Early modern time in Western Europe. Early Modern

The Late Middle Ages is a term used by historians to describe a period in European history between the 14th and 16th centuries.
The Late Middle Ages was preceded by the Mature Middle Ages, and the subsequent period is called the Modern Age. Historians differ sharply in defining the upper limit of the Late Middle Ages. If in Russian historical science it is customary to define its end as the English Civil War, then in Western European science the end of the Middle Ages is usually associated with the beginning of the Church Reformation or the era of the Great Geographical Discoveries. The late Middle Ages is also called the Renaissance.
Around 1300, the period of European growth and prosperity ended with a series of disasters, such as the Great Famine of 1315-1317, which happened due to unusually cold and rainy years that ruined the harvest. Famine and disease were followed by the Black Death, a plague that wiped out more than a quarter of the European population. The destruction of the social order led to mass unrest, it was at this time that the famous peasant wars in England and France, such as the Jacquerie, raged. The depopulation of the European population was completed by the devastation caused by the Mongol-Tatar invasion and the Hundred Years' War. Despite the crisis, already in the XIV century. in Western Europe began a period of progress in the sciences and arts, prepared by the emergence of universities and the spread of scholarship. The revival of interest in ancient literature led to the beginning of the Italian Renaissance. Antiquities, including books, accumulated in Western Europe during the time of the Crusades, especially after the sack of Constantinople by the crusaders and the subsequent decline of culture in the Balkans, due to which Byzantine scholars began to migrate to the West, especially to Italy. The spread of knowledge was greatly facilitated by the invention in the 15th century. typography. Previously expensive and rare books, including the Bible, gradually became available to the public, and this, in turn, prepared the European Reformation.
The growth of the Ottoman Empire hostile to Christian Europe on the site of the former Byzantine Empire caused difficulties in trade with the East, which prompted Europeans to search for new trade routes around Africa and to the west, across the Atlantic Ocean and around the world. The voyages of Christopher Columbus and Vasco da Gama marked the beginning of the era of the Great Geographical Discoveries, which strengthened the economic and political power of Western Europe.
The genesis of capitalism has its own chronology, acting on two levels: pan-European (that is, tending to become world-historical) and local-historical (more precisely, national). Although the dating of its beginning at these levels may differ significantly (delay at the last level), nevertheless, not a single national economic organism remained aloof from one form or another of interaction with this process. In the same way, the scatter of individual regions is significant in terms of the forms and rhythms of the process that logically and to a large extent historically preceded the genesis of capitalism - the so-called primitive accumulation.
The main prerequisite for the emergence of capitalist forms of production was the development of productive forces, the improvement of tools of labor. By the beginning of the XVI century. shifts have taken place in a number of branches of handicraft production. In industry, the water wheel was increasingly used. Significant progress was observed in the textile craft, in cloth making. They began to produce thin woolen taki, dyed in different colors. In the XIII century. the spinning wheel was invented, and in the XV century. self-spinning wheel, performing 2 operations - twisting and winding the thread. This made it possible to increase the productivity of spinners. There were also shifts in weaving - the vertical loom was replaced by a horizontal one. Great successes were achieved in mining and metallurgy. In the XV century. they began to make deep mines with drifts - branches diverging in different directions and adits - horizontal and inclined exits for mining ore in the mountains. They began to build houses. In the cold working of metals, turning, drilling, rolling, drawing and other machines were used. In Western European languages, the term "engineer" is found in the XIII-XIV centuries. (from Latin - ingenium - "innate abilities, intelligence, wit, ingenuity." Through French and German, the word "engineer" entered Russia in the 17th century. With the invention of printing, a new branch of production began to develop - printing. In the XIII-XIV centuries clocks with a spring and a pendulum were known.In the 15th century, pocket watches appeared.Charcoal was used as fuel, from the 15th century, coal began to be used.Great successes were achieved in the 14th-15th centuries in shipbuilding and navigation.The size increased vessels, technical equipment, which led to the expansion of world trade, shipping.But still, the 16th century, despite numerous technical discoveries and innovations, was not yet marked by a genuine technical and technological revolution.In addition to the spread of pumps for pumping water from mines, which allowed them deepen, blower bellows in metallurgy, which made it possible to proceed to the smelting of iron ore, and mechanical machines (drawing, nailing, hosiery nyh), productive labor in industry largely remained manual.
The development of industry and the increase in demand for agricultural products contributed to the growth of agricultural production. But there was no drastic change in agricultural implements, they were the same - a plow, a harrow, a scythe, a sickle, but they were also improved - they became lighter, made of the best metal. In the second half of the XV century. a light plow appeared, where 1-2 horses were harnessed, and which was controlled by 1 person. The areas of cultivated lands have increased due to the melioration of arid and wetlands. Improved agricultural practices. Fertilization of the soil with manure, peat, ash, marl, etc. was practiced. Along with the three-field, multi-field and grass sowing appeared. The expansion of commodity economy in the city and in the countryside created the preconditions for the replacement of small-scale individual production by large-scale capitalist production.
Finally, the nature of the genesis of the capitalist structure also depended on the geographical position of a given country in relation to the new direction of international trade routes - to the Atlantic. After the discovery of the New World and the sea route to India, the transformation of the Mediterranean Sea into the far periphery of the new, northwestern hub of international maritime communications played an important role in the backward movement - the withering and gradual disappearance of the sprouts of early capitalism in the economy of Italy and Southwest Germany.
Capitalist production requires money and labor. These prerequisites were created in the process of primitive accumulation of capital. Of course, the existence of a market for "free" labor power is a necessary condition for the emergence of capitalist forms of social production. However, the forms of forcible separation of the worker from the means of production that actually or legally belonged to him differ from one country to another to the same extent as the forms and rates of formation of the capitalist system itself. The intensity of the process of primitive accumulation in itself is not yet an indicator of the intensity
The emergence of capitalism gave birth to new classes - the bourgeoisie and wage workers, which were formed on the basis of the decomposition of the social structure of feudal society.
Along with the formation of new classes, new forms of ideology developed, reflecting their needs, in the form of religious movements. The 16th century was marked by a major crisis in the Roman Catholic Church, which manifested itself in the state of its doctrine, cult, institutions, its role in the life of society, in the nature of education and the morals of the clergy. Diverse attempts to eliminate "corruption" through internal church transformations were not successful.
Under the influence of the innovative theological ideas of Martin Luther, which gave a powerful impetus to various opposition speeches against the Catholic Church, the Reformation movement began in Germany from the Latin "reformation" - transformation), which rejected the power of the papacy, Reformation processes, leading to a split in the Roman Church to create new creeds, appeared with varying degrees of intensity in almost all countries of the Catholic world, affected the position of the church as the largest landowner and an organic component of the feudal system, affected the role of Catholicism as an ideological force that had defended the medieval system for centuries.
The Reformation took on the character of broad religious and socio-political movements in Europe in the 16th century, putting forward demands for the reform of the Catholic Church and the transformation of the orders sanctioned by its teaching.
Throughout the 16th century The political map of Europe has changed significantly. At the turn of the XV and XVI centuries. the process of unification of the English and French lands was basically completed, a single Spanish state was formed, which in 1580 also included Portugal (until 1640). The concept of the Empire, called from the end of the XV century. The "Holy Roman Empire of the German Nation" was increasingly associated with purely German lands. In Eastern Europe, a new state appeared - the Commonwealth, uniting the Kingdom of Poland and the Grand Duchy of Lithuania.
At the same time, under the blows of the Ottoman Empire, the Kingdom of Hungary collapsed. Other Central European monarchies, united under the rule of the Austrian Habsburgs, lost their political independence. Most of the territories of South-Eastern Europe were under foreign domination.
Common to the development of most European states in the period under review was a sharp increase in centralization tendencies, which manifested itself in the acceleration of the processes of unification of state territories around a single center, in the formation of state administration bodies that were different from the Middle Ages, in a change in the role and functions of the supreme power.
Europe in the 16th century states of various types coexisted and were in complex interconnections - from monarchies going through different stages of development to feudal, and at the end of the century, early bourgeois republics. At the same time, the absolute monarchy becomes the predominant form of government. In Soviet historiography, the point of view was established, according to which the transition from estate-representative monarchies to absolutist-type monarchies is associated with the entry into the historical arena of new social forces in the person of the emerging bourgeoisie, creating a certain counterbalance to the feudal nobility; according to F. Engels, a situation arises when “state power temporarily acquires a certain independence in relation to both classes, as an apparent mediator between them).
The lower chronological limit of absolutism can conditionally be attributed to the end of the 15th-beginning of the 16th century. The idea of the 16th and the first half of the 17th centuries is widespread. as a period of "early absolutism", although English absolutism (the existence of which, however, some schools and directions of foreign historiography deny) passed during the 16th century. the stage of maturity and entered a period of protracted crisis, which was resolved by the bourgeois revolution of the middle of the 17th century.
Absolutism continues the earlier annexation of the outlying territories, sharply restrains the centrifugal, separatist aspirations of the feudal nobility, limits urban liberties, destroys or changes the functions of the old local governments, forms a powerful central authority that puts all spheres of economic and social life under its control, secularizes the church and monastic landownership, subordinates the church organization to its influence.
The organs of class representation (the Estates General in France, the Cortes in Spain, etc.) are losing the significance that they had in the previous period, although in a number of cases they continue to exist, forming a bizarre symbiosis with the new bureaucratic apparatus of absolutism.

New time is the period of development of European states from the 17th to the 18th century. Sometimes scholars also include the Renaissance, in addition, some include the 19th century. The twentieth century is always considered separately, and is defined as "modernity".

periodization

The era of the New Age is based on the bourgeoisie and spiritual guidelines, making them a single whole. Since this period includes as many as three centuries, each of them has its own historical "face" and cultural characteristics. This is:

XVII century - the century of the era of the birth and formation of rationalism;
XVIII century - the century of Enlightenment and the "third estate";
XIX century - the century of the classics, the heyday of the bourgeoisie and at the same time its crisis.

New time covers two stages. In the 17th century, the domination of France and Spain progressed, the endless revolutions of the bourgeoisie in England. This is the beginning of the formation of a modern picture of the world and philosophy.

The stage of formation of manufactories was completed, a free economy and a liberal political system were formed. In addition, people began to strive for freedom and the right to choose an ideology. All this contributed to the development of the ideology of the Enlightenment.

Character traits

The era of the New Age is a period of contradictions, as people needed to change the old way of life for a more relevant one, rethink values, accept technological progress and become part of it. It is characterized by the following features:

The main role began to be played by an individual. All attention was directed to the spirituality of a person, a sense of sharpening of one's own "I" was awakened, which contributed to the discovery of self-consciousness as a different reality.
The personality began to reach out for elitist humanism, which glorified the freedom of creativity. Its main feature was universality, that is, each person received the right to freedom, life, wealth, etc.
The consciousness of people began to form, which was directed to the development of technological progress, to change the daily way of life and to the formation of an economic order.
The struggle between the church and the state became more intense, but ended with the fact that the authorities could not subdue religion.

On the one hand, a person, due to the constant pressure of the material condition, turned into an economic tool. But on the other hand, it entered into a confrontation with total technogenic and economic dependence.

The periodization of the New Time is extremely interesting and peculiar, it should be noted. After all, it combines and develops two epochs at once - the New and the Enlightenment. The second is dominated by equality and justice of the late 17th - 18th century.

At this time, more stylistic genres of art appeared than in any other. At the end of the 19th century, cinema appeared and began to develop. And in the period of the 17th-19th centuries, the subway and underground tunnels were first built.

Social aspect

If we talk about the culture of the New Age, it should be noted that this was a period when society woke up and decided to change its not very pleasant environment in order to see themselves and the world around them with a fresh look.

Scientists have dubbed this period of history "New" because it really became one. Especially when compared with the Middle Ages. For the first time, an individual and his personality became the most significant figure, and a legal community began to take shape. In addition, the pressure in the field of culture and science has disappeared.

Conditions were created to ensure freedom and emancipation from slavery. As a result of all of the above, a person has developed the concept and awareness of his own "I".

Thanks to this, conservative social relations were replaced by a fast and impetuous bourgeois hostel, in which harsh market relations were established in conditions of enormous competition.

While the bourgeoisie was trying to improve the economy, human consciousness began to strive to understand the nature and spirituality of man. At this time, interest in philosophy and natural sciences increased very sharply.

As Protestantism spread to northern and central Europe, the level of education rose sharply. This was facilitated by familiarity with the Bible. But also her reading influenced the development of religious fanaticism. We can say that there was a rethinking and reassessment of the role of man, people came to understand that for a long time they were limited in education, that is, they were deprived of cultural, creative, scientific education. The era became an omen of happiness, people began to understand what can be done and what is not.

In modern times, the formation of the bourgeoisie and industrial society took place. But it also brought many revolutions: the Dutch (1566-1609), English (1640-1688), Great French (1789-1794). These events involved the broad masses of the population, all this was aggravated by culture and discoveries.

scientific progress

Due to the development of production, there was an urgent need for research. The leader was mechanics and its discoveries in the field of motion of bodies. The scientific culture of modern times developed rapidly. Mathematical achievements played a huge role. The universe began to be seen no longer as a living being, but as a faceless phenomenon that governs natural laws that can be studied and understood. And religion began to be seen as a secondary or even non-existent factor.

The main features of culture

Returning to the periodization of the New Age, it should be noted that the dominance of science began with the scientific revolution, which is associated with the heliocentric theory of Copernicus. It provoked a protest in the religious community. Fanatics have associated it with the theory of Giordano Bruno, who was condemned by the Inquisition. It wasn't until the 20th century that Catholics recognized them as being right. And Kepler proved that the motion of the planets occurs in a continuous ellipse.

Galileo Galilei invented the telescope and with its help he was able to prove that the planets are homogeneous. After these discoveries, a division of natural and human sciences was formed in science.

In modern times, God began to be perceived as an architect and mathematician, who once launched the mechanism of the planet's movement, but does not interfere in its existence. This is a significant moment in the history of the culture of the New Age, because this is how the formation of philosophy - deism - happened. Rationalism has become the main tool for studying the universe.

Philosophy almost always outstrips science in development, and sometimes turns into a mechanism for its movement. The problem of the formation of science was that society was divided into two opposing camps. Some were for rationality, others were sensualists. The second argued that the sensual and empirical way of knowledge is the most reliable. The first believed that a person does not have enough feelings for knowledge. The only way to understand the world around us is the mind.

During the formation of the culture of the New Age, interest in sexual differences increased, the cult of the woman's body appeared and developed. And in the 19th century, ladies began to fight for freedom of speech and social liberation. The bourgeoisie began to regard the house as a fortress. And love has become the primary reason for marriage. The age at its entry for men was 30 years, and for girls - 25. Children began to be brought up taking into account their behavior and aspirations. Education spread to the whole society, and boys and girls began to be taught separately.

Art

This is an inseparable part of the culture of modern times. In art, one of the main styles was the baroque, characterized by dynamics and expression. It originated in Italy, and in this era began to be called "new art". If you translate the name of the style into Russian, then it will take on the meaning "fancy".

Baroque began to appear in all spheres of life, both in clothing and in architecture. Women's dresses in this style supplanted all the narrowed lace French clothes. Architecture tried to balance forms, that is, combine light and airy with massive elements. The influence of this style is most noticeable in the decoration of French buildings. In England, the style became more conservative and acquired the features of classicism.

But later, the Baroque in France began to replace classicism. Its main feature is the predominance of ancient forms. It combines rigor and conciseness. The style is based on rationalism, it carries the symbolism of personal interests, central power and unification under it.

Music in classicism manifested itself in the works of Mozart, Beethoven, Gluck, Salieri.

In the New Age, another style was formed - rococo. Some take it for a kind of baroque, and its occurrence is usually associated with a person's desire to leave the familiar world and plunge into the world of illusions and fantasies. The rococo style is focused on creating something new, graceful and airy. In it one can see the ethnic elements of the East, especially in artistic culture. In the literature there was a direction "sentimentalism".

great figures

They should also be noted with attention, talking about the features of the culture of the New Age. During this era, science developed very actively. It was during this period that the basic principles of natural science were laid. All the information that was acquired by doctors, healers, alchemists, acquired a structured form. Thanks to this, new norms and ideals of the structure of science were formed. They were associated with mathematics and experimental verification of not only natural processes, but also religious dogmas.

The main difference of the New Age was a sharp drop in the authority of the church and the rise of science. Galileo began to study the methodology of science, and Newton mastered mechanics and its principles. Thanks to the efforts of Bacon, Hobbes, Spinoza, philosophy was freed from scholasticism. And its basis was not faith, but reason. Society became increasingly independent of religion.

This is the age of the birth of people with new actions and thoughts. Science was formed not from the knowledge of one particular person, but based on facts and verification.

Discoveries

The era of the New Age is symbolized not only by great changes in art and science, but also by geographical discoveries. It is impossible not to note the progress in the field of mathematics, medicine, philosophy, astronomy.

This is the period of the reformation, when the attitude towards religion and faith as such has completely changed. It was just a huge upheaval in culture.

New time was based on the principle of humanism and human creativity and development. The image of a man who created himself became the ideal of the era.

At the end of the 16th and beginning of the 17th century, great geographical discoveries were made, and travels were made that were previously impossible. Cultural figures of the New Age gave impetus to incredible progress. To a greater extent, this happened because of the need of the capitalists to expand their well-being. And they decided that it was time to find a mythical country - India. The two most powerful maritime powers at that time (Spain and Portugal) set off in search.

In 1492, the Spanish navigator H. Columbus set sail from his native shores, and after exactly 33 days he ran into the Colombian shores, mistaking them for India. He died without knowing that America was discovered. But later, A. Vespucci proved the discovery of a new side of the world.

The way to India was opened in 1498 by another navigator - Vasco da Gama. This discovery provided new trading opportunities with the countries of the Indian Ocean coast.

Magellan made the first trip around the world, which lasted 1081 days. But, unfortunately, only 18 people survived from the whole team, so people did not dare to repeat his feat for a long time.

The culture and science of modern times developed very rapidly, all views on these areas were rethought in principle. Copernicus studied not only astronomy and mathematics, but also paid great attention to medicine and legal education.

D. Bruno became a revolutionary, but he had to say goodbye to life, proving that there are many planets in the world. And also that the Sun is a star, and besides it, there are millions of them. But G. Galileo, having made a telescope, proved the theory of Bruno and Copernicus.

I. Gutenberg invented printing, which contributed to the growth of education. And the intellectually developed person, who later became a model of the culture of the New Age, began to be considered the standard.

However, this is not all. If we talk about literary and artistic culture, then the poet F. Petrarch has been read for almost seven hundred years, and the Italian D. Boccaccio wrote a collection that said that a person has the right to joy. M. de Cervantes wrote the famous novel "Don Quixote", he expressed ideas that are still relevant today. W. Shakespeare's dramaturgy became the pinnacle of literature.

Peculiarities

A little more is worth talking about the features of the culture of the New Age. Here's how it differs:

the ideals of humanity and the equality of people before the law, regardless of class and clan;
the development of rational thinking and the rejection of metaphysics;
the development of natural science used for development and progress.

This ideology became the basis of the transformation that took place in the process of revolutions.

The formation of Russian culture

About this in the end. The 17th century was a turning point not only in Europe, but also in Russia. Petersburg becomes the capital, and as a result of the reforms, the formation of a bureaucratic state begins. There is an expansion of the territory, the country gets access to the Baltic and Black Seas, this contributes to the establishment of ties with Europe.

Peter I actively took up the development and formation of the state and the departure from the Middle Ages. As a result, the formation of the Russian national culture of the New Age began to take place.

The economy and social life began to develop dynamically. This also affects culture. Religion again finds itself under political power, and when you try to evaluate the action of Peter, it is quickly eradicated.

New cities with a fairly developed infrastructure are being intensively built, and education is being brought to the fore.

In the middle of the 18th century, the monarchy flourished, at this time social thinking and self-awareness grew. Freedom becomes its center, which contributes to the formation of a new layer of society - the intelligentsia.

The second half of the century is the most significant in the development of art. There is a development of all possible genres and types, and the creative process is not limited by anything. Beauty and nobility, as well as patriotism, come forward.

MAIN EDITORIAL BOARD:

academician	A.O. CHUBARYAN (Chief Editor)
corresponding member of the Russian Academy of Sciences	IN AND. VASILIEV (deputy editor-in-chief)
corresponding member of the Russian Academy of Sciences	P.Yu. UVAROV (deputy editor-in-chief)
Doctor of Historical Sciences	M.A. LIPKIN (executive secretary)
corresponding member of the Russian Academy of Sciences	HA. AMIRKHANOV
academician	B.V. ANANYCH
academician	A.I. GRIGORIEV
academician	A.B. DAVIDSON
academician	A.P. DEREVYANKO
academician	S.P. KARPOV
academician	A.A. KOKOSHIN
academician	V.S. MYASNIKOV
corresponding member of the Russian Academy of Sciences	V.V. NAUMKIN
academician	A. D. NEKIPELOV
Doctor of Historical Sciences	K.V. NIKIFOROV
academician	Yu.S. PIVOVAROV
corresponding member of the Russian Academy of Sciences	E.I. BREWER
corresponding member of the Russian Academy of Sciences	L.P. REPINA
academician	V.A. TISHKOV
academician	A.V. TORKUNOV
academician	THEM. URILOV

Editorial team:

HER. Berger (executive secretary), M.V. Vinokurova, I.G. Konovalova, A.A. Mayzlish, P.Yu. Uvarov, A.D. Shcheglov

Reviewers:

Doctor of Historical Sciences Yu.E. Arnautova,

Doctor of Historical Sciences M.S. Meyer

INTRODUCTION

The third volume of "World History" brought to the attention of the reader is devoted to the period that in recent decades, domestic historians have begun to call "early modern times", following the trend that has emerged in Western countries. In Soviet historiography, the era of the Middle Ages ended in the middle of the 17th century, the turning point of which was considered the English bourgeois revolution. The obvious convention of this date forced some historians to bring the era of the Middle Ages to the end of the 18th century. in particular, because the uprising in the Netherlands, which ended with the secession of the United Provinces from the Spanish possessions, was considered the first bourgeois revolution, and the Great French Revolution was the classical bourgeois revolution that ended the Old Regime. In any case, today the need for isolating a relatively independent period between the Middle Ages and the New Age is obvious, the chronology and name of which can be the subject of discussion.

In this edition, the beginning of the transition from the classical Middle Ages to the New Age is counted approximately from the middle of the 15th - early 16th centuries. and ends in 1700, the date of the conditional, but denoting the actual dividing line between the era of confessional wars and the age of Enlightenment in Europe. Thus, the period commonly referred to as "Early Modern" is divided into two parts in our edition.

A brief analysis of the very concept of the Early Modern Age and separate arguments in favor of and against its application to the period of the 16th-17th centuries. are listed below.

THE CONCEPT OF EARLY MODERN TIME

The origin of the idea of the New Age is associated with the evolution of the three-term scheme (Ancient, Middle and New epochs), which crystallized in the works of historians of the Renaissance. Humanists compared originally ancient and new (modern to them - moderna) history. Flavio Biondo (1392-1463), not yet using the term medium aevum, considered the interval between them as the period of the decline of the Roman Empire, the spread of Christianity and, finally, the heyday of new states in Italy. Renaissance thinkers fully experienced the respect for antiquity characteristic of the Middle Ages, at the same time they were aware of their difference from ancient authors and strove to be pioneers, which indicates the emergence of a development model as the creation of a new one. But in the minds of educated people of the XV century. the idea of progressive development inherent in the Christian worldview was pushed aside by the idea of cyclism. "Le temps revient" - "times are returning" - was the French motto of the Medici house.

In essence, the idea of the Early Modern Age is a product of the collective creativity of several generations of scientists, and the historians of the 17th century themselves, when the three-term scheme was finally formed, considered their time to be “New”. If the Middle Ages and Modern times (like Antiquity) are concepts conditioned by the development of European history and culture and having behind them some kind of historical and cultural objective (existing regardless of the mind of the historian) reality, then the Early Modern Age primarily reflects only the fact that the Middle Ages did not give up positions for a very long time. Many historians note that the conditional dates that complete the chronology of the Middle Ages: 1453, 1492, 1500, whether they have political, cultural or civilizational foundations, do not at all correspond to the moment when the Middle Ages as a phenomenon of human history go into the past. The end of the 18th - beginning of the 19th centuries can claim this with good reason. Even the term "Long Middle Ages" was born, indicating the dominance of the old way of life in most of Europe until the French Revolution. At the same time, in the Romance historiography, “New History” is precisely the period from the middle / end of the 15th - beginning of the 16th century to the end of the 18th century. (modernité), and the next - "The History of Modernity" (histoire contemporaine). The term "Early Modem" (Early Modem, Fruhe Neuzeit) for the first of these periods is used by Anglo-Saxon and German historians.

The periodization that we inherited bears many traces of chance and historicity, one might say, historically transient. Its vitality, at the same time, is explained by its certain colorlessness, inclusiveness, even optionality. Old and new are universal categories. The idea of changing social formations turned out to be more artificial and less viable from this point of view (although its concepts and terms continue to be used and, therefore, are not without roots).

Why do we need the concept of early modern times, if it is so approximate? If we take conditional time points, for example, 1200 and 1900, the difference will be significant, they fit into different historical spaces that differ in all the main (socially and culturally) features. But there was no border between the epochs, the change of “paradigms” took place gradually, and the early New Age makes a rather wide band out of this border. The term is thus not ideal, but useful, reflecting the growth of historical scientific specialization. Most often, the early modern period ends with the end of the 18th century, but regardless of the nuances of periodization, the originality of the two previous centuries and this century itself (the beginning of industrialization, the spread of secular freethinking, enlightened absolutism and the redrawing of the map of Europe and the world between the “great powers”) encourage to talk about this century separately.

FEATURES OF THE TRANSITION PERIOD

If we talk about phenomena that are typologically not typical for the Middle Ages and are more likely associated with the New Age, then this is primarily the market and finance. Of course, they existed both in Antiquity and later, but in medieval society, commodity-money relations were not dominant in the economy, where land was the main source of value; possession of it endowed with a place in society, in the hierarchy of power.

Section III . EARLY MODERN TIME

Western Europe in XVI century

In the 16th century, major changes took place in Europe. Chief among them is the formation of large and powerful monarchies that claim to be a consolidating force and promote the formation of nations; the fall of the political and spiritual authority of the Catholic Church. The peculiarity of the era was that the social forces that fought against feudalism and the church that illuminated it had not yet broken with the religious worldview. Therefore, the general slogan of the mass anti-feudal movements was a call for church reform, for the revival of the true, apostolic church.

1. Niccolo Machiavelli

Niccolò Machiavelli (1469-1527) a philosopher, diplomat and politician, entered the history of political and legal thought as the author of The Sovereign, which brought him world fame. The writings of Machiavelli laid the foundation for the political and legal ideology of modern times. Analyzing the work of N. Machiavelli, it is fundamentally important to understand that in the human qualities and behavior of the sovereign, he reveals the methods, patterns of political activity personified in the ruler of the state itself. In this setting to reveal the nature of the state, and not in drawing up a portrait of the ruler needed by the country and giving him recommendations, lies the deep conceptual meaning of "The Sovereign".

His political doctrine free from theology, it is based on the experience of contemporary city-states, the rulers of the ancient world, on the knowledge of the interests and passions of a person, participants in political life. Machiavelli believed that the study of the past, taking into account the psychology of people makes it possible to foresee the future and determine the means and methods of action.

In politics, one should always count on the worst, and not on the good and ideal. State- there is a certain relationship between the government and subjects, based on the fear or love of the latter. At the same time, fear should not develop into hatred. The main thing is the real ability of the government to command subjects. The purpose of the state and the basis of its strength is the security of the individual and the inviolability of property; “A person who is deprived of any benefit never forgets it.” "The most dangerous thing for a ruler is to encroach on the property of his subjects."

The benefit of freedom (the inviolability of private property and the security of the individual) - the goal and basis of the strength of the state, is best ensured in republic. Reproducing, following Polybius, ideas about the emergence and cycle of forms of government, he, like ancient thinkers, prefers a mixed form (monarchy, aristocracy and democracy). The peculiarity of his teaching is that he considered a mixed republic the result of struggling social groups.

Machiavelli expresses his own, different from the generally accepted among politicians, people's opinion: the masses of the people are more constant, more honest, wiser and more reasonable than the sovereign. The people often make mistakes in general matters, but very rarely in particular ones. Even a rebellious people is less terrible than a tyrant: the people can be persuaded with a word, a tyrant can be "get rid of only with iron." The cruelty of the people is directed against those who encroach on the common good, the cruelty of the sovereign - who "can encroach on his own personal good." He distinguishes from the people know. There is no society where there would be no confrontation between the nobility and the people. The ambition of the former is the source of unrest in the state, their claims are boundless. But to know is inevitable and necessary for the state. It is from its midst that statesmen, officials, and military leaders come forward. A free state must be based on the compromises of the people and the nobility; the essence of the "mixed republic" lies in the fact that the state bodies include aristocratic and democratic institutions that play the role of a deterrent.

Concerning nobility(“those who idlely live on the income from their huge estates, not caring in the least about cultivating the land or earning a living by the necessary work”), then Machiavelli spoke of him with hatred and called for his destruction. The nobles are "a decisive enemy of all citizenship" and everyone "wishing to create a republic ... will not be able to carry out his plan without destroying all of them to the last."

For creation of a free Italian republic Machiavelli proposes a number of measures. Among them, liberation from foreign troops and mercenaries, from petty tyrants and nobles, from the pope and the intrigues of the Catholic Church. In addition, we need a sole ruler with absolute and extraordinary power, who establishes wise laws and orders. He associated the inviolability of laws with ensuring public safety, and thus with the very tranquility of the people. For Machiavelli right- an instrument of power, an expression of power. Everywhere the basis of power "is interdependent, good laws and a good army." Therefore, the main thought, concern and deed of the ruler should be war, military organization and military science - "for war is the only duty that the ruler cannot impose on another."

Machiavelli denies the Italian city-states the power of the people as in a real perspective, and the only political form capable of slowing down the process of degradation is autocracy. “Where (material) is corrupted, even well-ordered laws will not help, unless they are prescribed by a person who enforces them with such great energy that the corrupted material becomes good.” However, he considered tyranny a temporary measure, a bitter but necessary medicine, the need for which would disappear as soon as the development of the disease was stopped.

Machiavelli had a special relationship with religion. This is an important means of politics, a powerful factor in influencing the minds and customs of people. It "helps to command the troops, inspire the people, restrain the virtuous people and shame the vicious." The state must use religion to guide its subjects. But Machiavelli is critical of Christianity, which preaches humility and humility, and highly appreciates the religion of antiquity, which honors "the highest good in the greatness of the spirit, in the strength of the body and in everything that makes people extremely strong." He was also negative about the clergy, with bad examples that deprived the country of "all piety." In this regard, Machiavelli allowed the transformation of religion, but unlike the leaders of the Reformation, he considered the basis of the reform not the ideas of early Christianity, but the ancient religion wholly subservient to policy goals. His conclusion that it is not politics in the service of religion, but religion in the service of politics - sharply diverged from medieval ideas about the relationship between church and state.

Machiavelli resolutely separated politics from morality. Politics(institution, organization and activities of the state) is a special field of activity, which has its own laws that need to be studied and comprehended, and not deduced from St. Scriptures and construct speculatively.

The era of the Middle Ages affected the views of the thinker about the methods methods and techniques political activity. They are completely separated from morality. If morality operates with such categories as "good" - "evil", then politics - "benefit" - "harm". Therefore, the actions of politicians should be evaluated not from the point of view of morality, but according to their results, according to their attitude towards the good of the state.

The methods of exercising power are not only military force, but also cunning, deceit, and deceit. And therefore, political rules and moral norms are incompatible, a statesman should not be faithful to treaties if this harms the interests of society. He must be able to decide on "great, virtuoso atrocities, meanness and betrayal." "Let him blame his actions, if only to justify the results." The ideal statesman for Machiavelli was the Duke of Romagna Cesare Borgia, a genius of cunning in politics.

At the same time, Machiavelli believed that treachery and cruelty should be committed in such a way that the authority of the authorities would not be undermined. From this he deduced a favorite rule of politics: "People should either be caressed or destroyed, because a person can avenge a small evil, but cannot avenge a big one." "It is better to kill than to threaten - threatening, you create and warn the enemy, killing - you get rid of the enemy completely." The ruler should pay special attention to creating his own image. “The most important thing for the sovereign is to try with all his actions to create for himself the glory of a great man, endowed with an outstanding mind ... everyone knows what you look like, few know what you really are, and these latter will not dare to challenge the opinion of the majority, behind which the state is worth.

The rules given here and other rules of politics have received the name "Machiavellianism" in science as a symbol of political cunning. Thus, Machiavelli formulated and substantiated the main program requirements of the bourgeoisie: the inviolability of private property, the security of the person and property, the republic as the best form of ensuring the "benefits of freedom", the condemnation of the nobility, the subordination of religion to politics. His ideas, with the exception of "Machiavellianism", were accepted by Spinoza, Rousseau and other theorists.

2. Political and legal ideas of the Reformation

Section III . EARLY MODERN TIME

Western Europe in XVI century

1. Niccolo Machiavelli

Niccolo Machiavelli

(1469-1527)

"Sovereign"

Uniting people to protect life and property, achieve the good of the people

His teaching is free from theology, based on the experience of communes and policies, knowledge of the interests and passions of man.

State

The conditions for stability are good laws and a strong army

The origin of power - "all means are good"

Forms of government

Correct:

Monarchy

Aristocracy

People's government

Wrong:

Oligarchy

mob power

Ideal - mixed republic

Right- an instrument of power, an expression of power

Religion- an important means of politics, but Christianity weakens the state, preaching humility

Politics- a special field of activity, which has its own patterns, which must be studied and comprehended, and not deduced from St. scriptures and not construct speculatively

Politics and morality are incompatible

Criteria of political activity - "benefit" - "harm",

a politician should not be faithful to his word and agreement

Machiavellianism- deceit, deceit and treachery in politics

2. Political and legal ideas of the Reformation

The Reformation (lat. reformatio - perestroika) - anti-feudal in socio-economic and political essence, anti-Catholic (religious) in ideological form, a movement in the 16th century. in Western and Central Europe. Its main focus is Germany.

The beginning of the Reformation was laid by a theologian professor at the University of Wittenberg Martin Luther (1483-1546) when, on October 31, 1517, he nailed to the door of the church "95 theses" against indulgence. The starting point of Luther's teaching is the thesis that salvation is achieved solely by faith, relying on the Holy Scripture, he argued that every believer is justified by it personally before God, becoming here, as it were, a priest to himself and, as a result, does not need a church (the idea of omnipresence) . What pertains to religion is a matter for the conscience of the Christian; the source of faith is "the pure word of God" (Holy Scripture). And thus, everything that found confirmation in the texts of the Bible was considered indisputable and sacred, and the entire hierarchy of the Catholic Church, monasticism, most of the rites and services were considered as a human institution, subject to rational evaluation and criticism, but in fact were denied.

Own relation to secular power Luther based it on the notion that man lives in two realms: in the realm of the "Gospel" (the religious realm) and in the realm of the "law" (the kingdom of the earth). If the world consisted of genuine Christians (true believers), then there would be no need for laws and rulers. And since there are always more evil ones, God established two governments - spiritual (for believers) and secular (to restrain the evil). A true Christian should care about other people; therefore he pays taxes, honors his superiors, serves, does everything that benefits secular power. The main thing is that a Christian should not use the sword for selfish interests, and then "guards, executioners, lawyers and other rabble" can be Christians. As for the arbitrariness of power, Luther, referring to the apostles Peter and Paul about its divine establishment, justified it by saying that since the creation of the world, “a wise prince is a rare bird”, “if a prince manages to be smart ... then this is the greatest miracle. ..". However, God commanded to obey any authority. But the laws of the prince do not extend to matters of faith.