A story based on a picture of a triumphal procession in Rome. Methodological guide on the history of the ancient world (Goder G.I.)

Original taken from mayak_parnasa to the Festival "Times and Epochs. ROME" - Triumph.

Last weekend in park Kolomenskoye there was a festival "Times and Epochs" dedicated to the reconstruction of the events of antiquity. Today we want to tell you about the most memorable event in the entire history of Ancient Rome - the meeting of the Triumphant. All guests could attend last Sunday and take part in the celebration of the victor and his legions.
Next, we will try to tell about this significant event.

Spectators gathered in the stands, where preparations began for a rare and solemn event - a triumph.

Vestals.

Triumph (lat. triumphus) in Rome - the solemn entry into the capital of the victorious commander and his troops. The triumph developed gradually from the simple entry into the city of soldiers returning after the end of the war and from the custom of military leaders to give thanks to the gods who granted victory. Over time, the Triumph began to be allowed only under the presence of a number of conditions. The triumph was considered the highest award to a military leader, which could only be awarded to one who had empires and waged war as a commander in chief, not subject to the authority of another commander.

The saviors of Rome, the geese, were the first to enter the sand of the arena. In ancient times, it was these birds that, with their cry, managed to wake up the guards and prevent the enemy from storming the Capitol.

The passage of geese through the arena, to the applause of the audience.

One of the beautiful birds managed to escape from the pen, and when trying to drive it back, this proud bird managed to take off and leave the arena to the approving rumble of the crowd.

Freedom goose.

Flag bearers and dancers appeared next in the arena.

And then the fanfare sounded.

Fanfare (Italian fanfara, French fanfare) is a natural brass musical instrument, used mainly for signaling, it is an elongated pipe with a narrow scale, usually without valves. Also, a fanfare is a musical phrase of a solemn or militant nature, served with the help of this instrument.

To the sounds of fanfare, lictors appeared, carrying fasces, personifying power.

Lictor with fascia.

Lictor (Latin lictor) - a special type of civil servants; are mentioned in history since the reign of the Etruscan kings in Rome (VII century BC). Originally, the lictors were the executors of the orders of the magistrates cum imperio. Subsequently, they carried out only ceremonial and security functions with them, which consisted in escorting the highest magistrates and observing that they were given proper honors. They were armed with fascias.

Fasces (lat. Fasces) (otherwise chamfers, fascias, also lictor bundles) - an attribute of the power of kings, in the era of the Roman Republic - the highest magistrates. Bunches of elm or birch twigs tied with a red cord or tied with straps. Initially, they symbolized the right of the magistrate to enforce their decisions by force. Outside the city, an ax (often an ax) was stuck in the fascia, symbolizing the right of the magistrate to execute and pardon subjects (inside the cities, the highest authority for death sentences was the people). The right to wear fascias was assigned to lictors. Subsequently, in heraldry, lictor fasces began to symbolize state and national unity, they are also perceived as a symbol of the protection of statehood. In this interpretation, they are used in our time by many states and organizations.

The fragrance of one-time oil filled the air, and rose petals covered the sand of the arena.

It's time to join the whoops" Io triumphe" of the hero of the occasion himself.

triumphant.

A triumph was given only at the end of the war (there were exceptions), and, moreover, one that was accompanied by a heavy defeat of the enemies. There was a rule to give a triumph only if at least five thousand enemies were killed. The commander, who sought a triumph, was waiting for a decision on whether he would be granted a triumph, being outside the city limits, in view of the fact that the entry into the city of a magistrate who had not yet laid down the imperium was not allowed. Therefore, the senate also met in such a case outside the city, on the Campus Martius, usually in the temple of Bellona or Apollo, and listened to the commander there. By virtue of a special law, victors received an imperium in the city on the day of their triumph. On the day appointed for the triumph, those who participated in it gathered early in the morning on the Field of Mars, where the victor was staying in a public building (Latin villa publica) at that time. The latter dressed in a special luxurious costume, similar to the attire of the statue of Capitoline Jupiter. He put on a tunic embroidered with palm branches (lat. tunica palmata), a purple toga (lat. toga picta) adorned with golden stars, gilded shoes, took a laurel branch in one hand, in the other he held a richly decorated ivory scepter with an image of an eagle at the top; on his head was a laurel wreath.

Empires (Latin imperium, from the Latin verb imperare - to command) in Ancient Rome is a public law concept that characterizes the highest executive power in the Roman community. Empires were used in the military (militiae) and civil (domi). Those who were given empires could act on behalf of the state in all areas of public life.

Triumphant and state slave.

The victor was surrounded by children and other relatives, behind them stood a state slave holding a golden wreath over his head. The slave reminded the triumphant from time to time that he was only a mortal (said memento mori), and he should not be too proud.

The victor was followed by wagons with trophies and booty. In ancient times, while Rome was at war with her poor neighbors, booty was simple: the main part of it was weapons, cattle and captives. But when Rome began to wage wars in the rich cultural countries of the East, the victors sometimes brought back so much booty that they had to stretch the triumph over two or three days. On special stretchers, on chariots or simply in their hands, they carried and carried a lot of weapons, enemy banners, later also images of captured cities and fortresses and various symbolic statues, then tables on which there were inscriptions testifying to the exploits of the winner or explaining the meaning of the items carried . Sometimes there were works of conquered countries, rare animals, etc. Often they carried precious utensils, gold and silver coins in vessels and precious metals not in use, sometimes in huge quantities.

Military booty.

Tablets with captured cities and countries.

Outlandish animal, leopard.

The enemy of Rome is the leader of the barbarians.

Notable prisoners.

Notable prisoners.

For trophies and slaves, the victorious legions of Rome entered the arena, carrying the power of the Senate and the People throughout the Oecumene.
Again, the attention of the audience was captured by beautiful dancers. Meanwhile, the priestesses of Vesta were preparing a triumphal arch of flowers, passing under which the troops were cleansed. Before the passage of the arch, the wars were disarmed and civilians entered the city. But in the days of the professional army, the legionnaires again took up arms to protect the interests of the Empire.

Starting on the Champ de Mars, near the triumphal gates, the procession passed through two circuses filled with people (Flaminium and Bolshoi, Maximus), then along Via Sacra through the forum climbed to the Capitol. There, the victor dedicated fasz laurels to Jupiter and made a magnificent sacrifice. Then came the feasting of the magistrates and senators, often of the soldiers and even of the whole public; for the latter, more games were arranged in circuses. Sometimes the commander gave the public and gifts. Gifts to soldiers were a general rule and sometimes reached significant amounts (for example, Caesar's soldiers received five thousand denarii each).

The victor makes a sacrifice to Jupiter.

Persons who received a triumph had the right to wear triumphal attire on holidays. During the imperial period, triumphs became the exclusive property of the emperors themselves, which was explained both by the latter’s unwillingness to give their subjects this highest honor, and by the fact that the emperor was considered the commander-in-chief of all the military forces of the empire, and, consequently, the military leaders of this period lacked one of the main conditions for receiving triumph - the right to wage war "suis auspiciis". Having retained the triumph only for themselves and sometimes for their closest relatives, the emperors began to give other generals in return for triumph only the right to wear triumphal attire (Latin ornamenta, insignia triumphalia) on solemn occasions and put statues of winners among the statues of victors.

Here is the triumph. Like everything bright and solemn, it is as short-lived as everything in this world. The triumph is over, but the celebration will still last.

This is how our weekend went, we managed to immerse ourselves in Roman history, look at the victor, see the battles of the legions. Once again, the Ratobortsy club gave Moscow a wonderful holiday, we hope that this tradition will not be interrupted.

For the Roman soldier, triumph was everything. To be awarded a triumph by the Senate of Rome in recognition of merit in the military field was the greatest honor a soldier could hope for. The triumph brought him fame, wealth and the admiration of fellow citizens. If a soldier had political ambitions, the triumph guaranteed him the votes he needed for high office. Moreover, a person was elevated to the semi-divine status of a triumphant, leader of the sacred ceremonies held in honor of victory in the temple of Jupiter, the most sacred place in Rome. Even after the lapse of time, the victor continued to surround the halo of the majestic, almost divine.

For Roman citizens, the triumph was the culminating triumph of the city, the state, and society. Parades and celebrations celebrating the splendor and power of Rome became a symbol of what it meant to be a Roman. It was a time when the gods descended from heaven to earth to celebrate the greatness of Rome and its people.

Of course, nothing in this world could compare to Triumph.

Surprisingly, for a ceremony as significant and magnificent as the triumph was, there is very little information about it. The main religious duties of the triumphant were clear and rarely changed, but the scenario for the triumph could change, and quite significantly. The point is not only that some details of the holiday are a complete mystery to us, it seems that the Romans themselves, who organized these holidays, did not fully understand their meaning. For example, we know that for the solemn ceremony of the triumph, the face of the victorious commander was painted red, but we do not know why.

We know that the crowd shouted obscenities at the marching cavalcade, but we do not know why.

Initially, the triumph was a simple procession, arranged by the soldiers of the Roman army upon returning home in honor of another victory. According to the testimonies of ancient writers, the very first triumph was held in 740 BC. e. Romulus, the first king of Rome. The city of Rome, being at that time more like a large village - its population was only a few hundred people - was at war with the neighboring village of Tsenina, located a short distance to the northeast. Before the battle began, Romulus promised to dedicate his victory to Jupiter for his participation in the role of Feretrius, the crusher of the enemy. Romulus killed Akron, king of Caenina, in the first battle and defeated the enemy. Then he ordered the defeated people to destroy their village and go to live in Rome, thus increasing the population of their own kingdom.

To fulfill his promise, Romulus cut down an oak tree, sacred to Jupiter, and carved a stand from it, on which he hung Akron's weapons and armor. Then he shouldered her and carried her to Rome, accompanied by his soldiers and the inhabitants of Tsenina. Romulus had a laurel wreath on his head, put on as a sign of victory, the soldiers sang songs. The procession headed straight for the Capitoline Hill, where Romulus erected his trophy and paid tribute to Jupiter.

The first triumph of Romulus was a relatively simple event based on Greek tradition. The offering of armor, weapons or things of the enemy to the god - the patron of the city celebrating the victory - was a long-established tradition. Romulus' innovation was that the procession of soldiers became part of the solemn ceremony. Indeed, the Romans made the procession the main event of the triumph, relegating the offering of trophies to the background.

Having defeated the antemanates, Romulus celebrated a second, similar to the first, triumph, but after defeating the powerful army of the Etruscan city of Veii, he introduced an innovation that lasted until imperial times. Veii's army was led by an old general wearing a purple robe to show his superiority. During the procession, this old man, chained, walked in front of a group of prisoners. After the completion of the triumph, the captives were sent to the slave market. Since then, the tradition has been that at the end of the triumph ceremony, one of the magistrates of Rome would lead a gray-haired slave through the Forum and take him to the Capitoline Hill. Then he had to turn to face the Forum and shout: "Etruscans for sale."

Numa, the second king of Rome, was too busy establishing trade and religious issues to wage wars of conquest, so he did not organize a single triumph. His follower, Tullus Hostilius, was more militant: he crushed the cities of Alba and Fidenae, defeated the Sabines. The only thing we know about his triumph is that the king of Alba, Mittius, after the fall of his city, was taken to Rome and executed. The fourth king, Ankh Marcius, fought only one war, in which he defeated the army of the Latins. He staged a triumph in which he and his soldiers marched through the streets of the city to the Capitol.

The details of this event are unknown, the only thing we know is that he gave Jupiter much more armor than anyone before him.

After the death of Ancus Marcius, the throne was vacant. The Romans held elections and proclaimed King Lucius Tarquinius Priscus, the son of an exiled Corinthian aristocrat. Tarquinius turned out to be not only a talented ruler and commander, but also a great lover of magnificent performances. He insisted that officials be given special clothing and special privileges. Tarquinius, being king, had more privileges and honors than anyone else. The city of Corinth was famous for its luxury and exorbitant wealth, so Tarquinius decided to bring a piece of his hometown to Rome.

The first thing that Tarquinius did in his “position” of the king was to begin the construction of a temple to Jupiter on the Capitoline Hill. He could not believe that the Romans honored their supreme god by erecting an oak pillar surrounded by trophies and several statues. The Temple of Tarquinius was made in the Greek style, and later it was destined to play an outstanding role in the celebrations of the triumph.

One of Tarquinius' innovations was to provide each magistrate with a servant, a lictor, to clear his way through the huge crowds that roamed the streets of Rome. The servant was armed with an ax to show everyone and everyone what an unenviable fate awaits the one who dares to offend the master. The hatchet was tied to a bunch of rods that symbolized the people of Rome, showing that together they were an invincible force. By itself, this object, called the fascia, was a symbol of Roman power. The lower magistrates had at their disposal one lictor each, the higher ranks more. Tarquinius took twelve lictors at his disposal.

In addition, Tarquinius gave himself and the higher magistrates a new type of transport - the chariot. Of course, he himself had the largest and most beautiful chariot. There was enough room in it to accommodate himself, a servant and a charioteer.

The body of the chariot was decorated with relief images of scenes from the life of the gods and trimmed with gold.

These innovations, as well as others, were used during the triumph of Tarquinius, around 600 BC. e., arranged in honor of his victory over the Latin city of Apiola. For his triumph, Tarquinius considered it humiliating to arrange a simple procession of soldiers returning from the war. For several days he prepared for his celebration, paying close attention to every little thing.

Senators walked ahead of the procession - Tarquinius, which was very wise of him, allowed the most respected citizens of Rome to take part in such processions. Following - trumpeters, playing a solemn march. Next came the captives from Apiol, who were now destined to become slaves. The prisoners were followed by wagons loaded with trophies captured as a result of the military campaign. Enthusiastic Romans looked at all the wealth that was brought to their city. They could not even imagine that a military campaign could bring in so much money. Behind the wagons marched twelve lictors, symbolically clearing the way through the city to the temple of Jupiter under construction on the Capitol. Further, dressed in a purple robe and seated in a luxurious chariot drawn by four horses, Tarquinius himself appeared. And finally, completing the procession, the Roman army marched, soldiers and officers returning from the war, who basked in the glory of the triumph in front of their relatives and friends.

After the completion of the triumphal procession, Tarquinius proceeded to the traditional ceremonies on the Capitol. Then he showed the people another innovation: he led the population of Rome to the valley of Murcia to watch the games that he organized. Subsequently, the great Circus Maximus would be built on this site, but at that time it was just an open valley.

Since Tarquinius was a fan of Greek culture, the games organized in honor of his triumph were a display of the achievements of Greek athletes. In Greece, athletes competed completely naked to show the harmony and perfection of their bodies to the people as part of the worship of the gods. In Rome, public exposure was severely condemned, so athletes competed in their underwear. The Romans took a liking to horse races and performances, but athletics failed to gain popularity and were soon removed from the program of festivities. But there was one exception: pugilatus - boxing.

Boxing, which exists in the era of antiquity, has some similarities with its modern counterpart. As today, punches could only be delivered with fists, kicks, edge of the palm or grabs were prohibited, and a boxer who applied a prohibited technique could be disqualified. Along with this, the rules of Roman boxing allowed punching to any part of the body, although there is evidence that low blows were later banned.

There were no rounds or time limits during the fight. The fight continued until one of the boxers was knocked out or gave up. Even when a person was lying on the ground, his opponent was allowed to hit him, thereby forcing him to surrender.

The Romans did not divide boxers into weight or height categories. Rivals in the ring could be boxers of different builds. Before the start of the competition, lots were drawn: for this, clay tablets were placed in a pot, which were then pulled out by boxers. In modern boxing, such a distribution would put the lightweight in a very difficult position. In the ancient analogue, due to the fact that the ring as such did not exist, a lightweight boxer could not be driven into a corner and forced to surrender. On the contrary, a small man could run, dive and squat to his heart's content, using the advantages of his own weight to wear out a larger and stronger opponent.

The basic stance of the boxer was similar to that of the archer. The left hand, palm forward, was exposed in front of him. This position allowed to interfere with the opponent and reflect his blow. The right hand was near the chest, ready to strike with crushing force.

The first boxers, like those who participated in the games of Tarquinius, fought with leather bandages on their hands. Approximately 400 BC. e. bandages turned into special gloves. The forearm was protected by a thick leather sleeve lined with fur, which made it possible to soften the missed blows. The palm was wrapped with several layers of leather. The knuckles, the main "shocking" points of the fist, were additionally equipped with a thick strip of rough, boiled leather with sharp corners. A D-shaped leather pad was clamped in the fist, protecting the fingers during the strike.

Injuries were common during pugilatus. Broken noses, broken teeth, black eyes and torn ears were common, and head injuries must have been more common than they are now. Deaths during boxing matches were not common. Basically, the damage to health received from boxing manifested itself after some time, since constant concussions adversely affected his work.

After the death of Tarquinius, his adopted son Servius Tullius took his place. As a Latin, Servius fought a series of wars with the Etruscans, as a result of which he celebrated three triumphs in the same manner as Tarquinius Priscus. Servius was killed by his own son-in-law, the grandson of Lucius Tarquinius Priscus, known as Tarquinius the Proud. Tarquinius II celebrated two triumphs, but his most important contribution to the development of this ceremony was the completion of the temple of Jupiter. The building was built in the Etruscan style, but later it was remodeled several times.

With the completion of the construction of the temple, the triumph ceremony turned into the most grandiose procession. But it was near the temple that a large number of sacrifices were destined to take place and rivers of human blood were shed.

Late Republican period. The triumphal procession of the victorious commander marches through the streets of Rome. The victor sits in a parade chariot drawn by white horses. Soldiers who have shown particular courage during a military campaign walk in front of the chariot, carrying the flags of the units that participated in the war. The stone arch - the famous Arc de Triomphe - marked the beginning of the triumphal procession through the city.

Ambassadors were sent to Rome and asked to arrange a triumph. The Senate gave permission for its holding only with really significant successes of Roman weapons. Subsequently, clear boundaries of triumph arose: it could be obtained if the enemy lost at least 5,000 killed in one battle. On ceremonial occasions, the victor received an award weapon, a toga decorated with gold and a laurel crown. The triumph of the military is a parade. It was a colorful and rather rare sight, for the entry of troops into the sacred boundaries of the city of Rome was strictly forbidden by Roman laws and was considered as sacrilege. By the way, on the Field of Mars, outside the city, there was an ancient altar of the god of war Mars. There the power belonged to the military. In Rome itself, civilians, the magistrates, held power. The people possessed the highest form of power - the empire. The popular assembly handed over the empires to the highest officials, and in the era of the Empire, they began to give it to the emperor upon accession to the throne. "Empire" meant "power" and eventually came to mean the territory over which the rule of the magistracy extended. It was possible to obtain the right to triumph only if the commander completely and finally completed hostilities. Mandatory was not just a victory, but a major one, as a result of which the Roman state expanded its borders.

The triumph was not only an important social stimulus, but also a psychological tool in the education of the people, the formation of the entire system of Roman values. Emperor Augustus, who restored old monuments, specially placed statues of prominent people of Rome in triumphal attire in the forum. He said that this was done for one purpose: so that the people themselves, in the performance of their duty, would encourage him and other rulers to take an example from the winners. Such victorious commanders were glorified by statues, tombstones and special inscriptions (elogies). So, in the temple of Mater Matuta, a plaque was installed listing the exploits of Tiberius Sempronius Gracchus (174 BC). Warriors were also awarded various kinds of wreaths (for saving citizens, for bravery, etc.).

The encouragement with wreaths at that time was accepted by the Romans, Macedonians, and in other armies of the world. The award for outstanding bravery in battle was a golden wreath. Such wreaths were awarded to those who set examples of courage to others, for example, by climbing the fortress wall first during the siege of a city or storming a fortified enemy camp. After the capture of Carthage, Scipio awarded a golden wreath to two at once - the centurion of the legion and the soldier of the boarding team, who were the first of the Romans to climb the wall of the city. The warrior who saved the life of a comrade in battle (whether a Roman or their ally) was awarded an oak wreath. The wreath was personally handed to him by the man he had saved. At the same time, the one who was saved had to treat the warrior who saved him as his own father until the end of his life. These heart connections usually lasted a lifetime. An example of this is Socrates and Themistocles. The commander of the Roman cavalry, Minucius Rufus, treated the dictator Fabius Maximus Cunctator in this way, for he saved him from Hannibal at the battle of Gerunia (217 BC). The man who gave decisive help to the army and saved it, like Fabius, was usually awarded the highest of awards - the "wreath for the release from the siege" (corona obsidionalis). This herbal wreath was considered by the Romans the most coveted of all awards. Pliny the Elder (1st century AD) counted only eight people awarded such a wreath. In the case of the manifestation of traditional courage and courage by any warrior in battle (killing a commander, seizing an enemy’s weapons), the brave man was awarded a cup, a weapon. The simplest and most understandable reward for a soldier was a vegetable marrow and a woman.

Heroes were also paid tribute to in works of literature, science, and art. The theme of triumph, wrote the historian of architecture V. Poplavsky, was reflected in the work of historians, painters, sculptors, architects, and masters of decorative and applied arts. Descriptions of the most famous triumphs of the republican period are known - by Plutarch (Lucius Aemilius Paulus), Appian (Cornelius Scipio Africanus), Pliny (Gnaeus Pompey the Great). Such descriptions can be found in Tacitus, Suetonius, Flavius. The triumphal festivities and military victories of the Romans were often depicted in arts and crafts and fine, monumental art. Of course, it was a purely commissioned art, but the Romans considered it absolutely in the order of things. The conqueror of Greece, Aemilius Paul, even specially brought the Greek painter Metrodorus with him from Athens and set him the task of creating large battle scenes that would glorify the exploits of the Roman legionnaires ... This kind of battle scenes are sometimes found in Rome during archaeological research. During the triumphal procession, the soldiers carried the mentioned scenes and paintings, kept them at home, exhibited them in public places, including for education. The same plots will later adorn large architectural and sculptural ensembles (such as the ensemble of the Forum of Augustus).

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The work was added to the site site: 2016-03-13

Order writing a unique work

">Moscow State University

">culture and arts

"> Theater and Directing Department

">Department of directing theatrical performances

"> Essay on the subject "Direction"

">Theme: Ancient Rome - Triumphs

"> Completed by student

"> Konoplyov M. Yu.

"> 3 courses s / o TRF

"> group 10304

">Moscow, 2011

">Ancient Rome

">Triumphs

">Triumphal facts were published around 12 BC. They contained a list of triumphs from the founding of Rome to the reign of Augustus. As a historical phenomenon, this is the kind of phenomenon that covers almost the entire Roman history of this 12th century.

"> According to legend, the first triumphant was Romullus, the legendary first king, the founder of Rome (753 - 716 BC). The last Triumph took place in 403 BC, when the empire was bursting at the seams, it was the beginning of the end, times Emperor Ganori and commander Stili Hon.Romulus, brother of Remus, was the first to celebrate a triumph over the city of Cinir, which he did not enter in a chariot, but walked alongside.The two brothers were born from the priestess of the Vestal Rhea Sylvia and God Mars, fed by a she-wolf, and the cares of their mother were replaced by the arriving woodpecker and lapwing After Amulius imprisoned them in a basket and threw them into the Tiber (a river on the Apennine Peninsula, the third longest among the rivers of Italy), and the basket was washed ashore. Subsequently, all these animals became sacred to Rome. Then the brothers were picked up by the royal shepherd Faustulus. His wife, Akka Larentia, who had not yet consoled herself after the death of her child, took the twins into her care.When Romulus and Remus grew up, they returned to Alba Longa, where they learned the secret of their origin.They killed A Mulia and restored their grandfather Numitor to the throne.

"> The triumph originated in imperial Rome smoothly passed into the era of the republic of its heyday to the imperial era and survived Rome itself as an Empire. Byzantine Emperors celebrated triumphs. If you pay attention to our parades, these are like echoes of triumphs. triumph of the civil war.

"> There were also " "> Hellenistic">" Triumphs are "> Tsar's own triumphs."> Triumphs were generally described by Greek writers, they were better at writing.

"> Aspects of the triumph stand out primarily as a religious act, gratitude to the God of war for the victory and in general as pagan gods. There is a version that the Romans borrowed this procession as "> Triumph at the Etruscans">, the ancient tribes that inhabited the northwest of the Apennine Peninsula in the first millennium BC. The Etruscans were a very developed country, culture, painting, literacy, etc.

"> The Romans throughout all the centuries were a very warlike people. They fought almost constantly. Why Emperor Augustus boasted that the temple was before him"> Janus "> has only been closed twice over the centuries,"> it meant - there is no war">, and in his time three times. War is an imbalance, a serious shock for the people. When the Roman warriors returned home in blood, they had to be washed - cleansed of spilled blood so that the Gods would forgive them. This rite was done in order to so that the Gods would not be angry, otherwise the community could suffer. In order to restore this balance, the relationship of people with the Gods, the triumph of Triumph procedure was invented. It was necessary to bring cleansing sacrifices to the Gods, and the sacrifice itself took place at the end of the procession. In particular, the passage under the Arc de Triomphe. To date, there are about 280 arches throughout the entire space of the former Roman Empire.A real triumph could only take place in Rome, because at the culmination of the Triumph there was a sacrifice, in the temple of Jupiter-Capitol, and he was only in Rome, and victorious celebrations could Although Antony and Cleopatra did this, in Rome this Triumph was not recognized, although it was a rich, magnificent action, as it were">quasi-triumph ">.

"> The very fact of passing under the arch or what symbolized it, as it were, three spears standing in the field, it symbolized ritual cleansing from spilled blood. There is a belief that pomerium is a sacred feature in the city, where wars could not appear.

"> At that time, the construction of cities was accompanied by various rituals. From the beginning, they dug a hole where they put fruits and cereals useful for humans. Then everyone threw a handful of earth brought into the hole, brought from the places where he came from. This symbolized the unity of the future citizens of the city. Then Romulus harnessed a bull and a cow to the plow and plowed a deep furrow, where the city wall was supposed to grow.In those places where he lifted the plow, gaps formed in the furrow and, as it were, outlined future gates.After the ceremony, the wall was considered sacred.One of the first inviolable shelter for fugitives was built in the city, dedicated to "> God Aliz ">. Fugitive slaves, debtors found shelter and protection in this shelter. Rome accepted exiles and newcomers. Nobody was interested in their past.

">Triumphant "> is a person, a person who wins victories for the sake of the state. This Day (Triumph), was granted to this person to feel like Jupiter. Jupiter as we know in ancient mythology"> god "> sky, daylight, thunderstorms, father of the gods, supreme deity of the Romans. Husband of the goddess"> Juno ">. Corresponds to Greek"> Zeus ">. The god Jupiter was revered on the hills, the tops of the mountains in the form of a stone. The days of the full moon are dedicated to him -"> ides ">.

">Temple "> Jupiter the Capital stood on">Capitols "> where Jupiter is with Juno and"> Minervoy "> was one of the three main Roman deities.

"> It was a very honorable gift to one person this title of Triumphant" "> Primus-interparus">" - the first among equals, an outstanding commander who won the battle. Signed by the Senate and, as it were, by the people, the Romans, as it were, developed this practice of reconciling personal interests with public ones.

"> And after that, lay down your power and never stutter about it after that. Perhaps the Triumphant dressed in Jupiter's costume imitating him, a purple cloak with stars, a golden wreath, in general, it is covered with the darkness of uncertainty.

"> Only the victorious Pompey was granted the privilege to appear in a suit in public. But a special decree was required.

">As you know, "> Pompey - Roman general">, a political and statesman. Almost at the end of his victories and life in the civil war, he defeated Caesar, but then he himself was defeated by Caesar at Farsad and killed in Egypt, where he sought refuge:

"> The 1st Triumph Pompey celebrated in 81 over the African king Yarba;

"> 2nd Triumph over the Spanish tribes in the 71st year;

"> 3rd in the year 61 over the Pirates and Metridators and celebrated the most magnificent Triumph in the history of the Roman Empire.

"> The kings originally had the right to triumph, and their attire was, as it were, Jupiter, "> a red cloak is the color of blood - red is the color of Jupiter">. The clothes of the king are the clothes of Jupiter.">Purple tunic"> - (The so-called half-mat tunic) decorated with golden palm leaves along the edges. Also"> Toga picta "> - decorated with gold stars from the top and to">this one has a laurel wreath on his head">. But the Romans constantly modified this practice, it cannot be said that it has always been.

"> When the Triumphant rode in a chariot, he could also sit in an ivory-covered chair on wheels, and in addition to the laurel wreath on his head, his Arab servant held a golden wreath over his head. And only deserved Triumphals like Pompey and Caesar had the right to wear a golden wreath on their heads in other solemn situations, and even constantly.Caesar, who became a lifelong dictator, he could afford almost everything.

"> There were many different triumphs, both large and small, which were called "ovations." There were postscripts, the Roman aristocrats had the right to masks. in costumes, masks of victors, consuls, Caesars, they walked and this played on the prestige of the family.

"> After the kings, the highest"> magistracies "> had the right to triumph, "> half a master's degree">, ">consuls ">, ">proconsuls ">, "> praetors ">, ">propraetors "> who commanded the army and won. It was believed that at least 5000 thousand enemies should have been killed in a major battle. Then the senate decided to give him this right of triumph or not.

"> The right to triumph, the commander had, who had the highest military power, commanded himself, and not under someone else's command. The Senate allocated funds for this. True, the commander gave something to his soldiers, although the soldiers themselves could rob themselves on the campaign.There is also a version that the soldiers were against the commander being given the title of Triumphant if they did not like him because he did not share with them .

"> Example: Consul Aemilius Paul Lucius won in 168 BC, with Macedonia, it was a chic victory, Macedonia was defeated. Emil Paul was awarded a Triumph, and the soldiers were against it, because they did not like their commander, because didn't want to share with them. ">. He introduced, as it were, a complete charter. He died in complete poverty, a completely poor man. Although he captured fantastic booty in the war with Macidonia.

"> Emily Pavel Lucius, Roman commander in 172 BC Was elected consul and received a triumph for the victory over the tribe of Ligos to complete the 3rd Macedonian War. The Romans re-elected him consul and gave him command and on June 22, 168 to Aemilius won a brilliant victory over Macedon, King Perseus, which decided the outcome of the war.Aemilius returned to Rome and celebrated his 2nd Triumph, one of the magnificent triumphs in the 2nd century BC. It was celebrated for three days For two days they carried only trophies and not all treasures, works of art, hundreds of wagons, jugs of silver and gold.After this victory, Roman citizens did not pay taxes for 200 years.

"> And when the commander returned with a victory, it was as if a test was being prepared for him on the Field of Mars, where fate was decided, as it were, the fate of the hero who won with his army to give him a Triumph or not. And right there he could become immediately after the decision of the Senate equal among equals if he does not receive a triumph. The Senate gathered there on the Champ de Mars on a hill in the temple "> Bellona"> - this "> Temple of the Goddess of War">. And the question of whether to give him a triumph or not was discussed. The applicant made a report and presented his achievements to them in the best possible way. Of course, here they could turn. The army, along with their commander, was also waiting. They had no right to enter the city armed not cleansed after shed blood.Of course, there were such cases when the enemies were taken by surprise, they immediately surrendered and, accordingly, there was no battle, there were no defeats and there could be no talk of triumph.Warriors, as it were, should have helped their commander, if he was one they voted for him, as if agitation was carried out in the national assembly so that he would be granted a triumph. If a position was taken to award him this triumph, a day was appointed, the day of entry into the city. the building where the secretaries sat in. Although there was a case when Siteke and his colleagues gave a triumph over surrendered enemies, they were most likely helped by good acquaintances of influential people.

"> Day of triumph.

"> The victor was supposed to receive an award and pleasure, in fact, try on the role of Jupiter when they allegedly painted his face, maybe it was the Greeks, i.e. the Greek writers lied, they owned a feast well, but they did not know everything about the Romans. Maybe they were influenced " "> Hellenistic triumphs" it seems to have been in Greece.

"> Next, it was necessary to go through the Field of Mars, through the Arc de Triomphe (gate) and the whole city, always without weapons, having cleansed in hands with palm branches in full dress, singing songs. We moved around the city, where citizens in wreaths were decorated with flowers, garlands of flowers, along these streets for previously occupied places, in the windows too.The route was calculated so as to pass the most crowded places.It is imperative to pass through the Flaminia Circus, built by order "> Gaius Flaminius and was named after him. This"> - an ancient Roman politician and commander, consul, through"> Big circus "> (lat. " xml:lang="la-Latn" lang="la-Latn">Circus Maximus">. Circus Maximus) - the most extensive;vertical-align:super"> "> the hippodrome in Ancient Rome. It was located in the valley between the Aventine and the Palatine. Twelve chariots could simultaneously take part in the competitions at the hippodrome. Bypass the theaters and go to the forum and there is the most solemn part,">Via Sacra "> or as a sacred road. Behind the temples of Soturn, rise to the Capitol (sacred mountain), the captives were separated in front of it, not all the captives were executed, those who were the most noble were taken to the right, where there was a prison (punishment cell) and given death. Some of the outstanding captives Jugurtha, with whom they fought for a long time, then the famous Verzen Gitorik.Then the triumphant rode, standing on a round gilded chariot, climbed the Capitol in one hand was a rod, in the other a palm branch, and there he sacrificed to Jupiter.For this purpose, at the beginning they drove bulls with gilded horns After that, he took off his luxurious clothes, as they called her">Tunico-Palmata"> ("> Tunic "> - clothing in the form of a bag with a hole for the head and arms, usually covering the entire body from shoulders to hips, a toga-picta decorated with golden stars (">Toga "> - outerwear of male citizens in ancient Rome - a piece of white woolen fabric of an elliptical shape, draped around the body. Persons who did not have the status of citizens were not allowed to wear a toga,"> gilded shoes, laurel wreath"> ">, rod (scepter) with an eagle - royal ivory rod"> and then after that he became a simple one of the people - he arranged an ordinary citizen with and not one, for his own, senators, colleagues, people, comrades-in-arms, warriors. Depending on how much the Triumphant could afford, thousands of tables in the city for the entire Roman people Especially Pompey and Caesar could afford this huge and luxurious Triumphs at Pompey - 4 and Caesar 5 Triumphs. And as it was known that the commander on the battlefield was already proclaimed Emperor - the bearer of the empire. This was already, as it were, an application for triumph and if the Senate confirmed the application, then he could celebrate the Triumph.

"> I wanted to remember the Arc de Triomphe. The arch of Titus is one-span 71st year, the field of how Titus captured Jerusalem, there were Jews who later built the Colosseum. But this arch was already finally built 10 years later (the current one). What it was originally made of It is not known that they were made of wood before, like the Triumphal Arch of Ukhtomsky, the current Red Gate arch through which Elizaveta Petrovna was crowned in 1742. That is, the arches were built in honor of the Emperors, the arches were different, four, three, two , single-span and always at the top were "> statues"> or "> quadriga">.

"> The Romans were superstitious and in order to avoid the evil eye, the soldiers were allowed to mock the commander, sing insulting songs about him, compose ditties and recalled all the troubles in the campaign.

"> The order of the procession. The column was divided into three parts:

">a) "> at the beginning, musicians, trumpeters, flutists, sacrificial animals up to a hundred bulls, and maybe more with gilded horns, sounded most likely solemn marches, military songs. Perhaps these were various noises because they played, tops sang songs noise was grand everyone screamed">EVUE-TRIUMPHS ">, most likely the word triumph from this came "hey triumph." The emperor himself had to slaughter at least one bull.

"> b) "> (in Hellenistic times there were more trophies), then they carried trophies captured in battle, sets of weapons, then paintings, bronze, a work of art, images of cities in miniature. It could have been a reality of ribbons with inscriptions, banners, stretch marks, layouts, everything that could give to understand about the conquest of the city that they captured.Of course, the matter could not do without lies, as it probably happened with Julius Caesar, that he conquered 1 million, killed 1 million and captured 1 million.

">c) "> and after the trophies there were prisoners, the more honorable prisoners, the better, several dozen commanders. As, for example, in the Triumph of Emil Paul, the king of Macedonia Perseus himself walked, all in black clothes, next to him were three children, two boys and one girl and interestingly, the audience was touched, shed tears of tenderness, imbued with compassion, the children did not even understand what was happening.By the way, it is not necessary that all the prisoners were executed, they were released, imprisoned, although for the prisoners who were held in triumph it was a great shame, especially as for Perseus, although Perseus was offered to resolve this issue by killing himself, but he did not dare, or as the famous Palmer queen"> Zenobia Septimius -"> the second wife of the king of Palmyra, Odenathus II, then lived out her days in the villa that the emperor gave her.

"> d) "> After the prisoners, the Triumphant himself marched, standing on a chariot harnessed by four white horses with a red face, i.e. full likeness to Jupiter.

"> As they wrote that Pompey would like to pass under the arch on elephants.

"> If you take the uprising of Spartacus, Krasus defeated him and he counted on a triumph. But the triumph was not given with an unworthy opponent, although the soldiers of Spartacus were worthy, but from the political side they were ordinary gladiator slaves and Krasus ( "> Mark Licinius Crassus"> - an ancient Roman commander and politician, a triumvir, one of the richest people of his time) offered "Ovation". The victor walked on foot or on a horse, only Kras was allowed to sit on"> horse"> and instead of "> myrrh"> wreath ("> Myrtle "> - a genus of southern evergreen woody plants with white fluffy flowers containing essential oil, also myrtle used to be called a wreath of flowers and leaves of such a tree or its branch - a symbol of silence, peace and pleasure) to wear laurel. In Ovations, they did not sacrifice a bull, but only one sheep and it was a modest procession.For all the time there were only 23 applause, and there were an order of magnitude more triumphs.

"> There were three types of Triumphs:

">Great Triumph;

"> Triumph on the Alban Mountain "> - its highest point, the peak of Monte Cavo, a temple to Jupiter was built on it. In this shrine, the Latins celebrated their celebrations, and the Roman consuls sometimes celebrated triumphs;

"> Ovations - "> was a reduced form of triumph in Ancient Rome. Ovations were awarded when an enemy was defeated, but not in the case of a war declared at the state level, but in the case of less significant enemies (slaves, pirates), or when the conflict was resolved with little blood or little danger to the army.

"> The general celebrating an ovation did not enter the city on chariots drawn by two white horses, as in the case of a triumph, but usually walked in a magistrate's toga with purple stripes. In triumph, the generals wore a completely purple toga, decorated with gold embroidery.

"> The decorated general also put on a wreath of myrtle (dedicated to Venus), while in triumph they put on a laurel wreath. The Roman senators did not go ahead of the general, the soldiers also did not participate in the procession.

"> And there was also a very rare naval triumph - this is a kind of great Triumph. But it took place on land. The Romans did not fight very actively at sea. It consisted in the fact that after the procession, after the feast of the Triumphant, a flutist and a torch-bearer accompanied this honor to the commander Hyde Willie.

"> After the 19th year BC, the republican triumph ordered to live long because everything already belonged to the monarch, i.e. the emperor who became the monarch and after that there were fewer and fewer victors. Basically, these were the triumphs of one person and the Monarch, on special occasions, encouraged his commanders, bestowed on them the "Uronomento-Triumphal" i.e. Triumphal decorations.On special occasions, they could appear in a purple tuga with a wreath.

"> The concept of "Triumph" seems to consist of three parts: The people;

"> Emperor and Triumphant.

Order writing a unique work triumphus) in Rome- solemn entry into the capital of the victorious commander and his troops. The triumph developed gradually from the simple entry into the city of soldiers returning after the end of the war and from the custom of military leaders to give thanks to the gods who granted victory. Over time, the Triumph began to be allowed only under the presence of a number of conditions. The triumph was considered the highest award to a military leader, which could only be awarded to one who had empires and waged war as a commander in chief, not subject to the authority of another commander. The triumph could be received by both ordinary magistrates (consuls, praetors, proconsuls and propraetors), as well as dictators and persons who received the highest command by virtue of a special popular decree (lat. imperium extraordinarium). Triumph was determined by the senate, but sometimes, if the senate refused to triumph, the military leader managed to get it by virtue of the decision of the people's assembly, as was the case, for example, with the dictator Marcius Rutilus (the first of the plebeians).

Sack of Jerusalem, relief on the Arch of Titus, Rome, 1st century BC

A triumph was given only at the end of the war (there were exceptions), and, moreover, one that was accompanied by a heavy defeat of the enemies. There was a rule to give a triumph only if at least five thousand enemies were killed. The commander, who sought a triumph, was waiting for a decision on whether he would be granted a triumph, being outside the city limits, in view of the fact that the entry into the city of a magistrate who had not yet laid down the imperium was not allowed. Therefore, the senate also met in such a case outside the city, on the Campus Martius, usually in the temple of Bellona or Apollo, and listened to the commander there. By virtue of a special law, victors received an imperium in the city on the day of their triumph. On the day appointed for the triumph, those who participated in it gathered early in the morning on the Champ de Mars, where in a public building (lat. villa publica) was at that time a victor. The latter dressed in a special luxurious costume, similar to the attire of the statue of Capitoline Jupiter. He wore a tunic embroidered with palm branches (lat. tunica palmata), a purple toga decorated with gold stars (lat. toga picta), gilded shoes, in one hand he took a laurel branch, in the other he held a richly decorated ivory scepter with an image of an eagle at the top; on his head was a laurel wreath.

The victor rode, standing on a round gilded chariot harnessed by four horses. When Camillus harnessed white horses for the first time during his triumph, this was met with a murmur in the public, but subsequently white horses during the triumph became ordinary. Instead of horses, elephants, deer and other animals were sometimes harnessed. The triumphal chariot formed the center of the whole procession, which was opened by senators and magistrates. Musicians (trumpeters) walked behind. For the public, crowded along the entire long path of the procession in festive costumes, with wreaths of flowers and greenery in their hands, of particular interest was that part of the procession in which the winner tried to show off the large number and richness of the captured military booty.

In ancient times, while Rome was at war with her poor neighbors, booty was simple: the main part of it was weapons, cattle and captives. But when Rome began to wage wars in the rich cultural countries of the East, the victors sometimes brought back so much booty that they had to stretch the triumph over two or three days. On special stretchers, on chariots or simply in their hands, they carried and carried a lot of weapons, enemy banners, later also images of captured cities and fortresses and various symbolic statues, then tables on which there were inscriptions testifying to the exploits of the winner or explaining the meaning of the items carried . Sometimes there were works of conquered countries, rare animals, etc. Often they carried precious utensils, gold and silver coins in vessels and precious metals not in use, sometimes in huge quantities.

Cultural countries, especially Greece, Macedonia and other areas where Hellenistic education was established, gave many artistic treasures, statues, paintings, etc. for the triumph. Golden wreaths were also carried, presented to the winner by different cities. During the triumph of Aemilius Paul there were about 400 of them, and during the triumphs of Julius Caesar over Gaul, Egypt, Pontus and Africa - about 3000. Priests and youths accompanied white sacrificial bulls with gilded horns, decorated with garlands. Especially valuable decoration of the triumph in the eyes of the Roman commanders were noble captives: defeated kings, their families and assistants, enemy commanders. Some of the captives during the triumph were killed, by order of the triumphant, in a special prison that lay on the slope of the Capitol. In ancient times, such a beating of prisoners was common and probably originally had the character of a human sacrifice, but examples can also be given from a later era: Jugurtha and Caesar's opponent in Gaul, Vercingetorix, perished in this way. In front of the triumphant were lictors with fascias entwined with laurel; buffoons amused the crowd.

The victor was surrounded by children and other relatives, behind them stood a state slave holding a golden wreath over his head. The slave reminded the triumphant from time to time that he was only a mortal (memento mori), and he should not be too proud. Behind the triumphant were his assistants, legates and military tribunes on horseback; sometimes they were followed by citizens released by the victor from captivity, soldiers marched in full dress, with all the awards that they had. They exclaimed "Jo triumphe" and sang impromptu songs, in which they sometimes ridiculed the shortcomings of the triumphant himself. Starting on the Champ de Mars, near the triumphal gates, the procession passed through two circuses filled with people (Flaminium and Bolshoi, Maximus), then along Via Sacra through the forum climbed to the Capitol. There, the victor dedicated fasz laurels to Jupiter and made a magnificent sacrifice. Then came the feasting of the magistrates and senators, often of the soldiers and even of the whole public; for the latter, more games were arranged in circuses. Sometimes the commander gave the public and gifts. Gifts to soldiers were a general rule and sometimes reached significant amounts (for example, Caesar's soldiers received five thousand denarii each).

Persons who received a triumph had the right to wear triumphal attire on holidays. During the imperial period, triumphs became the exclusive property of the emperors themselves, which was explained both by the latter’s unwillingness to give their subjects this highest honor, and by the fact that the emperor was considered the commander-in-chief of all the military forces of the empire, and, consequently, the military leaders of this period lacked one of the main conditions for receiving triumph - the right to wage war "suis auspiciis". Having retained the triumph only for themselves and sometimes for their closest relatives, the emperors began to give other commanders in return for triumph only the right to wear triumphal attire (ornamenta, insignia triumphalia) on solemn occasions and put statues of victors among the statues of victors. The last triumph seems to have been accomplished by Diocletian. A less important and solemn form of triumph was the so-called "ovation".

see also

Links

• Fasti Triumphales - Triumphant fasts (English)

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See what "Triumph (Ancient Rome)" is in other dictionaries:

ANCIENT ROME- Roman Forum The Roman Forum is an ancient civilization in Italy and the Mediterranean, centered in Rome. It was based on the urban community (lat. civitas) of Rome, which gradually extended its power, and then its right to the entire Mediterranean. Being… … Orthodox Encyclopedia

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LESSON 2. ROMAN CONQUESTS IN THE 2nd CENTURY BC

The further development of Roman aggression and the establishment of Roman domination throughout the Mediterranean are considered. Emphasizes the predatory - on the part of the Romans - the nature of the wars II .v. BC e., as a result of which the once independent flourishing regions were turned into disenfranchised provinces, robbed by the conquerors.

Lesson start options: I. B 1, 3-5; A 1, 3; B 6-7. II. B 1, 3-4; A 2; B 6-7. III. B 1, 3-5, 7; A 3. IV. B 1-7. Questions and tasks:

A. 1. What began first: the second Punic War or the campaign of Alexander's troops in Asia? How much earlier? Draw a “time line” on the board, mark the required dates on it. 2. One student - to draw on the board a plan for the location of the Roman troops at Cannae, the direction of military strikes and at the same time talk about the battle on behalf of its legionary participant. For another student to draw the formation of the Carthaginian troops, the direction of their blows and at the same time tell about the battle on behalf of the warrior of Hannibal's army. The teacher guides the answers, giving the word either to the “Roman” or to the “Carthaginian”. 3. What do you see as Hannibal's outstanding military abilities? Students are able to give a detailed justification using the following facts: a) Hannibal's sudden invasion of Italy (crossing the Alps); b) the encirclement and defeat of the numerically superior troops of the Romans at Cannae; c) a plan to win over to its side the peoples of Italy conquered by Rome (Gauls, Greeks, etc.).

B. 1. What were the wars between Rome and Carthage called? Why were they called that? What were their reasons? 2. How did the Romans create a navy and defeat the Carthaginians at sea?

(According to the filmstrip "The Wars of Rome with Carthage".) 3. How did the first Punic War end? 4. Tell us about Hannibal's invasion of Italy. Show on the map the path of his troops. 5. Show on the map the locations of the two major battles of Hannibal. (Cannes, Zams.) What are the results of each battle? 6. Why couldn't Hannibal conquer Italy? 7. How did the second Punic War end?

Study plan ( This plan follows the chronology of events. The textbook deals with the Third Punic War before the Roman conquests in the Eastern Mediterranean (the advantage of the textbook outline is that the destruction of Carthage is thematically linked to the previous lesson). The teacher can choose any plan for studying the material): 1. Roman conquests in the Eastern Mediterranean. 2. The Third Punic War and the destruction of Carthage. 3. Robbery of the conquered countries by the Romans.

1. Rome, having crushed Carthage, began to reign supreme in the Western Mediterranean. It is advisable to show students on the wall map the approximate boundaries of both of these regions (Western and Eastern Mediterranean). “What states arose in the Eastern Mediterranean after the campaigns of Alexander the Great?” the teacher asks. Complementing the answers, he recalls that the Syrian kingdom, Egypt, Macedonia and other smaller states were constantly at enmity with each other. The internecine wars of the eastern parishes were beneficial to the Romans, the rule of the Roman Senate was: "divide and rule!" (“How do you understand this expression?” Students are able to point out that the Romans deliberately set neighboring peoples and states against each other and smashed their troops separately.)

More detailed than in the textbook, the story of the fate of Hannibal will help to connect the material of the previous and this lesson.

Soon after the end of the second Punic War, Hannibal was forced to flee to the east, where he became an adviser to the Syrian king Antiochus. Hannibal was old and sick, but he remained true to his oath and was ready to fight the Romans. “Zyai, king,” he said to his master, “the Romans are warlike and cruel; they want to conquer the whole world. Remember how they humiliated my homeland. The Romans took almost all the possessions of Carthage. Forget, king, your old enmity with the kings of other states of the East. Unite! Only by joint efforts will you be able to defeat the Romans. Otherwise, slavery awaits you all.” But the king of Syria did not heed the wise advice of the famous commander.

Students can learn about the defeat of the Syrian kingdom while reading the textbook aloud (§ 46, p. 2). After this, the teacher finishes the story of Hannibal, who fled to Bithynia (Asia Minor). And here he became a military adviser to the king.

Upon learning of this, the Romans demanded the extradition of Hannibal. One day the old commander saw that his house was surrounded by armed men. Not wanting to become a prisoner of the Romans, Hannibal took poison.

The Teacher says that after Syria, the Romans subjugated Macedonia. He can offer compare the formation of the Roman and Macedonian troops in battle and draw a conclusion. (Which army was more perfect? ​​What?) After listening to the answers, the teacher either uses the loud reading technique again (§ 46, p. 3), or tells himself about the battle of Pydna.

The blow of the Macedonian phalanx was so strong that the Roman forward detachments were crushed and began to retreat to the hills, located near the Roman camp itself. The Roman consul, who had turned gray in battle, later often recalled what a terrible impression the attack of the phalanx had made on him. But the very swiftness of the blow destroyed the Macedonians. The ranks of the phalanx broke in some places due to the rapid pursuit of the Romans by them and the unevenness of the ground. The consul took advantage of this and threw the mobile detachments into the gaps that had formed. The Romans began to attack the Macedonians from the flanks and from the rear, upsetting their ranks. The Macedonian king Perseus, confused, fled from the battlefield. The battle lasted less than an hour. 20 thousand Macedonians remained on the battlefield. 11 thousand were captured. Roman casualties were ridiculously low ( See: Kovalev S. I. History of Rome. L., 1948, p. 284-285).

Students will learn about the conquest of Macedonia and Greece by Rome, about the death of the largest trading center in Greece - Corinth (146 BC). Roman merchants insisted on the destruction of the city. The place where Corinth stood was cursed, the surviving inhabitants were sold into slavery, works of art were taken to Rome.

2. Militarily, Carthage did not pose any danger to Rome, but the Roman merchants were afraid of the rivalry of the more experienced Carthaginian merchants. The Carthaginians were engaged in peaceful labor, they grew grapes and olives and traded in wine and oil in all Mediterranean countries.

One day, the old and influential senator Cato arrived in Carthage at the head of the Roman embassy. With displeasure, he looked at the Carthaginian port: many ships stood at the berths) the merchants flaunted bright clothes. “Fifty years ago,” thought Cato, “when I fought here under Scipio, the Punes trembled with fear. And now they have forgotten everything - they are enjoying life and getting richer. Returning to his homeland, Cato spoke in the Senate. Carthage is booming! he declared indignantly. - Sea trade has enriched the Puns, and meanwhile our merchants are suffering losses. I believe that Carthage must be destroyed." From now on, speaking at every meeting of the Senate, no matter what was discussed there, Cato always ended his speech with the same words: "Still I believe that Carthage must be destroyed". Cato was supported by Roman merchants, who knew that wine and olive oil from the African possessions of Carthage were more readily bought than Italian ones. The Senate openly demanded to sweep Carthage off the face of the earth.

In the story about the siege and assault on Carthage, you can use either the color filmstrip "The Wars of Rome with Carthage" (frames 37-46), or the drawings on pages 191-192. The last drawing gives an idea of ​​the heroism of the inhabitants who defended Carthage for six days, when there was no longer any hope of salvation. The brutalized Roman legionaries stormed house after house, slowly moving along the burning streets towards the city center, killing everyone in their path.

Carthage burned for seventeen days. Suffocating smoke drifted low on the ground. Instead of a beautiful city full of life, a lifeless field with shapeless ruins stretched all the way to the bay. The place where Carthage stood, where artisans worked and merchants traded, was subjected to eternal damnation, so that from now on neither house nor arable land would appear on it. The Senate so ordered See: Nemirovsky A.I. Three wars. L., 1961, p. 131-132).

Summarizing, the teacher notes that as a result of victorious wars, Rome became in the middle of the 2nd century. BC e. the strongest state in the entire Mediterranean. Egypt and several smaller states still retained their independence, but not one of them dared to fight Rome.

3. The question is revealed in the volume of the textbook (§ 46, paragraphs 4-5); concepts are introduced province and triumph.

It is advisable to use the painting by S. Ankundinov "The Triumph of the Roman Emperor". Before showing it, the teacher says that in Rome, after each major victory, a holiday was held, which was called a triumph: the army, led by the commander, solemnly entered the city.

After hanging the picture, the teacher explains that the front gates in the form of an arch were erected especially for the celebration: all participants in the triumph passed through them. He invites students to build a story based on the picture and helps them do this: “We see three groups of people in the picture: 1) Roman soldiers; 2) captives; 3) citizens meeting the army. Include a description of each group in the story. Usually students successfully complete the task; the teacher corrects errors in the answers, makes additions (see manual, table 19).

Table 19

-	When describing a picture, students are able to express the following thoughts:	Additions of the teacher in the process of describing the picture by students
ROMAN ARMY	The commander rides on a gilded chariot. It is harnessed by white horses. His clothes are red, and there is a wreath on his head. In one hand of the commander is a rod, in the other a green branch. The trumpeters and the guards of the consul go ahead of the chariot. The commander's chariot is followed by his army	The clothes are dyed purple. The slave holds another wreath over the head of the commander - a golden one. This commander received an honorary nickname - the emperor (in Latin "ruler, commander in chief"). It was given to him by the Senate or directly by the army for success in the war. A distinguished commander was not called emperor for his entire life, but for a certain period - usually during a celebration on the occasion of a victory, the Teacher either invites students to recall what they know about lictors (see manual, p. 273), or talks about them himself
CAPTIVES	Prisoners are driven ahead, bound by one chain. They have rags on them. You can see from their looks that they hate the Romans. A woman holds a child in her arms	These are probably the most noble captives, they will be turned into slaves, and possibly executed. The baby is dead, he couldn't take the long way
CROWD	The townspeople greet the soldiers, waving branches, holding out flowers. Smiles on their faces	In front of the fires of the altars (on the right) are the priests, they thank the gods for the victory

At the end of the work with the picture, the task is possible: “Think about what feelings a triumph would cause in you if you were in Rome. What would be your personal attitude towards such festivities?” After listening to the answer, the teacher draws attention to the contrast between the jubilant Roman crowd and the mournful figures of the captives. For some, triumph-joy, for others - humiliation and loss of freedom. The sumptuous spectacle of triumph was nothing more than a display of plundered booty and enslaved people.

The teacher can make a description of the picture himself, without entrusting it to the students. (If the school does not have a named picture, color fig. 17 can be used.)

Homework: § 46. Answer the question to the document “Plutarch's Description of the Triumph” (p. 194). Questions and tasks 1-3 to § 46.

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triumphal procession

Flavius ​​Josephus, describing one of the Roman triumphs, says about what was captured in such arches or paintings: “... Vespasian and Titus appeared in laurel wreaths and the usual purple robe and headed to the portico of Octavia. Here the senate, the highest dignitaries and the noblest horsemen were waiting for their arrival ... After the prayer, Vespasian delivered a short speech to the assembly, addressed to everyone and released the soldiers to the feast, usually given to them in such cases by the emperor himself. He himself proceeded to the gate, called triumphal due to the fact that triumphal processions always passed through them ... to open a triumphal procession that moved past the theaters so that the people could more easily see everything. It is impossible to adequately describe the mass of sights that were shown (during the triumph. - V. M.) and the luxury of decorations, in which the imagination was refined or the splendor of everything that fantasy can only imagine, such as: works of art, luxury items and those found in nature rarities ... Everything that day was put on display to give an idea of ​​the greatness of the Roman state ... Many individual images extremely vividly reproduced the war in its main moments. Here it was depicted how the happiest country is devastated, how entire enemy crowds are exterminated, how some of them flee, while others are captured; how gigantic walls fall under the blows of machines; how strong fortresses are conquered, or how they climb to the very top of the fortifications of the most populous cities, how an army penetrates walls and fills everything with blood; pleading gestures of the unarmed, flaming firebrands thrown at the temple, houses collapsing over the heads of their inhabitants, finally, after many sad scenes of destruction, water streams - not those that irrigate the fields for the benefit of people or animals, but streams that overflow over the engulfed everywhere area fire. Thus were depicted all the disasters that the war brought upon the Jews. The artistic performance and grandeur of these images represented the events, as it were, with their own eyes and for those who were not their eyewitnesses. On each of these structures, the head of the conquered city was also represented at the moment when he was taken prisoner ... The items of prey were worn in masses; but those that were taken from the temple attracted special attention, namely: a golden table that weighed many talents, and a golden lampstand ... The last in a series of booty items was the Law of the Jews. Following this, many people carried statues of the goddess of Victory, made of ivory and gold. Then Vespasian rode, followed by Titus, Domitian in a magnificent outfit on the side.

The Romans would be very surprised if someone told them that such a country would appear in the world where the people would be much more likely and more willing to elect to high posts for some reason those whose path to the top is littered with the shame of betrayal and defeat.

You come to curious conclusions when you take a closer look at the results of Roman rule in Africa or in Spain ... Africa is still of particular interest, since the tribes inhabiting it, ethnically and culturally, were further away from the Italics. Let us turn to the book by T. P. Kaptereva about the countries of the Maghreb (Algeria, Tunisia, Morocco) for help. Almost here, in Egypt, even in Libya and Nubia, on the Mediterranean coast, the influence of Greek and Roman cultures was most noticeable. Recall that in the severe battle between Rome and Carthage, the Libyan kingdoms, like Numidia and Mauretania, played a significant role. The lands of Numidia (eastern Algeria and western Tunisia) covered the possessions of Carthage in a semicircle. Of course, the Numidians, who are known as excellent cavalry, took a direct part in all the wars that captured the region. The king of the Massils, Masinissa, who often appears in the descriptions of historians, united the Numidian tribes, turned them into farmers and introduced them to civilization. Polybius wrote that the king was able, with the help of Rome, to radically change the situation of his country. The land here began to bear fruit, as he skillfully used, as we would say, "new technologies." He actively led urban construction (especially in the capital). With him, trade began to flourish. From the Carthaginians, he adopted some forms of the Punic civilization, the city management system (with the help of suffets). As a result of this competent balanced policy, the country soon changed. The author writes: “The kings of Numidia and Mauretania patronized construction and art, they willingly invited Greek masters to their cities. As in the Punic era, foreign works of art were imported into North Africa. The richest Carthaginian library, a whole body of knowledge, handed over by the Romans to the Numidian kings, could not but play a significant role in the development of the spiritual life of African society.

TRIUMPH(Triumphus). The word "triumph" probably comes from the exclamation " triumphe» (associated with θρίαμβος), issued by soldiers and people during the procession (Varro, L. L. VI. 68, is also found in the chant of the Arval brothers), but is possibly an early transliteration of the word θρίαμβος itself (see also Wordsworth, Fragments and Specimens of Early Latin, with. 394).

Initially, the triumph was no doubt simply the return of the victorious army, led by the general, the first event of which, naturally, was the offering of a sacrifice to the supreme god of the city. A notable feature of this entry into the city was the display of captives and booty. This is the essence of triumph. (Varro, l. c. : « Triumphare appellatum quod cum imperatore milites redeuntes clamitant per urbem in Capitolium eunti Io triumphe» . An early triumph of this kind is described in Liv. III. 29, 4.) It happened after every successful campaign, as a matter of course. After the ceremony had been worked out, and the importance of the triumph increased as a result, there naturally arose a tendency, coinciding with the weakening of power, to limit it to cases of exceptional success, and gradually a set of rules arose to condition and limit the receipt of what became a desired favor. First of all, the consent of the Senate became necessary.

The triumph had two aspects: religious and military.

1. Before a general set out from Rome for the theater of war, his last business was to visit the Capitol, where he (if he was a magistrate) received the auspices without which the war could not be properly started, and every time he took vows for success in war (Liv. xlv. 39, &c.; Caes. B. C. I.6; plin. Pan. 5). If the campaign was successful and he was granted a triumph, then he took the form of a procession to the Capitol, where he was to fulfill his vows and make a sacrifice to Jupiter. This religious character of the triumph was emphasized by the fact that the commander appeared in the procession in the form of a god. His clothes were the same as those of a god, and belonged to the temple, from where they were delivered on such an occasion. (Therefore, she is referred to as exuviae Jovis: Suet. Aug. 94; cf. Juv. X. 38; Liv. X. 7, 10. Gordian was the first to own these clothes as his own: Vita Gord. 4; cf. Vita Alex. Sev. 40.) God also owned a golden crown (Tertull. de Coron. 13) and a scepter with an eagle; the general's body (at least in early times) was painted red, like a statue in a temple (Plin. H. N. XXXIII. § 111); and the white chariot horses used by the emperors, and earlier by Camillus, resembled the white horses of Jupiter and the Sun (Liv. V. 23, 5, and v. inf.). For the importance of this identification of the priest (which in this case was the triumphant) with the deity, see S ACERDOS.

2. The triumph was also a military event, the last one performed by the commander in the course of command; therefore, it was important that during its commission the commander possessed the entirety of the military empire; this was inherent in the offices of the highest magistrates (consul, praetor, dictator). If these magistrates were triumphant while in office, they already possessed the necessary quality (although it was usually suspended in the city) and thus in this case were able (with the prior permission of the senate) to exercise a military empire within the city. (For problems associated with loss of auspices in certain cases, see Mommsen, Staatsrecht, I. 124, approx. 5.) As long as the command of the army was usually held by one of the higher magistrates during the term of his office, the right to triumph belonged exclusively to this class (in an exceptional case, for example, in the case of Qua. Publilius Philo, consul of 327 BC. e., when the command was extended beyond the usual term, the right was not lost: Liv. VIII.26, 7); therefore, when during the second Punic War it became necessary to appoint commanders who did not occupy one of the ordinary higher magistracies, in such cases the triumph was denied (for example, P. Scipio in 206 BC, Liv. XXVIII. 38, 4; L. Manlius Acidinus in 199 BC, Liv. XXXII.7, 4; Mr. Cornelius Blasio in 196 BC, Liv. XXXIII.27; and L. Lentulus in 200 BC, Liv. XXXI. 20, 3, " exemplum a majoribus non accepisse ut qui neque dictator neque consul neque praetor res gessisset triumpharet» . This rule is also formulated in Plut. Pomp. 14, ὑπάτῳ ἢ στρατηγῷ μόνῳ [θρίαμβον] δίδωσιν ὁ νόμοσ ). Later, when the custom arose (eventually legalized by Sulla) that the command of an army in the provinces was taken only after the expiration of a year's office in Rome, it was deemed necessary to relax the rule, for the practical reason that if none of the ordinary magistrates had a chance win, then no triumph could be granted. Accordingly, the triumphs celebrated in the late Republic are usually those of proconsuls and propraetors. The fact that these persons already held one of the highest magistracies in the city no doubt facilitated the change in the old rule; however, even if this were not the case (as in the exceptional case of Pompey in 81 and 71), the triumph was not denied. In the case of proconsuls and propraetors of empires, granted (by prorogatio) strictly for command in the provinces only; to facilitate the triumph, Sulla legalized the custom of keeping the empires active until the general had reached the city (Cic. ad fam. I. 9, 25: cf. Liv. XXXIV. ten; Mommsen, Staatsrecht, I. 619, approx. 1 and 2). However, this expansion could only be useful up to the pomerium, and in order to keep the current empires inside the city on the day of triumph, a special law was required ( privilege accepted by the people ex auctoritate senatus, Liv. XXVI. 21, cf. XLV. 35). Until his acceptance, the commander remained outside the walls, for if he entered the city, then the continuity of his empire would be lost and he would become privatus not entitled to triumph. (Therefore Lucullus remained outside the city walls for three years: Cic. Acad. pr. II. 1, 3: cf. the case of Cicero in 50 BC. e., ad Att. VII. ten.)

After an important victory, the troops proclaimed their general as emperor (a frequent but not universal first step to triumph: Mommsen, Staatsr. I. 123); He took fasces laureati(Cic. Pro League. 3, 7, ad Att. VII. 10) and sent to the Senate litterae laureatae(Liv. v. 28, 13; Plin. H. N. XV. § 40; zone. VII. 21; cf. Tac. agr. 18), i.e., a report announcing victory. If this information turned out to be satisfactory, p. 895 the senate declared public prayers, which were so often harbingers of triumph that Cato considers it necessary to remind Cicero that this was not necessarily the case (Cic. ad fam. XV. 5, 2). After the general returned with an army in the vicinity of Rome, the next step was to obtain the consent of the senate; but it could only be given under certain conditions.

1. Until the end of the ceremony, the victor had to have the supreme power of the magistrate, i.e., the empire of the consul, praetor, dictator, proconsul and propraetor, and this empire had to be received in the right constitutional way (thus, for tribunes with consular power, the possibility of a triumph was excluded ; it was different with the triumvirs, Mommsen, Staatsr. I. 126 c). This point has already been discussed, but it remains to mention a few exceptions and consequences. When a pro-magistrate was elected consul during his command, his triumph took place on the day he took office (for example, Marius in 104 BC: Mommsen, Staatsr. I. 124, approx. 4). The empire outside of Rome was unlimited, therefore, at one time and in one territory, only one person could carry it out; if there were two commanders, then only one triumph could be given; therefore it was granted either to a general of a higher rank (for example, a dictator, not a consul; a consul, not a praetor: Liv. II.31, IV.29, 4; Ep. xix), or, in the case of two consuls, to the one whose turn it was to hold the empire and the auspices on the day of the battle (for example, the Battle of the Metaurus: Liv. XXVIII.9, 10). A commander, therefore, could not claim a triumph if he won a victory in a territory where a foreign empire was active (Liv. l. c. The Battle of Metaurus took place in the province of M. Libya: cf. Liv. X. 37, XXXIV. ten). Exceptions to these rules appear after the First Punic War, and a small triumph ( ovatio) was usually granted if more significant honors were denied. In accordance with the same principle, the one who commanded alienis auspiciis, i.e., as a representative of an absent general or a subordinate of one present, had no right to a triumph (Dio Cass. XLIII.42). Caesar broke this rule towards the end of his life with regard to his legates (Dio Cass. l. c. , sq. Fabius Maxim and Kv. Pedia: cf. Mommsen, Staatsrecht, I. 127, approx. 3). This example was followed during the reign of the triumvirate (for example, P. Ventidius, legate of Antony: Dio Cass. XLVIII. 41, 5). Finally, despite the rule formulated by Cicero ( de leg. agr. II. 12, 30) on the necessity of a curate law for a military empire, at the end of the republic there is an example of a triumph obtained by a man to whom an empire was never thus awarded (Cic. ad Att. IV. 16, 12; C. I. L. I. s. 460, XXVII).

2. Victory must be won in a just struggle against the enemies of the state ( justis hostilibusque bellis, Cic. pro Deiot. 5, 13), and not in a civil war and not in a slave revolt (Val. Max. II.8, 7; Dio Cass. XLIII.42; Florus, II.10, 9; Lucan. I.12; Gell. V 6, 21; Plut. Caes. 56). Therefore, there were no triumphs after the capture of Capua in 211 BC. e., or Fregell in 125 BC. e., although the first city did not have full citizenship, and the second was only a Latin colony (the reason given in Val. Max. l. c. as if Capua belonged to Rome, and triumph was granted only pro aucto imperio, incorrect: Mommsen, Staatsr. I. s. 129, approx. 3). The triumphs of Caesar after Thapsus and Munda and Octavian after Actium did not violate this rule, for in each case the victory was presented as won over foreigners; although, on the other hand, Caesar did not celebrate a triumph for Pharsalus. This attitude is found even in Septimius Severus (Herodian, III. 9, 1).

3. Victory must be won in a major battle (Gell. V. 6, 21); and, according to Valerius Maximus (II. 8, 1), the law stipulated that the enemy must be injured not less than 5,000 men in one battle. (The plebiscite of 62 BC obliged the commander to confirm his information under oath and established fines for falsification). This rule was clearly established recently, and even after that many examples are known of granting triumphs for general results (in the case of P. Cornelius and M. Bebius, Liv. XL. 38, there was no war. Cf. VIII. 26, 7; XXXVII. 46 Cic. in Pis. 26, 62).

4. The war had to be brought to an end ( debellatum) so that the army can be withdrawn ( deportatio exercitus); the presence of victorious soldiers was an essential part of the ceremony (Liv. XXVI.21; XXXI.49). Therefore, initially, the transfer of the army to a successor in the theater of operations deprived the right to triumph. Later, when circumstances demanded the presence of standing armies at a great distance from Italy, the condition of deportation was abolished, in case the war was brought to a conclusion (Liv. XXXIX.29, 4).

Decisive victories in a large-scale or prolonged war could be rewarded with a triumph, that is, they were considered as the end of individual wars: for example, in the war with Hannibal - the battle of Metaurus and the capture of Tarentum. Claims to triumph after the conquest of Sicily and Spain in the same war were rejected for other reasons (cf. Tac. Ann. I.55; II. 41).

Given that the supreme magistrate had the absolute right to use unlimited empires within the city on the day of his triumph, the existence of a set of rules implies the recognition of some authority other than the general himself, who must decide on their applicability. As a matter of fact, we see that from the earliest times this right was recognized to the senate (Liv. II.47, 10; III.29, 4; 63, 9: cf. Polyb. VI.13; Sen. de Ben. V. 15) that his decisions were always regarded as final (e.g., Liv. X. 36, 19; Dionys. IX. 26) and only exceptionally reversed by appeal to the people (Liv. III. 63, 8; VII. 17 9; Zon. VIII.20) or by force (the cases of L. Postumius Megella, Liv. X. 37; and Appius Claudius, Cic. pro Cael. 14, 34; Suet. Tib. 2). There is not a single case known where the Senate was not first addressed. No doubt the point where this body made its power felt was the decree of the senate, without which public funds could not be allocated for the expenses of the triumph (Polyb. VI.15, 8; Liv. XXXIII.23, 8: cf. Dio Cass. LXXIV.2). In the case of pro-magistrates, whose empires were founded on prorogatio, followed by the consent of the Senate privilege, permitting p. 896 the preservation of the empire inside the city for triumph (see above). Probably due to confusion with this, it is sometimes said that the consent of the senate must be confirmed by the people: for example, Suet. Fr. VIII. ed. Roth. See Willems, Le Senat de la Republique Romaine, vol. II. with. 672, approx. 2. But the early reference to the participation of the people in Liv. IV. 20, in 437 BC. e. (cf. Dionys. III.59) perhaps indicates that things were different in earlier times. For these discussions, the senate met outside the city walls, usually in the temple of Bellona (Liv. XXVI.21, XXXVI.39) or Apollo (Liv. XXXIX.4), so that the general might have an opportunity to defend his claims in person. After Augustus erected a temple to Mars Avenger in his forum, at least the last session was held there (Suet. Aug. 29).

When the appointed day came, all the people poured out of their houses in festive clothes; some stood on the steps of government buildings, while others climbed onto the scaffolding erected to give an overview of the spectacle. Every temple was open, flower garlands adorned every temple and statue, and incense burned on every altar. (Plut. aem. Paul. 32; Ov. Trist. IV. 2, 4). Meanwhile, the commander, who arrived at night on the Field of Mars (Joseph. B. J. VII. 5, 4), addressed his soldiers on contio and announced the rewards to be distributed to the officers and soldiers (Liv. X. 30, 46; XXX. 45, 3; XXXIII. 23, &c.; Plin. H. N. XXXVII. § sixteen; Dio Cass. XLIII. 21).

Then the procession lined up on the Champ de Mars, where it was met by the senate and magistrates (Josephus, l. c.). The following order was usually observed, but naturally there could be deviations in certain circumstances (a good example of such is the triumph of Aurelian, described in Vita Aurel. 33).

1. Magistrates and Senate (Dio Cass. LI. 21, 9).

2. Trumpeters ( tubicines: Plug. aem. Paul. 33; appian, Pun. 66).

3. Tangible fruits of victory, including captured weapons, objects of material or artistic value, images of conquered countries, cities, rivers, etc., in the form of pictures, models, and allegorical figures (Liv. XXVI.21, 7; Cic. Phil. VIII. 6, 18;. Tac. Ann. II. 41; plin. H. N. V. § 5. On one of the internal reliefs of the Arch of Titus, all the bearers of these objects are crowned with laurel wreaths), as well as tables on which the names of conquered peoples and countries are written. At the same time were exhibited the golden wreaths presented to the general by the cities of the conquered province (Liv. XXVI.21, XXXIV.52; Plut. aem. Paul. 34. In early times they were made of laurel: Gell. V. 6, 7).

4. White bull, intended for sacrifice, with gilded horns, decorated vitae and Serta, who is accompanied by the priests with their paraphernalia, and who is followed by the camillas, carrying pateras and other sacred vessels and instruments in their hands (Plut. aem. Paul. 33).

5. The most important captives in chains (eg, Perseus, Jugurtha, Vercingetorix, Zenobia. The image represented the dead Cleopatra: Dio Cass. LI. 21, 8).

6. Lictors of the commander in red tunics, with fasces decorated with laurel (Appian, Pun. 66. Probably the fasces were without axes; so on the relief of the arch of Titus. See, however, Mommsen, Staatsr. I. 129; L ICTOR p. 66 a).

7. Cytharists ( citharistae) or ludiones, dancing and singing, as if triumphing over a defeated enemy (Appian, l. c. : cf. Dionys. VII. 72).

Triumphal chariot: from a relief. (Montfaucon, Ant. Exp. IV. pl. CV).

See above for the use of white knights. After Camillus (Liv. v. 23; Dio Cass. LII. 13; Plut. Cam. 7), not a single commander is known to have decided to use them before Caesar (Dio Cass. XLIII. 14, 3), but his example, apparently, was constantly followed by emperors (Suet. Nero.25; plin. Pan. 22. Poets of the August era mention this as a common detail: Ovid, A. A. I. 214; Property. V. 1, 32). Both the chariot and the horses were adorned with laurel (Suet. Aug. 94; Ov. Ex Pont. II. 1.58; Flor. I. 5, 6; zone. VII. eight). In the 3rd century, if a triumph was celebrated over the Parthians ( triumphus persicus), the chariot was driven by four elephants ( Vita Alex. Sev. 57, 4; Gord. Tert. 27, 9; and cf. coin of Diocletian and Maximian described in Cohen, Medailles Imperiales, VI. with. 479, 3). Pompey unsuccessfully tried to obtain permission to do so during the African triumph (Plut. Pomp. 14: cf. marquardt, Staatsverwaltung, II. with. 586, approx. 7). Incense was burned in front of the chariot (Appian, Pun. 66). The dress of the general (see above about his general character) consisted of a tunic decorated with a floral pattern ( tunica palmata) and a gold-embroidered mantle ( toga picta), both are purple (Plut. aem. Paul. 34; Liv. X. 7, 9). In his right hand he held a laurel branch (Plut. aem. Paul. 32; plin. H. N. XV. § 137), and in the left, an ivory scepter surmounted by an eagle (Dionys. III.61, V.47; Val. Max. IV.4, 5; Juv., X.43). In ancient times his body was apparently painted red (Plin. H. N. XXXIII. § 111, and see above). He had a laurel wreath on his head (Plin. H. N. XV. § 137). Behind him stood a government slave, holding above his head the heavy golden crown of Jupiter in the form of an oak wreath (Juv. X. 39; Plin. H. N. XXXIII. § 11, XXXVIII. § 7; zone. VII. 21; Tertull. de Cor. thirteen). So that this culmination of human and almost divine honors does not have such bad p.897 consequences as pride, invidia, and the evil eye, the commander put on an amulet ( fascinus) or attached it to the chariot, together with a small bell and whip (Plin. H. N. XXVIII. § 39; zone. VII. 21; macrob. Sat. I. 6, 9); and the slave riding behind him whispered in his ear: "Respice post te, hominem te memento" (Tertull. Apollo. 33, confirmed in Arrian, Diss. Epict. III. 24, 85, and Plin. H. N. l. c. : cf. Juv. X. 41). It can hardly be assumed that the slave was present at the triumph of the emperor. On the monuments, Victory is almost always depicted behind the emperor, holding a laurel wreath above his head. Apparently, the triumphant also owned the state chair ( sella), for it is mentioned in connection with other triumphal honors (Liv. x.7, 9; Dio Cass. XLIV.6; Suet. Jul. 76; Mommsen, Staatsr. I. s. 423). The minor children of the victor (both boys and girls) rode with him in the chariot or on horseback (Liv. XLV. 40, 8; Val. Max. V. 7, 1; 10, 2; Tac. Ann. II. 41; Vita M. Ant. Phil. 12, 10; cic. pro Mur. 5, 11; Suet. Tib. 6). His adult sons rode behind (Liv. xlv. 40, 4), after the apparitors (Appian, Pun. 66), along with his legates and tribunes (Cic. in Pis. 25, 60; appian, Mithr. 117). Then sometimes came the Roman citizens whom he had saved from slavery by his victory, in the form of freedmen (Liv. XXX.45, 5; XXXIII.23, 6; XXXIV.52, 12). The procession was completed by the whole mass of infantry in marching order, with spears decorated with laurel (Plin. H. N. XV. § 133), shouting "Io, triumph!" (Varro, L. L. v. 7; Hor. Od. IV. 2, 49; Tibull. II. 6, 121) and singing songs, both with praises and with the grossest obscenities to the general (Liv. IV. 20; 53, 11, &c.; Suet. Jul. 49, 51; mart. I. 5, 3; other references are given in Marquardt, Staatsverw. II. with. 588, approx. 2. See also Munro, Criticisms and Elucidations of Catullus, with. 90).

The procession entered the city through the Triumphal Gate. Here sacrifices were made to certain deities (Joseph. B. J. VII. 5, 4). The procession then passed through the Circus Flaminius and through, or at least past, the theaters in the same area, which held crowds of spectators (Plut. Lucull. 37, Joseph. B. J. l. c.), and probably entered directly into the city through the Carmental Gate, since we know that it crossed the Velabre (apparently the Etruscan street) and the Bull Market (Suet. Jul. 37; cic. Verr. I. 59, 154). Further, the procession went around the Palatine Hill through the Circus Maximus (Cic. l. c. ; Plut. aem. Paul. 32) and along the street between Palatine and Caelium, reaching at the end of the Sacred Way, which led the procession to the Forum (Hor. Od. IV. 2, 35; epod. 7, 8). The route probably ran along the south side of the forum (Jordan, Capitol, Forum, Sacra Via, Berlin, 1881). At the end of the Sacred Way began the Capitoline descent, and as the general approached it, the chief captives were led aside to a nearby prison, and there they were executed (Cic. Verr. v. 30, 77; Liv. XXVI. thirteen; Trebell. Poll. trig. Tyr. 22. Initially, they cut off their heads with an ax, later they strangled them: cf. Liv. XXVI. 13, 15 with Trebell. Poll. trig. Tyr. 22, 8, and see Mommsen, Staatsr. I. 129). Saving the life of such captives was possible only as an exception. The earliest case is Perseus pardoned by Aemilius Paulus (Plut. 37), whose example was followed by Pompey (Appian, Mithr. 117), Tiberius in a Pannonian triumph in 12 CE. e. (Ov. ex Pont. II. 1, 45) and Aurelian in regard to Zenobia (Trebell. Poll. trig. Tyr. 30, 27). The sacrifice in the temple could not begin before the execution had taken place (Joseph. B. J. VII. 5, 6).

Then the commander went up to the Capitol (Alexander Sever went on foot, Vita, 57, 4). When he reached the temple, a laurel branch and wreaths from the fasces were placed on the knees of the god (Sen. Console. ad Helv. ten; plin. H. N. XV. § 40; plin. Pan. eight; Sil. ital. XV. 118; stat. Silv. IV. 1, 41; Pacatus, P aneg. in Theod. 9, 5), and later - a palm branch (cf. Marquardt, Staatsverw. II. with. 589, approx. 2). Then the sacrifice was made. Insignia triumphi, i.e., the most significant booty (for example, the returned banners of Crassus, Dio Cass. LIV. 83, and, undoubtedly, Vara, Tac. Ann. II. 41), were subsequently placed in the temple of Mars the Avenger (Suet. Aug. 29). Finally, the general and the senate feasted at a public feast in the temple (Liv. xlv. 39). It was the custom to invite the consuls to this feast, and then send them a letter asking them not to come, no doubt so that the victor would be the most distinguished person among those assembled (Plut. Quaest. Rom. 80; Val. Max. II. 8, 6). The same feast was given to soldiers and citizens in the temple of Hercules (Plut. Lucull. 37; Athens. V. s. 221f).

All these procedures were generally completed within one day, but when the amount of booty was very large and the troops very numerous, a longer time was required for the presentation. Thus the Macedonian triumph of Flaminius continued for three consecutive days (Liv. XXXIX.52; cf. Plut. aem. Paul. 32).

The honors of the victor did not end on this day. At public spectacles he appeared wearing a laurel wreath (Plin. H. N. XV. § 126; Val. Max. III. 6, 5), and in exceptional cases - in vestis triumphalis(e.g., L. Aemilius Paul and Pompey; Auctor, de Vir. ill. 56; Well. II. 40). There was a custom to give him a place for a house at public expense; such mansions were called triumphales domus(Plin. H. N. XXXVI. § 112). His name was entered in the Triumphal fasts ( C. I. L. I. s. 453); he was allowed to decorate the entrance to his house with trophies (Plin. H. N. XXXV. § 7; cic. Phil. II. 28; Liv. X. 7, 9), and a statue in a laurel wreath, standing in a triumphal wagon, exhibited in the vestibule, transmitted his glory to posterity (Juv. VIII. 3). Finally, after death, his ashes could be buried inside the city walls (Plut. Quaest. Rom. 79; Mommsen, Staatsr. I. s. 426, approx. one).

Triumph on the Alban Mountain (triumphus in Monte Albano) was a procession to the temple of Jupiter Latiarius on the Alban mountain. It was held jure p.898 consularis imperii(Liv. XXXIII.23, 3), sine publica auctoritate(Liv. XLII.21, 7), but it was resorted to only when the senate refused the usual triumph, and was considered an honor of a lower order (Liv. XXXIII.23). Although it was recorded in the Triumphal fasts, it was not tantamount to a triumph in the city, for when Marcellus in 211 BC. e. refused a big triumph, but gave permission for a small one ( ovatio), he nevertheless celebrated a triumph on the Alban mountain on the eve of an ovation (Liv. XXVI.21, 6). The first example of such a triumph was given by G. Papirius Mason in 231 BC. e. (Plin. H. N. XV. § 126; Val. Max. III. 6, 5), and many others followed his example (Liv. XXVI.21, 6; XXXIII.23, 3; XLII.21, 7; XLV.38; - Plut. Marc. 22).

Naval triumph (triumphus navalis). - The earliest known was celebrated by G. Duilius for a naval victory over the Carthaginians in 260 BC. e. (Liv. Ep. XVII; Flor. I. 8, 10; plin. H. N. XXXIV. § 20). Other examples are M. Aemilius Paulus in 254 BC. e. (Liv. XLII. 20, 1), G. Lutatius Catulus in 241 BC. e. (Val. Max. II.8, 2), Sq. Fabius Labeo in 189 BC e. (Liv. XXXVII.60, 6), Gn. Octavius ​​in 167 BC e. (Liv. xlv. 42, 2); and see Triumphal fasts to 497, 498, 513, 526. Nothing is known about specific features. G. Duilius and M. Aemilius Paulus erected rostral columns in memory of their victories (Liv. XLII.20, 1).

Camp Triumph (triumphus Castrensis). - Procession of soldiers through the camp in honor of an officer subordinate to the commander-in-chief, who accomplished a brilliant feat (Liv. vii.36).

In the era of the empire, when the monarch became the sole owner of the empire, and all the commanders were only legates acting under his auspices, the above condition regarding the possession of the empire was strictly observed, and the precedent set by Caesar in favor of his legates was followed only by Augustus at the beginning of his reign (Dio Cass. LIV. 12; Suet. Aug. 38). Even among holders of a subordinate proconsular empire, triumph became rare and then granted only if they were members of the imperial family (Dio Cass. LIV. 24 gives 14 BC as the date of the change when Agrippa renounced the triumph, as he entered in BC 19, Dio Cass. liv. 11). Triumphs were celebrated by Tiberius (BC 7, Vell. II.97, Dio Cass. LV.6; and AD 12, Vell. II.121, Suet. Tib. 20), Germanicus (A.D. 26)

In his youth, Maximilian happened to be a prisoner of the city of Bruges. It would seem impossible to humiliate the sovereign more. However, Venice succeeded. The Republic of Venice did not allow Maximilian to attend his own coronation in Rome. More precisely, the Venetians declared that they would allow our hero to pass through the territory controlled by them only if he traveled as a private person, without an army.

Here the reader may ask: how did Maximilian's father Friedrich, known for his chronic lack of funds and authority, manage to be crowned in Rome? That's right: he went to the Apennines on a private visit. In the time of Frederick, titles had so little practical content that if someone wanted to be emperor, then he could well become one in private. Since then, something has changed. An imperial reform was carried out, which established a kind of state in Germany. The title of Maximilian was a matter not only of his personal prestige, but also of national importance.

And then he decided to do without the coronation in Rome. On February 8, 1508, in Trient, Cardinal Matheus Lang, a close friend and adviser of Maximilian, proclaimed him elected emperor Holy Roman Empire. Since then, the election of the Electors has been considered a sufficient basis for the use of the imperial title. The order of things established by Maximilian was preserved until the time of Napoleon. There were no more coronations in Rome. By the way, it was under Maximilian that the name "Holy Roman Empire" words have been added "German nation".

Meanwhile, the Venetians took part of Istria and Friul from Maximilian. Venice was at the pinnacle of power and did not intend to tolerate the presence of competitors in the Adriatic Sea. Republic of St. Mark was not afraid of anyone or anything. She herself was able to instill fear in anyone. The Europeans feared that the Venetians would crush the entire continent. It seems that I already wrote somewhere that all conspiracy theories dedicated to Jewish, Masonic, Jesuit, etc. global conspiracies, goes back to anti-Venetian pamphlets at the turn of the 15th-16th centuries.

Jacopo de Barbari, map of Venice, 1500. The map took three years to complete. With dimensions of 2.8 x 1.3 m, this six-board engraving was the largest graphic work of its time. The impression made by the map of Venice on Europe is va l o its dimensions. After 1503, Barbary moved to Flanders and worked for the children of Maximilian, first for Philip the Handsome, and after his death for Marguerite.

To prevent the Venetian threat, on December 10, 1508, a league was created in Cambrai, which included Emperor Maximilian, Pope Julius II, King of Spain Ferdinand of Aragon, King Louis XII of France, Duke of Savoy Charles III, etc. One of the main organizers of the Cumbrian League was the daughter of Maximilian Margarita, who lived under the French, and under the Spanish, and at the Savoyard courts and found friends everywhere. The allies drew up a plan for the division of the Venetian possessions, and the pope declared the Venetians enemies of the church.

Louis XII utterly defeated the Venetian troops at Agnandello. But it turned out that it was easier for Venice to recover from defeat than for France to take advantage of the fruits of victory. It is said that the Cardinal of Rouen once remarked: "The Italians do not understand anything in military affairs", to which Machiavelli immediately replied: "The French don't understand politics". The Venetian army consisted of condottieri, and the death of the army meant for the republic only the loss of one risky investment. Venice immediately hired a new army for itself, but France had nowhere to hire Venetian-level diplomacy.

A compromise there, a territorial concession here, separate negotiations here ... The French themselves did not notice how nothing was left of the Cambrian League. The war did not stop, but in 1511 only the Duchy of Ferrara remained an ally of France, and the Republic of Venice, the Holy Roman Empire, the Kingdom of Spain, Switzerland and the Pope were already part of the Holy League created to combat French aggression. However, the description of the Italian wars that dragged on for half a century is not my intention, and therefore we will return to Maximilian.

Left: Emperor Maximilian I. Portrait by Albrecht Dürer. On right: Albrecht Durer, self-portrait.

In December 1510, at the age of thirty-eight, his second wife, Bianca Maria Sforza, died. Her death, unlike many other deaths in this story, can hardly be called unexpected. If the marriage of Maximilian's parents was not happy, then his own second marriage was some kind of monstrous parody of their misfortune. Maximilian married money and seems to have been disgusted by his wife. This is usually explained by the fact that he compared her with Mary of Burgundy, a comparison with which in his eyes no one could stand. But this is not a completely satisfactory explanation. Maximilan had over thirty illegitimate children, and he treated their mothers well. But Bianca is bad. So bad it couldn't be worse.

They say that on their wedding night, Maximilian left his bride alone and went hunting. Having squandered Bianchi's dowry, he completely lost interest in her. In addition, Sforza had problems - the French expelled the family from Milan for a while, and it moved to Innsbruck. Now Maximilian looked at his Milanese relatives not as valuable allies, but as a burden. He neglected Bianca to such an extent that he literally left her as collateral with his creditors. He didn't even invite her to his own coronation in Trient. She walked around in shabby dresses and sometimes experienced problems with lodging for the night - any owner of an inn in Germany knew that Maximilian did not pay her bills. Maximilian seated his mistresses at the table next to his wife. To make it not enough, he infected her with syphilis.

Like many other unfortunate women, the Roman Empress, who had the blood of Sforza, Visconti, Bourbons and Valois in her veins, tried to reduce her suffering by eating stress. According to the official version, she died after eating too much snails. Maximilian was absent from her funeral.

Our hero was still full of energy and plans. In September 1511 he wrote to his daughter Margarita: "Tomorrow I will send Matheus Lang to Rome to conclude an agreement with the pope on the election of me coadjutor. This will certainly allow me after his death to receive the throne of the pope, take the priesthood and be declared a saint. When I die, I will be honored as such, although I myself I don't think so of myself..."

Maximilian really intended to add a papal title to the imperial title. It is said that during his life he returned to this plan a total of five times. There were no canonical obstacles for the emperor to occupy the papal throne - people who did not have the priesthood became popes before. Being elected pope, like being elected emperor, was only a matter of money. Matheus Lang led the negotiations in Rome, the Fuggers estimated the sums needed to bribe the conclave. In the end, the idea had to be abandoned - the Medici could pay the cardinals more than the Fuggers, and after the death of Julius II, not Maximilian I, but Leo X became pope.

Left: Julius II (real name - Giuliano della Rovere). Right: Leo X (real name - Giuliano Medici). Ceremonial portraits say little about the real nature of the Renaissance popes - life-lovers, warriors and patrons of the arts. They say that once, already at the age of sixty-seven, Julius II, during the assault on an enemy fortress in armor, climbed a ladder to the wall and, brandishing a sword, shouted that he would excommunicate anyone who stood in his way. He also created the Swiss Guard (the form for which Raphael Santi came up with) and began the construction of the Cathedral of St. Peter. Leo X, son of Lorenzo the Magnificent, a lover of hunting and theatrical performances, became famous for the phrase "Let us enjoy the papacy that God has given us" and established the Roman curia. His pontificate is considered the pinnacle of the Renaissance.

In the last years of his life, Maximilian was concerned about the reputation with which he would go down in history. The emperor wrote two autobiographical books - "Grateful" and "Wise King". How great was his direct contribution to these works, it is difficult to say - they were created with the assistance of a whole team of court humanists. The main plots of Maximilian's work were his own heroism and love for Mary - he described his trip from Austria to Burgundy as a journey full of incredible difficulties and adventures. On the way to the lady of the heart, the lyrical hero of Maximilian conquered the elements, endured cold and heat, overcame mountains and water barriers, fought against insidious enemies and fought monsters.

However, the matter was not limited to books. Maximilian was a true Renaissance prince. He felt like a real Roman emperor in the ancient spirit and wanted to organize triumphal processions, ride in trumpet chariots and build triumphal arches. He did not have the funds to carry out such undertakings. But he had Albrecht Dürer, the greatest woodcut artist who ever set foot on European soil.

Dürer became the court painter of Maximilian in 1512. In the same year, he began work on a unique project designed to surpass not only the "Map of Venice" by Jacopo de Barbari, but in general everything that until then had been created by the human hand on paper. Although Maximilian could not defeat the Venetians either on land or at sea, he could overshadow them in the memory of his descendants.

Albrecht Dürer, in collaboration with architect Jorg Kölderer, historian Johann Stabius, artist Albrecht Altdorfer and others, painted for Maximilian the most magnificent triumphal arch in the world. More precisely, he printed it from 192 separate boards. The result was an engraving three and a half meters long and three and a half meters high. In 1515 Maximilian's Arc de Triomphe was completed.

No one ever intended to build this mega-arch in real life (and it was impossible). This architectural project was intended only for paper. It was an unrestricted flight of fancy, pure virtual reality. The arch was decorated with images of Maximilian's ancestors (including Julius Caesar, Alexander the Great and Hercules), scenes from his family life, historical paintings, symbols of various virtues, Egyptian hieroglyphs and texts explaining in detail what exactly is depicted here.

Triumphal Arch of Maximilian. Apparently the most monumental woodcut in history. It was assumed that graphics with an area of ​​10 square meters would be exhibited in imperial palaces, city halls and other public places.

The triumphal procession of Maximilian followed the Arc de Triomphe. An even more megalomaniac project - consisting of more than one hundred and thirty blocks of graphics 54 meters long. An absolutely fantastic procession, in which musicians, knights, Ladsknechts, German princes with their coats of arms, Indians from Calcutta riding elephants, Indians from America, someone riding a griffin, people with portraits of Maximilian's ancestors, people with images of his victories, Mary of Burgundy, Kunz von der Rosen, allegorical figures of muses and virtues, exotic animals and cooks with pans and pots. Here are a few snippets that give an idea of ​​Maximilian's virtual reality:

Triumphal procession of Maximilian. A fragment depicting the main event in the life of Maximilian - his wedding with Mary of Burgundy (Bianca Sforza was not lucky here either). Alas, I did not come across a colored version of this fragment on the Web.

Triumphal procession of Maximilian. A fragment in which the participants of the procession carry the image of the Venetian War. Pay attention to the Venetian lion fleeing from the imperial troops at sea. A procession that did not take place in reality, the participants of which give out defeat for victory. Hoax falsification. I love stories like this.

Triumphal procession of Maximilian. Fragment depicting the German princes.

Triumphal procession of Maximilian. A fragment depicting an unknown person. Many cartouches on the "Triumphal Procession" gape in blackness. In total, over a hundred such black holes can be counted in this gigantic image. According to the official version, the inscriptions were cut out last, and some cartouches were simply left blank, since the whole project was never completed. Novochronologists claim that the inscriptions on the cartouches were smeared over to hide a great secret: Maximilian was called Vasily Ivanovich (or Ivan Vasilyevich? - I always confuse the details), and he was the ataman-ottoman, the Moscow khan and the Great Mogul.

Finally, looking ahead a little, I will say that later Dürer singled out the Triumphal carriage of Maximilian, originally intended for his Triumphal procession, into a separate work. Together with the Arch and the Procession, the Carriage forms a triad reflecting the virtual greatness of Maximilian.

Triumphal carriage of Maximilian. Black and white and color versions. The dimensions of the image are half a meter in height, about two and a half meters in length.

Triumphal carriage of Maximilian. Fragment. The emperor is surrounded by muses, etc. creation. According to the inscriptions decorating the wreaths above the victor's head, he conquered Gaul, Hungary, Bohemia, Germany, Helvetia and Venice.

While in the virtual world Maximilian won one great victory after another, in reality things went as follows.

In 1513, the Second Battle of Guinegate took place, perhaps known to you as the Battle of the Spurs. In preparing this post, I discovered that if the First Battle of Ginegate usually appears in Russian-language sources under its real name, then the Second, at the whim of translators, turned into the Battle of Gingate. This is a clear anglicism of the Soviet era (in pre-revolutionary Russian publications, the form Ginegat was used). Apparently, he appeared due to the fact that the British of Henry VIII also participated in this battle on the side of Maximilian. For Maximilan, this was the second victory over the same opponent on the same field. The first time he defeated the French was at Guinegate thirty-four years earlier. However, some sources go so far in their Anglophilia that they do not mention his participation in the battle of 1513 at all, attributing this victory entirely to the British.

On June 22, 1515, one of the most luxurious and significant weddings in world history was played in Vienna. Maximilian repeated his Spanish success. The wedding was again double, and this time his grandchildren married the children of Vladislav II Jagiellon, King of Bohemia and Hungary. The Jagiellonian bride was Anna, and the Jagiellonian groom was Louis. The Habsburg side was represented by Maria (and negotiations on her marriage began even before the birth of her fiancé Louis) and ... one of the princes (at the time of the marriage it was not yet decided which of them was Charles or Ferdinand).

Maximilian himself walked to the altar in Vienna. Once upon a time, friends stood in for him at two of his weddings. Now he has played the part of the groom at his grandson's wedding. On the basis that Charles was the heir to the Spanish throne, and Ferdinand the Neapolitan one, Maximilian, right at the altar, proclaimed Anna, the bride of a not quite specific groom, queen of an not quite specific kingdom.

In 1515, Anna was twelve, Ferdinand was thirteen, Louis was nine, and Mary was ten. At the wedding of these two children's couples, almost everyone who meant something in Europe was present.

Another example of Maximilian's virtual reality. This family portrait by Bernhard Striegel depicts people who, for chronological reasons, could never come together in such a composition. The adults in the top row are Maximilian, his son Philip the Handsome, and Mary of Burgundy, who forever remained in Maximilian's heart. The children below are Philip's sons Ferdinand and Karl of Habsburg, as well as his son-in-law Ludovik Jagiellon. The painting was created in 1515. By that time, Philip had been dead for ten years, and Mary for thirty years.

Meanwhile, Anna of Brittany, who had formally been the wife of Maximilian in childhood, and then became the wife of his enemies Charles VIII and Louis XII, undertook an intrigue by trying to marry her daughter Claude to Maximilian's grandson Charles (Anna was pregnant fourteen times, but only two of her daughters lived to adult age). Nothing came of this, and Claude had to marry Francis of Angouleme. Soon Louis died, and Francis, at the age of twenty-one, became King Francis I of France. He had the idea to take the throne of the Holy Roman Emperor.

Francis invaded the Duchy of Milan. Power in Milan belonged to Massimiliano Sforza, who was considered a puppet of his violent Swiss mercenaries. On September 14, 1515, in the famous battle of Marignano, Francis defeated the Swiss, who had enjoyed a reputation for forty years of invincibility, and occupied Milan.

Maximilian set out to recapture the city. He set out on a campaign at the head of his Landsknechts and Swiss. But he didn't make it to Milan. As usual, he did not have enough money to pay the soldiers. The Swiss rebelled first. Maximilian tried to settle accounts with them with his table silver. Upon learning of this, the landsknechts rebelled. Ironically, the sovereign, who in virtual reality surpassed the triumphs of the Roman Caesars, knew in life what it meant to be a soldier's emperor. The army collapsed, and Maximilian returned home with a handful of associates.

Ferdinand of Aragon died in January 1516. Maximilian's grandson Charles became king of Spain under the name Carlos I. A few months later, Charles concluded a peace treaty with Francis. A year later, he publicly declared that, in view of the state of his grandfather's health, everyone should consider him as the imminent heir to the imperial throne.

Health really began to fail Maximilian. Age, and old wounds, and diseases acquired during a turbulent life affected. He began to carry the coffin with him everywhere and think about the soul.

Maximilian I of Habsburg died on January 12, 1519, two months before the age of sixty. After his death, his body was treated as he ordered - his hair was cut, his teeth pulled out and subjected to scourging. The emperor, who spent his whole life caring about how to secure glory for himself through the ages, also found a way to repent, posthumously punishing his body for all the sins he had committed.

Posthumous portrait of Maximilian.

Maximilian was buried in Neustadt. His actual tomb is minimalist and in stark contrast to the empty cenotaph in Innsbruck. By the way, the Innsbruck tomb, the apotheosis of luxury, looks a little different if its visitor knows that shortly before his death, Maximilian could not stay in Innsbruck for the night - in this city everyone simply closed the doors in front of the imperial retinue, knowing that the sovereign was insolvent.

Maximilian's heart, in accordance with his last will, was buried in Bruges, next to Mary of Burgundy.

The real grave of Maximilian in Wiener Neustadt

This is the end of the story of Maximilian I of Habsburg, German-Italian-Polish-Portuguese, the last knight and father of the Landsknechts, Archduke of Austria, Duke of Burgundy, King of Rome and Emperor of the Holy Roman Empire. But this is not the end of the story of how the era of city republics was replaced by the era of monarchies and territorial states. At the time of our hero's death, many independent cities were still at the zenith of their glory, and the concept of the state remained rather ephemeral. However, Maximilian had heirs - his grandsons Charles and Ferdinand. The struggle for peace continues...

(NOT END YET)