, A general course in the history of the 19th and 20th centuries before the start of the World War on the Runivers website
• Panchenko D.V. When did the New Age end? . Archived from the original on November 11, 2012. Retrieved November 9, 2012.
• Hobsbaum E. Age of Revolution. Europe 1789-1848 = The Age of Revolution: Europe 1789-1848 / Per. from English. L. D. Yakunina. - Rostov n / a: Phoenix, 1999. - 480 p. - 5000 copies. - ISBN 5-222-00614-X

Overview of world history
Historical periods
economic organization
History of regions

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