Sections of metrology theoretical practical and legislative. The structure of theoretical metrology

Science starts from

how to start measuring.

Exact science is unthinkable without measure.

DI. Mendeleev

In practical life, man everywhere deals with measurements. At each step there are measurements of such quantities as length, weight, time, etc.

Measurements are one of the most important ways of understanding nature by man. They give a quantitative description of the surrounding world, revealing to man the laws that operate in nature. All branches of technology could not exist without an extensive system of measurements that determine both all technological processes, their control and management, and the properties and quality of manufactured products.

At present, the following definition of measurement has been established: measurement is the determination of the value of a physical quantity empirically using special technical means.

The branch of science that studies measurements is metrology.

The word "metrology" is formed from two Greek words: metron - measure and logos - teaching. The literal translation of the word "metrology" is the doctrine of measures. For a long time, metrology remained mainly a descriptive science of various measures and the relationships between them. Since the end of the last century, thanks to the progress of the physical sciences, metrology has received significant development. A major role in the development of modern metrology as one of the sciences of the physical cycle was played by D. I. Mendeleev, who led domestic metrology in the period 1892-1907.

Metrology in its modern sense is the science of measurements, methods, means of ensuring their unity and ways to achieve the required accuracy.

The main tasks of metrology (according to RMG 29–99) are:

— establishment of units of physical quantities and state standards;

— development of the theory, methods and means of measurement and control;

— ensuring the uniformity of measurements;

— development of methods for assessing errors, the state of measuring and control instruments;

— development of methods for transferring unit sizes from standards or exemplary measuring instruments to working measuring instruments.

Modern metrology includes three components: legal metrology, fundamental (scientific, theoretical) and practical (applied) metrology. In theoretical metrology, the fundamental foundations of this science are being developed. The subject of legal metrology is the establishment of mandatory technical and legal requirements for the use of units of physical quantities, standards, methods and measuring instruments, aimed at ensuring the unity and necessary accuracy of measurements. Practical metrology covers the issues of practical application of developments in theoretical and provisions of legal metrology.

Metrology- the science of measurements, methods and means of ensuring their unity and ways to achieve the required accuracy. This definition is given by all Russian regulatory legal acts from GOST 16263-70 to the recently adopted recommendations RMG 29-2013.

The International Dictionary of Metrology (VIM3) provides a broader definition of the term "metrology" as the science of measurement and its application, which includes all theoretical and practical aspects of measurement, regardless of their uncertainty and field of use.

Reference. GOST 16263-70 “GSI. Metrology. Basic terms and definitions" was effective from 01/01/1971, replaced from 01/01/2001 by RMG 29-99 with the same name.
RMG 29-2013 “GSI. Metrology. Basic terms and definitions” - Recommendations on interstate standardization (introduced on 01/01/2015 instead of RMG 29-99). They have been updated and harmonized with the VIM3-2008 dictionary (3rd edition). Its full title is International Dictionary of Metrology: Basic and General Concepts and Related Terms.

In simple terms, metrology deals with the measurement of physical quantities that characterize all kinds of material objects, processes or phenomena. Her area of interest includes the development and practical application of measuring technologies, tools and equipment, as well as means and methods for processing the information received. In addition, metrology provides legal regulation of the actions of official structures and individuals, one way or another connected with the performance of measurements in their activities, studies and systematizes historical experience.

The word "metrology" itself comes from the Greek words "metron" - measure and "logos" - teaching. At first, the doctrine developed in this way, as a science of measures and relationships between various measures of measures (used in different countries), and was descriptive (empirical).

Measurements of new modern quantities, expansion of measurement ranges, increase in their accuracy, all this contributes to the creation of the latest technologies, standards and measuring instruments (SI), the improvement of ways of understanding nature by man, the knowledge of the quantitative characteristics of the surrounding world.

It has been established that at present there is a need to measure more than two thousand parameters and physical quantities, but so far, on the basis of available tools and methods, measurements of about 800 quantities are being made. The development of new types of measurements remains an urgent problem today. Metrology absorbs the latest scientific achievements and occupies a special place among the technical sciences, because for scientific and technological progress and their improvement, metrology must be ahead of other areas of science and technology.

Not a single technical specialist can do without knowledge of metrology (about 15% of the cost of social labor falls on measurements). No industry can function without the use of its measurement system. It is on the basis of measurements that the management of technological processes and the quality control of products are carried out. According to experts in advanced industrial countries, measurements and related operations are estimated at 3-9% of the gross national product.

Goals and objectives of metrology

The goals of metrology as a science are to ensure the uniformity of measurements (OEI); extraction of quantitative information about the properties of an object, the surrounding world, about processes with a given accuracy and reliability.

The goals of practical metrology are the metrological support of production, i.e. establishment and application of scientific and organizational foundations, technical means, rules and norms necessary for the NEI and the required accuracy of measurements.

Metrology tasks:

implementation of state policy in the OEI;
development of a new and improvement of the existing regulatory framework for the OEI and metrological activities;
formation of units of quantities (U), systems of units, their unification and recognition of legality;
development, improvement, content, comparison and application of state primary standards of units of quantities;
improvement of methods (principles of measurements) of transferring units of measurement from the standard to the measured object;
development of methods for transferring the sizes of units of quantities from primary and working measurement standards to working SI;
maintaining the Federal Information Fund on the OEI and providing the documents and information contained therein;
provision of public services for the NEI in accordance with the scope of accreditation;
establishment of rules, regulations for verification of measuring instruments;
development, improvement, standardization of methods and SI, methods for determining and increasing their accuracy;
development of methods for assessing errors, the state of MI and control;
improvement of the general theory of measurements.

Reference. Earlier metrology tasks were formulated in GOST 16263-70.

In accordance with the tasks set, metrology is subdivided on theoretical, applied, legislative and historical metrology.

Theoretical or fundamental metrology deals with the development of theory, problems of measuring quantities, their units, methods of measurement. Theoretical metrology works on common problems that arise when performing measurements in a particular field of technology, the humanities, and even at the junction of many, sometimes the most diverse areas of knowledge. Metrologists-theorists can deal, for example, with the measurement of linear dimensions, volume and gravity in n-dimensional space, develop methods for instrumental assessment of the radiation intensity of cosmic bodies in relation to the conditions of interplanetary flights, or create completely new technologies that increase the intensity of the process, the level of accuracy and its other parameters, improve the technical means involved in it, etc. One way or another, almost any undertaking in any activity begins with a theory, and only after such study does it move into the sphere of specific application.

Applied or practical metrology deals with issues of metrological support, practical use of the developments of theoretical metrology, implementation of the provisions of legal metrology. Its task is to adapt the general provisions and theoretical calculations of the previous section to a clearly defined, highly specialized industrial or scientific problem. So, if it is required to assess the strength of the motor shaft, calibrate a large number of bearing rollers, or provide, for example, comprehensive metrological control in the process of laboratory research, practitioners will select the appropriate technology from a large number of already known ones, rework, and possibly supplement it with respect to to these conditions, determine the necessary equipment and tools, the number and qualifications of personnel, as well as analyze many other technical aspects of a particular process.

legal metrology establishes mandatory legal and technical requirements for the use of standards, units of quantities, methods and measuring instruments aimed at ensuring the uniformity of measurements (UI) and their required accuracy. This science was born at the intersection of technical and social knowledge and is designed to provide a unified approach to measurements performed in all areas without exception. Legal metrology also directly borders on standardization, which ensures the compatibility of technologies, measuring instruments and other attributes of metrological support both at the domestic and international levels. The area of interests of legal metrology includes work with measurement standards, and issues of verification of measuring instruments and equipment, and training of specialists, as well as many other issues. The main legal document regulating activities in this area is the Law of the Russian Federation N 102-FZ "On ensuring the uniformity of measurements" dated June 26, 2008. The regulatory framework also includes a number of by-laws, regulations and technical regulations that specify the legal requirements for certain areas and activities of legal metrologists.

Historical metrology is designed to study and systematize the units and systems of measurement used in the past, technological and instrumental support for monitoring the parameters of physical objects and processes, historical organizational and legal aspects, statistics and much more. This section also explores the history and evolution of monetary units, traces the relationship between their systems, formed in the conditions of different societies and cultures. Historical metrology, in parallel with numismatics, studies monetary units already because in the period of the birth of measurements as such, the elementary foundations of cost estimation methods and other parameters that were completely unrelated to monetary calculations largely repeated each other.

On the other hand, historical metrology is not a purely social branch of science, because often with its help lost, but, nevertheless, relevant today measuring technologies are restored, development paths are tracked on past experience and promising changes are predicted in this area, new ones are developed. engineering solutions. Often, progressive methods for assessing any parameters are the development of already known ones, revised taking into account the new possibilities of modern science and technology. The study of history is necessary to work with measurement standards in relation to their development and improvement, to ensure the compatibility of traditional and advanced methods, as well as to systematize practical developments in order to use them in the future.

Excerpts from the history of the development of metrology

For translating all kinds of measurements, timing, etc. humanity needed to create a system of various measurements to determine the volume, weight, length, time, etc. Therefore, metrology, as a field of practical activity, originated in antiquity.

The history of metrology is part of the history of the development of reason, productive forces, statehood and trade, it matured and improved along with them. So already under the Grand Duke Svyatoslav Yaroslavovich in Russia, the “exemplary measure” began to be used - the “golden belt” of the prince. Samples were kept in churches and monasteries. Under the Novgorod prince Vsevolod, it was prescribed to compare measures annually, for failure to comply, punishment was applied - up to the death penalty.

The "Dvinskaya charter" of 1560 by Ivan the Terrible regulated the rules for storing and transferring the size of bulk substances - octopus. The first copies were in the orders of the Moscow state, temples and churches. At that time, work on the supervision of measures and their verification was carried out under the supervision of the Pomernaya hut and the Great Customs.

Peter I allowed English measures (feet and inches) to circulate in Russia. Tables of measures and correlations between Russian and foreign measures were developed. The use of measures in trade, in mining mines and factories, and in mints was controlled. The Admiralty Board took care of the correct use of goniometers and compasses.

In 1736, the Commission of Weights and Measures was formed. The initial measure of length was a copper arshin and a wooden sazhen. Pound bronze gilded weight - the first legalized state standard. Iron arshins were made by order of Empress Elizabeth Petrovna in 1858.

May 8, 1790 in France adopted as a unit of length meter - one forty-millionth part of the earth's meridian. (It was officially introduced in France by decree of December 10, 1799.)

In Russia, in 1835, the standards of mass and length were approved - the platinum pound and the platinum fathom (7 English feet). 1841 - the year of the opening of the Depot of exemplary weights and measures in Russia.

On May 20, 1875, the Metric Convention was signed by 17 states, including Russia. International and national prototypes of the kilogram and meter have been created. (It is on May 20 that Metrologist's Day is celebrated).

Since 1892, the Depot of exemplary weights and measures was headed by the famous Russian scientist D.I. Mendeleev. The period from 1892 to 1918 is usually called the Mendeleev's epoch in metrology.

In 1893, on the basis of the Depot, the Main Chamber of Weights and Measures was established - the metrological institute, where tests and verification of various measuring instruments were carried out. (Mendeleev headed the Chamber until 1907). At present it is the All-Russian Research Institute of Metrology named after DIMendeleev.

On the basis of the Regulations on Weights and Measures of 1899, another 10 calibration tents were opened in different cities of Russia.

The 20th century, with its discoveries in mathematics and physics, turned M into a science of measurement. Today, the state and formation of metrological support largely determines the level of industry, trade, science, medicine, defense and development of the state as a whole.

The metric system of measures and weights was introduced by a decree of the Council of People's Commissars of the RSFSR of September 14, 1918 (the "normative stage" in Russian metrology began with it). Accession to the International Metric Convention took place in 1924, as well as the creation of a standardization committee in Russia.

1960 - The "International System of Units" was created. In the USSR, it has been used since 1981 (GOST 8.417-81). 1973 - the State System for Ensuring the Uniformity of Measurements (GSI) was approved in the USSR.

1993 adopted: the first law of the Russian Federation "On ensuring the uniformity of measurements", the laws of the Russian Federation "On standardization" and "On certification of products and services". Responsibility for violation of legal norms and mandatory requirements of standards in the field of uniformity of measurements and metrological support has been established.

	Metrology is the science of measurements, methods and means of ensuring the uniformity of measurements and ways to achieve the required accuracy, as well as the field of knowledge and type of activity related to measurements
	Theoretical metrology is a branch of metrology that deals with fundamental research, the creation of a system of units of measurement, physical constants, the development of new measurement methods
	Applied (practical) metrology deals with the practical application of the results of theoretical studies in the field of metrology
	Legal metrology includes a set of rules and norms that have the rank of legal provisions and are under the control of the state. These rules and regulations ensure the uniformity of measurements
	The unity of measurements is such a state of measurements in which their results are expressed in legal units and measurement errors are known with a given probability. The unity of measurements is necessary in order to be able to compare the results of measurements performed in different places, at different times, using different methods and measuring instruments.
	Metrological supervision is the technical and administrative activity of competent persons and authorities, the purpose of which is to control compliance with metrological laws and regulations.

A person is born without a name yet, but his height and weight immediately become known. From the first minutes of his life, he has to deal with a ruler, scales, a thermometer. The search for a relationship between the measured quantity and the unit of this quantity is measurement. Measurement is not limited to physical quantities, any imaginable entity can be measured, such as the degree of uncertainty, consumer confidence, or the rate at which bean prices fall.

Measurement in physics and industry is the process of comparing the physical quantities of real objects and events. Standard objects and events are used as units of comparison, and the result of the comparison is represented by at least two numbers, where one number shows the relationship between the measured value and the unit of comparison, and the second number estimates the statistical uncertainty, or measurement error (in a philosophical sense). The unit of length, for example, can be the length of a person's foot (foot), and the length of a boat can be expressed in feet. So a measurement is a comparison with a standard. Measures are the standard for measurements. Determining the quantitative characteristics of an object by measurement is based on the existence of explicit or implicit measures. If I say I'm 20, I'm giving the measurement without giving the applicable standard. I can mean that I am 20 years old. In this case, the measure is the year.

The history of the development of measurements is one of the sections of the history of science and technology. The meter was standardized as a unit of length after the French Revolution, and has since been adopted by most of the world. In the Russian Federation, the metric system of measurements is used. We are used to kilograms, liters and centimeters. But the metric system we use is a little over a hundred years old. On May 21, 1875, it was approved in France and became mandatory for all states. In many countries, ancient measures of weight, length and volume are still used today. The United States and the United Kingdom are in the process of transitioning to the SI system.

The measurement of many quantities is very difficult and inaccurate. Difficulties may be associated with uncertainty or limited time for measurement. It is very difficult to measure, for example, knowledge, emotions and feelings of a person.

Metrology deals with the study of measurements. It permeates all spheres of human activity, reflects the development of science and technology, the relationship of business entities, interstate relationships and, in general, indicates the level of civilization.

The main task of metrology is to ensure the uniformity of measurements, which has always been the most important state function.

As noted above, theoretical metrology is the main branch of metrology. Basic representations of metrology. As in any science, in metrology it is necessary to formulate the basic concepts, terms and postulates, to develop the doctrine of physical units and methodology. This section is especially important in view of the fact that certain areas of measurement are based on specific ideas and, in theoretical terms, areas develop in isolation. Under these conditions, the insufficient development of the basic ideas makes it necessary to solve similar problems, which, in fact, are general, anew in each area.

"Basic concepts and terms". This subsection deals with the generalization and clarification of the concepts that have developed in certain areas of measurement, taking into account the specifics of metrology. The main task is to create a unified system of basic concepts of metrology, which should serve as the basis for its development. The value of the system of concepts is determined by the significance of the measurement theory itself and by the fact that this system stimulates the interpenetration of methods and results developed in individual areas of measurement.

"Postulates of Metrology". In this subsection, the axiomatic construction of the theoretical foundations of metrology is developed, such postulates are singled out, on the basis of which it is possible to build a meaningful and complete theory and derive important practical consequences.

"The doctrine of physical quantities". The main objective of the subsection is to build a unified PV system, i.e. the choice of the basic quantities of the system and the connection equations for determining the derived quantities. The PV system serves as the basis for building a system of PV units, the rational choice of which is important for the successful development of the theory and practice of metrological support.

“Measurement Methodology”. The subsection develops the scientific organization of measuring processes. The issues of metrological methodology are very significant, since it combines measurement areas that are different in the physical nature of the measured quantities and measurement methods. This creates certain difficulties in the systematization and integration of concepts, methods and experience gained in various areas of measurement. The main areas of work on the methodology include:

1) rethinking the fundamentals of measuring technology and metrology in the context of a significant update of the arsenal of methods and measuring instruments and the widespread introduction of microprocessor technology;
2) structural analysis of measuring processes from a system standpoint;
3) development of fundamentally new approaches to the organization of the measurement procedure.

Theory of unity of measurements. (The theory of reproduction of units of physical quantities and transfer of their sizes.) This section is traditionally central in theoretical metrology. It includes: the theory of PV units, the theory of initial measuring instruments (standards) and the theory of transferring the sizes of PV units.

"Theory of units of physical quantities". The main goal of the subsection is to improve the units of PV within the framework of the existing system of quantities, which consists in clarifying and redefining the units. Another task is the development and improvement of the system of PV units, i.e. measurement of composition and definitions of basic units. Work in this direction is carried out constantly on the basis of the use of new physical phenomena and processes.

“Theory of initial measuring instruments (standards)”. This subsection discusses the issues of creating a rational system of standards of PV units that provide the required level of measurement uniformity. A promising direction in the improvement of standards is the transition to standards based on stable natural physical processes. For standards of basic units, it is fundamentally important to achieve the highest possible level for all metrological characteristics.

“The theory of transferring the sizes of units of physical quantities”. The subject of the study of the subsection is the algorithms for transferring the sizes of PV units during their centralized and decentralized reproduction. These algorithms should be based on both metrological and technical and economic indicators.

The theory of construction of measuring instruments. The section summarizes the experience of specific sciences in the field of constructing measuring instruments and methods. In recent years, the knowledge accumulated in the development of electronic measuring instruments of electrical and especially non-electric quantities has become increasingly important. This is due to the rapid development of microprocessor and computer technology and its active use in the construction of SI, which opens up new possibilities for processing results. An important task is the development of new and improvement of known measuring transducers.

Theory of measurement accuracy. This section of metrology summarizes the methods developed in specific areas of measurement. It consists of three subsections: the theory of errors, the theory of accuracy of measuring instruments and the theory of measuring procedures.

"Theory of Errors". This subsection is one of the central ones in metrology, since the results of measurements are objective to the extent that their errors are correctly estimated. The subject of the theory of errors is the classification of measurement errors, the study and description of their properties. The historical division of errors into random and systematic, although it causes fair criticism, nevertheless, continues to be actively used in metrology. As a well-known alternative to such a division of errors, the description of errors developed recently on the basis of the theory of non-stationary random processes can be considered. An important part of the subsection is the theory of error summation.

“Theory of accuracy of measuring instruments”. The subsection includes: the theory of errors of measuring instruments, principles and methods for determining and standardizing the metrological characteristics of measuring instruments, methods for analyzing their metrological reliability.

The theory of measurement instrument errors is the most detailed developed in metrology. Significant knowledge has also been accumulated in specific areas of measurements; on their basis, general methods for calculating SI errors have been developed. At present, due to the complication of SI, the development of microprocessor measuring devices, the problem of calculating the errors of digital SI in general and measuring systems and measuring and computing complexes in particular has become relevant.

The principles and methods for determining and standardizing the metrological characteristics of measuring instruments are well developed. However, they require modification taking into account the specifics of metrology and, first of all, the close connection between the determination of the metrological characteristics of measuring instruments and their standardization. Among the problems that have not been completely solved, one should include the determination of the dynamic characteristics of MI and the calibration characteristics of primary measuring transducers. With the improvement of the means of processing electrical measuring signals, the most significant metrological problems are concentrated around the choice of the primary transducer. In view of the variety of operating principles and types of MI, as well as the increase in the required measurement accuracy, the problem of choosing the normalized metrological characteristics of MI arises.

The theory of metrological reliability of measuring instruments in its target orientation is connected with the general theory of reliability. However, the specifics of metrological failures and, above all, the variability in time of their intensity make it impossible to automatically transfer the methods of classical reliability theory to the theory of metrological reliability. It is necessary to develop special methods for analyzing the metrological reliability of measuring instruments.

"Theory of measurement procedures". Increasing the complexity of measurement tasks, the constant growth of requirements for measurement accuracy, the complication of methods and measuring instruments determine the conduct of research aimed at ensuring the rational organization and effective implementation of measurements. In this case, the main role is played by the analysis of measurements as a set of interrelated stages, i.e. like procedures. The subsection includes the theory of measurement methods; measurement information processing methods; theory of measurement planning; analysis of the limiting possibilities of measurements.

Theory of measurement methods is a subsection devoted to the development of new measurement methods and modification of existing ones, which is associated with an increase in requirements for measurement accuracy, ranges, speed, and measurement conditions. With the help of modern measuring instruments, complex combinations of classical methods are implemented. Therefore, the traditional task of improving existing methods and studying their potentialities, taking into account the implementation conditions, remains relevant.

Measurement information processing methods used in metrology are based on methods that are borrowed from mathematics, physics and other disciplines. In this regard, the problem of the validity of the choice and application of one or another method of processing measurement information and the correspondence between the required initial data of the theoretical method and those that the experimenter actually has is relevant.

The theory of measurement planning is an area of metrology that is developing very actively. Among its main tasks are the refinement of the metrological content of measurement planning problems and the justification for borrowing mathematical methods from the general theory of experiment planning.

An analysis of the limiting possibilities of measurements at a given level of development of science and technology makes it possible to solve such a main problem as the study of the limiting accuracy of measurements using specific types or instances of measuring instruments.

metrological cognitive research legislative

theoretical metrology- Section of metrology, the subject of which is the development of the fundamental foundations of metrology. Note Sometimes the term fundamental metrology is used [RMG 29 99] theoretical metrology A section of metrology that studies and ... ... Technical Translator's Handbook

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theoretical metrology- teorinė metrologija statusas T sritis Standartizacija ir metrologija apibrėžtis Metrologijos šaka, susijusi su teoriniais dydžių matavimo vienetų ir jų sistemų aspektais, kurianti matavimo metodus, matavimo rezultatų apdorojimo būmodus ir matavimo… Penkiakalbis aiskinamasis metrologijos terminų žodynas

theoretical metrology- teorinė metrologija statusas T sritis fizika atitikmenys: angl. theoretical metrology vok. theoretische Metrologie, f rus. theoretical metrology, f pranc. metrologie theorique, f … Fizikos terminų žodynas

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Books

Theoretical metrology. Part 1. General theory of measurements. Textbook for universities, Shishkin Igor Fedorovich. In the first part of the textbook, on an axiomatic basis, the general theory of measurements is presented, regardless of their areas and types. The assessment of the quality of measurement information meets the requirements ...
Theoretical metrology, I. F. Shishkin. In the first part of the textbook, on an axiomatic basis, the general theory of measurements is presented, regardless of their areas and types. The assessment of the quality of measurement information meets the requirements ...