Development of geographical knowledge about the earth. geography research discovery

The origin of life on Earth took place about 3.8 billion years ago, when the formation of the earth's crust ended. Scientists have found that the first living organisms appeared in the aquatic environment, and only after a billion years did the first creatures come to the surface of the land.

The formation of terrestrial flora was facilitated by the formation of organs and tissues in plants, the ability to reproduce by spores. Animals also evolved significantly and adapted to life on land: internal fertilization, the ability to lay eggs, and pulmonary respiration appeared. An important stage of development was the formation of the brain, conditioned and unconditioned reflexes, survival instincts. The further evolution of animals provided the basis for the formation of humanity.

The division of the history of the Earth into eras and periods gives an idea of ​​the features of the development of life on the planet in different time periods. Scientists identify particularly significant events in the formation of life on Earth in separate periods of time - eras, which are divided into periods.

There are five eras:

• Archean;
• Proterozoic;
• Paleozoic;
• Mesozoic;
• Cenozoic.

The Archean era began about 4.6 billion years ago, when the planet Earth only began to form and there were no signs of life on it. The air contained chlorine, ammonia, hydrogen, the temperature reached 80 °, the radiation level exceeded the permissible limits, under such conditions the origin of life was impossible.

It is believed that about 4 billion years ago our planet collided with a celestial body, and the result was the formation of the Earth's satellite - the Moon. This event became significant in the development of life, stabilized the axis of rotation of the planet, contributed to the purification of water structures. As a result, the first life originated in the depths of the oceans and seas: protozoa, bacteria and cyanobacteria.

The Proterozoic era lasted from about 2.5 billion years to 540 million years ago. Remains of unicellular algae, mollusks, annelids were found. Soil is starting to form.

The air at the beginning of the era was not yet saturated with oxygen, but in the process of life, the bacteria that inhabit the seas began to release more and more O 2 into the atmosphere. When the amount of oxygen was at a stable level, many creatures took a step in evolution and switched to aerobic respiration.

The Paleozoic era includes six periods.

Cambrian period(530 - 490 million years ago) is characterized by the emergence of representatives of all types of plants and animals. The oceans were inhabited by algae, arthropods, mollusks, and the first chordates (Haikouihthys) appeared. The land remained uninhabited. The temperature remained high.

Ordovician period(490 - 442 million years ago). The first settlements of lichens appeared on land, and the megalograpt (a representative of arthropods) began to come ashore to lay eggs. Vertebrates, corals, sponges continue to develop in the thickness of the ocean.

Silurian(442 - 418 million years ago). Plants come to land, and rudiments of lung tissue form in arthropods. The formation of the bone skeleton in vertebrates is completed, sensory organs appear. Mountain building is underway, different climatic zones are being formed.

Devonian(418 - 353 million years ago). The formation of the first forests, mainly ferns, is characteristic. Bone and cartilaginous organisms appear in water bodies, amphibians began to land on land, new organisms are formed - insects.

Carboniferous period(353 - 290 million years ago). The appearance of amphibians, the sinking of the continents, at the end of the period there was a significant cooling, which led to the extinction of many species.

Permian period(290 - 248 million years ago). The earth is inhabited by reptiles, therapsids appeared - the ancestors of mammals. The hot climate led to the formation of deserts, where only resistant ferns and some conifers could survive.

The Mesozoic era is divided into 3 periods:

Triassic(248 - 200 million years ago). The development of gymnosperms, the appearance of the first mammals. The division of land into continents.

Jurassic period(200 - 140 million years ago). The emergence of angiosperms. The emergence of the ancestors of birds.

Cretaceous period(140 - 65 million years ago). Angiosperms (flowering) became the dominant group of plants. The development of higher mammals, real birds.

The Cenozoic era consists of three periods:

Lower Tertiary period or Paleogene(65 - 24 million years ago). The disappearance of most cephalopods, lemurs and primates appear, later parapithecus and dryopithecus. The development of the ancestors of modern mammalian species - rhinos, pigs, rabbits, etc.

Upper Tertiary or Neogene(24 - 2.6 million years ago). Mammals inhabit land, water and air. The emergence of Australopithecus - the first ancestors of humans. During this period, the Alps, the Himalayas, the Andes were formed.

Quaternary or Anthropogene(2.6 million years ago - today). A significant event of the period is the appearance of man, first Neanderthals, and soon Homo sapiens. The flora and fauna have acquired modern features.

One should distinguish between the history of travel and territorial discoveries on Earth, the history of the development of geographical ideas and ideas, thinking (according to N. N. Baransky), the history and evolution of methods and the development of the theory of geography. The result is the formation of a scientific geographical picture of the world, reflected in geographical laws, patterns, and the presence of large geographical schools.

The history of science is a branch of knowledge that collects and analyzes facts, discoveries, theories, and teachings related to different periods.

The history of geography, according to V. S. Zhekulin (1989), is a branch of geographical science that studies in mutual connection the history of the territorial discovery of the Earth (the history of travel), the history of the development of geographical ideas and the discovery of new geographical laws and patterns. Domestic geographer N. G. Fradkin in the book Geographical discoveries and scientific knowledge of the Earth (1972) gives a modern definition of this concept. If in the past a geographical discovery meant the first visit to an object (continents, islands, straits, volcanoes, lakes, etc.) by representatives of peoples who had a written language, characterized this object or put it on a map, now geographical discovery should be understood as not only a territorial, but also a theoretical discovery in the field of geography, the establishment of new geographical patterns.

Let us give two examples of geographical discoveries of the mid-twentieth century. In 1948, Soviet high-latitude expeditions discovered the underwater Lomonosov Ridge in the Arctic Ocean, which extends from the Novosibirsk Islands through the central part of the ocean to Ellesmere Island in the Canadian Arctic Archipelago and rises above the bottom by an average of 3000 m.

Another example concerns the establishment of the most important pattern of migration of chemical elements in natural landscapes, established in 1961 by AI Perelman. The concept of a geochemical barrier was formulated - a section of the earth's crust in which, at a short distance, there is a sharp decrease in the intensity of migration of elements and, as a result, their increased concentration is observed. Barriers are diverse, as are the types of substance migration. There are mechanical, physicochemical, biogenic and technogenic barriers. Here is a striking example of a physicochemical barrier. In the forest zone, under conditions of oxygen deficiency in the soil, iron is usually divalent and easily migrates in solutions. When the waters come to the surface, under conditions of a sufficient amount of oxygen, iron passes into the trivalent form and precipitates, which is marked with brown spots.

Geography is an ancient science. Reliable geographical information has come down to us since the 4th-3rd millennium BC. e. And they belong to Babylonia, Egypt, Ancient China. The oldest maps and plans, information about travels have been preserved. Like other sciences, geography has gone through several major stages in its development.

Ancient Mediterranean civilization (according to Yu. G. Saushkin), or geography during the period of the slave system. 4th century BC e.- 5th century n. e. Natural science in ancient times was undifferentiated. Therefore, geographers were simultaneously philosophers, astronomers, and mathematicians. Main achievements: a) speculative idea of ​​the Earth as a ball, and then its scientific proof (Miletian or Ionian philosophical school of Thales); b) the creation of maps and plans, the determination of geographical coordinates, the introduction of parallels and meridians, cartographic projections (K. Ptolemy); c) the introduction of Eratosthenes in the III century. BC e. the term geography and the calculation by Eratosthenes of the size of the Earth; d) the beginnings of the differentiation of geographical sciences: hydrology, meteorology, oceanology (Aristotle); Strabo (1st century BC) - the founder of geomorphology and paleogeography; e) formation of regional studies - 17 volumes of Strabo's Geography; f) the first ameliorative hydrotechnical works as forerunners of the transformative (reclamation) direction in geography.

Middle Ages (until the middle of the 15th century). A significant role in the development of geography was played by the Arab scholars and travelers Ibn Sina (Avicenna), Biruni, Idrisi, and especially Ibn Batuta, who traveled from 1325 to 1349. The great European Traveler was Marco Polo. The Tver merchant Afanasy Nikitin traveled the Caspian, Black and Arabian seas, reaching the shores of India, describing the nature, life and life of the population of this country.

The era of the great geographical discoveries (XV-XVIIcenturies).

Characterized during the Renaissance by the discovery of H. Columbus of America, the voyage of Vasco da Gama to India and, of course, the first round-the-world trip of F. Magellan. Thus, the idea of ​​the sphericity of the Earth was confirmed experimentally, and the unity of the World Ocean was established. In 1515, the hypothetical Southern Continent was shown on the map of Leonardo da Vinci.

Geographic cartography is characterized by two outstanding events: the compilation of the Mercator map (1512-1594), which shows the real outlines of the continents and their coastlines, and the creation of the Great Drawing of the Russian state.

The theoretical results of the development of the era of the Great Geographical Discoveries were summed up in the General Geography of B. Varenius (1850), where the subject of geography was defined, its division into general and particular was given, and considerable attention was paid to the ocean.

Geography in Russia XVII-XVIIIcenturies . The most striking events in the geography of this period: a) the intensive movement of Russian explorers to the east (E. P. Khabarov, V. D. Poyarkov, S. I. Dezhnev, V. V. Atlasov and others); b) creation in 1739. M. V. Lomonosov of the Geographical Department; c) the organization, on the initiative of Peter I, of an expedition to study Siberia and the Far East (D. G. Misserschmidt, V. Bering, A. I. Chirikov); d) the first description of Russia by Ivan Kirillov The flourishing state of the Russian state since 1731; e) creation in 1745 by the Academy of Sciences of the Atlas of the Russian Empire; f) the first scientific system of geographical sciences of V. N. Tatishchev; g) geographical works and activities of M. V. Lomonosov; H) general land surveying of Russia under Catherine II - land use cadastre.

Geography in Western Europe in XVIII-XI10th century The period is characterized by a combination of significant territorial discoveries (D. Cook, D. Livingston, etc.) and the development of theoretical geography by S.I. Kant, K. Ritter, E. Reclus, I. Thunen). An outstanding contribution to geography was made by A. Humboldt, the greatest theoretical geographer and no less famous traveller. Introduced the comparative method in geography. He explored Central and South America, the Urals, Altai, the coast of the Caspian Sea, southwest Siberia. For the first time he compiled a map of isotherms of the Northern Hemisphere, proposed isohypses for displaying on a map of the earth's surface relief. Author of more than 600 works, including a generalizing work on the geography of the five-volume Cosmos.

Geography in Russia XIX- start XX centuries . Russian round-the-world travels of I. F. Kruzenshtern and Yu. F. Lisyansky, the discovery of Antarctica by F. F. Bellingshausen and M. P. Lazarev. The birth of the first scientific geographical school of the Military Academy of the General Staff, established in 1832. In 1845, the establishment of the Russian Geographical Society in St. Petersburg and the formation of its school (F.P. Litke, P.P. Semenov-Tyan-Shansky, N.M. Przhevalsky, P. A. Kropotkin, N. N. Miklukho-Maclay, A. I. Voeikov, V. A. Obruchev, P. K. Kozlov, etc.)

In 1884, D. N. Anuchin created the first department of geography at Moscow University (Department of Geography, Anthropology and Ethnography), which served as the basis for the formation of the Anuchinsky geographical school of Moscow University. The creation of the school of geography at St. Petersburg University is associated with the names of V. V. Dokuchaev and A. I. Voeikov.

Among the exceptional achievements of the early twentieth century. it should be noted the American polar traveler R. Peary, who reached the North Pole on April 6, 1909; Norwegian polar explorer R. Amundsen, who reached the South Pole of our planet on December 14, 1911.

Soviet period of development of geography. The period is extremely productive, which had a huge impact on world geographical and even environmental science.

Numerous expeditions continued to study the nature, population and economy of the country, including the development of the Northern Sea Route, the SP-I expedition of I. D. Papanin, the organization of the Soviet Antarctic Expedition (1955), the study of the World Ocean, etc.

In the 70s, on the initiative of K.K. Markov, the geography of the World Ocean began to develop intensively, which resulted in the publication of a seven-volume series devoted to the physical and economic geography of the ocean.

The cartographic support of science and practice was improved, state topographic and thematic maps were created, the Great Soviet Atlas of the World (1937), the Physical and Geographical Atlas of the World (1964), and a series of regional and specialized atlases were published.

Various geographical schools were formed, including complex general and regional physical geography (the school of A. A. Borzov - L. S. Berg - N. A. Solntsev, the academic school of process science A. A. Grigoriev - I. P. Gerasimov) , geomorphological schools of I.S. Schukina - A.I. Spiridonov and I.P. Gerasimov - Yu. A. Meshcheryakova; landscape-geochemical B.B. Polynova - A.I. Perelman - M.A. Glazovskaya and the economic and geographical school of N.N. Baransky - N.N. Kolosovsky - Yu. G. Saushkin and many others.

The system of geographical sciences developed, its differentiation into branch geographical sciences (for example, permafrost, botanical geography) and integration.

New and latest methods for studying the geographic shell and its components (geochemical, geophysical, cartographic, paleogeographic, mathematical, aerospace) were developed and introduced.

Academic geographical institutes and geographical departments were opened at universities and pedagogical universities. In 1918, the Industrial Geographical from Affairs, which later grew into the Geomorphological Institute (1930), then to the Institute of Physical Geography (1934), and since 1936 the Institute of Geography of the USSR Academy of Sciences. Institutes of geography were created in Siberia (in the city of Irkutsk) and in the Far East (in Vladivostok). Scientific and popular science geographical journals appeared, stable textbooks for higher education and a series of monographs devoted to describing the nature of the USSR were published. All the time, the scientific activity of geographers with the practice of the national economy was clearly traced.

scientific schoolD. N. Anuchin at Moscow University . A scientific school is understood as a group of scientists headed by its leader, founder, united by a single theoretical and methodological approach and common views on the essence of the phenomena being studied, who use similar research methods. The most important feature of the scientific school is continuity from teacher to student. Scientific school is a broad concept. Schools can differ significantly in number, form of unity (around a professor at a university, around a scientific journal, academic laboratory, problematic seminar), in time of existence, in importance and scale of the problems being solved. Many outstanding schools are known to science, for example, academicians P. L. Kapitsa in physics or I. P. Pavlov in physiology.

The school of D. N. Anuchin is described in detail in the textbooks of Yu. G. Saushkin History and Methodology of Geographical Science and V. S. Zhekulin Introduction to Geography.

Scientific school of the Russian Geographical Society. The history of the Russian Geographical Society and its role in the development of geography has been described in sufficient detail in the literature. Traditionally, the anniversaries of the Society were marked by the publication of generalizing publications. So, on his centenary, President Acad. L. S. Berg published the book All-Union Geographical Society for a Hundred Years (1946). In 1970, under the editorship of another president of the Society, acad. SV Kalesnik published a collective monograph Geographical Society for 125 years (1970). For the centenary celebrated in August 1995, a collective monograph was published by the Russian Geographical Society. 150 years, edited by A. G. Isachenko (M., 1995). The scientific school of the Geographical Society is briefly described in the textbook by V. S. Zhekulin Introduction to Geography.

History: 1. The scientific circle-seminar of statisticians and travelers, organized in 1843 by the ethnographer and statistician P. I. Koeppen, is the forerunner of the Geographical Society. Organizational preparation and the special role of K. M. Baer, ​​F. P. Litke and F. P. Wrangel. On August 6 (18), 1845, Nicholas 1 approved the idea of ​​establishing the Russian Geographical Society (from 1850 it became known as the Imperial Society). Prince Konstantin was appointed its chairman. The first meeting of the founders of the Society took place on September 19 (October 1), 1845. Among them are the most famous scientists, travelers, cultural figures - I. F. Kruzenshtern, P. I. Keppen, K. I. Arseniev, V. Ya. I. Dahl, VF Odoevsky, etc. The first de facto leader of the Russian Geographical Society was F. P. Litke. For 41 years (from 1873 to 1914) the society was led by an outstanding geographer, a prominent statesman P.P. Semenov-Tyan-Shansky.

2. P. P. Semenov-Tyan-Shansky and his contribution to the development of geography. Field expeditionary research in Central Asia. Main works: Geographic and Statistical Dictionary of the Russian Empire (1863-1885), Picturesque Russia, Russia. A complete geographical description of our fatherland (1899-1914), Etudes of the history of Netherlandish painting. Organization of expeditions of the Russian Geographical Society by P. P. Semenov-Tyan-Shansky. Pupils and followers: N. M. Przhevalsky, P. A. Kropotkin, N. A. Severtsov, N. N. Miklukho-Maclay, I. M. Mushketov, M. V. Pevtsov,
V. I. Roborovsky and others.

3. The role of AI Voeikov in the development of geography, climatology, meliorative geography. Research and travel of AI Voeikov in Western Europe, America, Asia, in various regions of Russia. A. I. Voeikov is the author of more than 1700 works in various areas and sections of geography. Climates of the globe, especially Russia (1884), Snow cover, its influence on soil, climate and weather, and research methods (1889), Irrigation of the Transcaspian region from the point of view of geography and climatology (1908), Land improvements and their relationship with climate and other natural conditions (1910), etc.

4. Regional expeditionary research carried out under the auspices of the Russian Geographical Society.

5. Outstanding figures of the Geographical Society of the 20th century: N. I. Vavilov, L. S. Berg, E. N. Pavlovsky, S. V. Kalesnik, A. F. Treshnikov and others.

Foreign geography in the twentieth century. traveled a difficult path from the classical task of describing the earth's surface to the search for those laws that could form a new subject of research. At the turn of the XIX-XX centuries. there was a threat of turning geography into a compilation of loosely connected information about the Earth, collected by representatives of private sciences studying the atmosphere, hydrosphere, biosphere, pedosphere, society, etc. However, the gradual awareness of geographers of different specialties since the 19th century. its unity was manifested in the formation of professional organizations: geographical societies of different countries (the first - in 1821 in France), the holding of International geographical congresses since 1871, the creation in 1922 of the International Geographical Union. The chorological concept of the German scientist L. Gettner, who saw the task of geography in identifying terrestrial spaces by their differences and spatial relationships, had a great unifying influence on the development of geography. The horological concept was developed in the USA in the works of R. Hartshorne, who saw the goal of geography in the study of the territorial differentiation of the earth's surface and the identification of individual regions. On this theoretical basis, in the first half of the century in Great Britain, the United States of America, and Australia, work on zoning the territory, including for the needs of agriculture, was widely developed (L. Herbertson, D. Whittlesey, D. Stemp, K. Christian). An important role was played by the idea of ​​the interaction of natural components and the interaction of man with the environment in small areas. The focus is on the spatial morphology of phenomena, the development of mapping and zoning methods, as well as intercomponent relationships, and analysis of the factors of the genesis of spatial differentiation. The greatest contribution to the development of these problems was made in Germany by Z. Passarge, E. Banse, A. Penk, O. Schlüter, K. Troll, J. Schmithusen, and in the SSL by K. Sauer and I. Bowman. A powerful school of regional geography has developed in France, which has set as its goal the compilation of complex descriptions of regions (P. Vidal de la Blache, A. Demangeon, E. Martonne, J. Beaughe-Garnier).

A large place in the history of foreign geography is occupied by two concepts that explain the dependence of social phenomena on natural features. Geographical determinism, popular in English-speaking geography at the beginning of the century, directly derives historical and economic processes from natural conditions (E. Semple, E. Huntinggon). Possibilism, which was formed in France, argues that a person chooses the type of nature management from several alternative ones that best suits the opportunities provided by natural conditions.

Under the influence of the works of C. Darwin, the ideas of development and evolution penetrated geography, primarily within the framework of geomorphology through the efforts of W. Davis, who created the doctrine of the cycles of relief development. In biogeography, the idea of ​​change in time began to be taken into account after the work of F. Clements on changes in vegetation cover. Schools of historical geography were formed in the USA (K. Sauer) and Great Britain (H. Darby). K. Sauer laid the foundations of human ecology and saw the basis for the unity of geographical science in the study of the interaction between nature and man. The main task of geography, in his opinion, is to study the process of transforming a natural landscape into a cultural one.

Stormy political events of the twentieth century. stimulated the development of geopolitical theories, which proceeded from the idea of ​​the state as an organism with the living space it needs (F. Ratzel, R. Kjellen, H. Mackinder).

In the second half of the twentieth century. a new stage in the theoretical understanding of the experience of applied work began, when foreign geographers were no longer satisfied with the tasks of identifying and describing homogeneous territories. A search began for ways to formalize geographical knowledge, to build a theory that could generalize the laws of the spatial distribution of phenomena over the earth's surface. The main efforts were concentrated in the creation of an apparatus for spatial analysis using mathematical methods, including geometry, and aerospace information. The leaders were Anglo-American geographers, mainly of the socio-economic direction,
F. Schaefer, B. Berry, W. Garrison, P. Haggett, W. Bunge, W. Izard. Many saw in this the unifying beginning of the private branches of physical and social geography with such basic concepts as direction (orientation), distance and interconnection (relative location). The peak of the quantitative revolution came in the 1950s. A theory of central places by V. Kristaller and A. Lesh has developed, which makes it possible to explain the hierarchy and spatial arrangement of settlements. In geomorphology, the work of R. Horton and L. Strahler laid the foundation for the quantitative morphology of river basins. The theory of island biogeography by R. MacArthur and E. Wilson explained the quantitative ratios of the size of isolated habitats and the species richness of wildlife. At the same time, a systematic approach was introduced, which focused on the concepts of feedback between the components of geosystems, hierarchy, self-regulation, stability (R. Chorley, B. Kennedy, R. Haggett, R. Bennett).

If in the first half of the century the thesis about the need to study the processes that formed the natural and economic regions (S. Woolridge) was often disputed within the framework of geography, then in the postwar period the study of the dynamics of various phenomena on the earth's surface became a priority. The achievements of the quantitative revolution have been applied in studies of the processes of relief formation, cycles of matter in the geographic envelope, climate change, glacier movement, and landscape transformation under anthropogenic impact. The work of the Swedish geographer T. Hegerstrand on the diffusion of innovations laid the foundation for the unification of space-time studies. In the 1970s and 1980s, the study of the problem of the hierarchy of processes in time and spatial objects came to the fore. Within the framework of social geography, behavioral geography (behaviorism) is gaining ground, explaining the connections between personal perception of the surrounding world and the spatial behavior of people (D. Wolpert, K. Cox, R. Golledzh). Since the 90s, studies on the perception and aesthetics of the landscape have been popular, especially in France (J. Bertrand, A. Decamps).

At the turn of the 1960s and 1970s, the ecologization of geographic research was sharply outlined; many geographers see human ecology as one of the main subjects of study (D. Stoddart, A. Gowdy, G. Haase, I. Simmonet, F. Heer). Ecologization was especially pronounced in climatology, which developed models of global climate change and the transport of pollutants in the atmosphere. The volume of studies of natural disasters and their comparison with socio-economic reality has grown (G. White, R. Chorley, D. Parker).

The powerful apparatus of spatial analysis developed in geography attracted the attention of ecologists, who applied geographic methods to the study of populations. In the 1970s and 1980s, landscape ecology was formed, within which ecologists - natives of biology and geographers - successfully cooperated. This branch of science, closest to Russian landscape science, is designed to answer the main question, which natural processes form certain spatial structures and how spatial structures affect the state of wildlife. Geographic methods of spatial analysis made it possible to take into account in ecological studies the factors of space properties (size, shape, distance, proximity of ecosystems) and factors of the scale level of manifestation of interactions of living organisms with the abiotic environment. The development of landscape ecology was stimulated by a powerful flow of remote information about the spatial distribution and configuration of ecosystems, the spread of statistical methods that became familiar to geographers in Europe and North America during the quantitative revolution, and the development of geoinformation technologies. Awareness in the 70s of the onset of global and regional environmental problems required the development of the concept of nature management, nature conservation, which was proposed by landscape ecology. Authoritative centers of landscape-ecological research have developed in the Netherlands (I. Zonneveld, R. Jongman, P. Opdam), Slovakia (M. Ruzicka, L. Miklos), Great Britain (R. . Ise), Denmark
(E. Brandt), France (M. Gaudron, A. Decamps), USA (R. O "Neill, R. Foreman, J. Wu,
M. Turner, R. Gardner, D. Wins), Poland (E. Solon, L. Ryzhkovsky, A. Richling), Germany
(H. Leser, Father Bastian), Israel (3. Naveh), Australia (R. Hobbs), Norway (Fry). Since 1982 there has been the International Association of Landscape Ecology (IALE).

Significant progress has been made in the design of networks of protected natural areas, taking into account the interaction of all components of the landscape and the spatial structure of the territory. Since the 1980s, environmental policy in Europe has been based on a landscape-ecological approach. The creation of ecological networks and green corridors using landscape ecology methods allows for the spatial conjugation of undisturbed habitats and plays a key role in biodiversity conservation. The key concepts used by landscape ecology in the design of green networks are defined - the sensitivity of organisms to the configuration of habitats, the connectivity and fragmentation of habitats, edge effects, ecotones, landscape permeability for migration, the relationship of landscape and biological diversity with the sustainability of ecosystems.

The main applied value of landscape ecology lies in land-use planning and, more broadly, in landscape planning. Among the topical issues addressed by landscape planning are how to enter land use types into the spatial structure of the landscape, how to take into account the conflicting interests of land users, what factors and processes determine the development of the landscape, in what ways can they be regulated, what are the consequences of anthropogenic impact in different types of landscape, how to preserve cultural landscapes.

The main theoretical problem of landscape ecology at the turn of the XX-XXI centuries. - the problem of identifying the hierarchy and determining the rational scale of the study of landscape processes. Landscape research is inevitably multi-scale, since landscape processes manifest themselves at different spatial and temporal scales. The problem is generated by the contradiction between the regional scale of nature management and the local scale of data collection, which greatly hinders the understanding and resolution of global problems.

(according to A.G. Isachenko)

Geography is undoubtedly one of the most ancient sciences. The history of its development has at least six millennia. According to A.I.Isachenko, the path that modern geography has traveled can be schematically represented as a successive change of four main stages: elucidation of the general properties of our planet and the main external features of its surface Þ the study of individual elements of its nature Þ the establishment of mutual relationships between individual elements of nature Þ study of geographical complexes (geosystems).

These stages are not separated from each other by sharp time boundaries; between them there are many "overlays" and "overlays". At the same time, there were several key, epoch-making events in the development of geography that quite clearly separate these periods.

The first frontier for geography was the Great Geographical Discoveries, the beginning of which is considered to be the day Christopher Columbus discovered America (October 12, 1492). However, the era of the Great Discoveries was preceded by a long period of slow expansion of knowledge about the Earth. The limited and disunity of the spatial outlook is a characteristic feature of this era. Even the most cultured peoples of Europe and Asia knew only small parts of the globe.

Theoretical ideas in the field of geography were fragmentary and were strongly influenced by the religious and mythological worldview. The geographical views of antiquity, advanced by that time, were based not so much on experience as on natural-philosophical guesses and were often naive and fantastic. The official scholastic science of the Christian Middle Ages was also not connected with practice and relied on elements of the same ancient science, but adapted to Catholic teaching (Thomas Aquinas, 1225-1274). This entire long epoch is divided into two segments corresponding to the ancient and middle ages of world history.

The great geographical discoveries made a revolution in the spatial outlook of mankind, made it possible to form a general idea of ​​the relationship between continents and oceans. Since that time, there has been a turning point in the medieval worldview and the scientific study of nature begins, and at the same time the second great era in the development of geography.

However, it took more than two centuries after the completion of the Great Geographical Discoveries to clarify and map the outlines of the land, to find out the main features of its orography and hydrography, and then to collect and systematize material on the main components of the earth's surface: climate, waters, organic world, etc. sufficient for primary scientific generalization. These tasks determined the nature of geography almost until the end of the 19th century.

There is an important boundary between these two turning points, dating back approximately to the beginning of the last third of the 18th century. Until that time, the main role was played by the measurement and mapping of the Earth. At that time, geography was still, as it were, in the "topographical" stage and explained many phenomena of nature and society from the point of view of ancient natural philosophy.

From the end of the XVIII century. geographers in their conclusions begin to rely on experimental study of the phenomena of nature and society, to develop their own methods of research. At the same time, they put forward the problem of studying the connections between individual geographical components, which gives reason to consider this time as the beginning of the next, third major period in the development of geographical thought. But still it was a period of analytical study of nature. The most important feature of the development of geography in those years was the ever-deepening differentiation of natural science and scientific geographical knowledge.

The foundation of modern geography was the idea of ​​a geographical complex, developed in such specific forms as the law of zoning (V.V. Dokuchaev (1846-1903) and others), the doctrine of the landscape (L.S. .) and others), the doctrine of the geographical shell (A.A. Grigoriev (1883-1968) and others). The origin of modern geography dates back to the last third of the 19th century. (126).

MAIN PERIODS OF DEVELOPMENT OF GEOGRAPHY

(according to P. James and J. Martin)

In the history of geographical science, according to the American geographers P. James and J. Martin, the following three periods are distinguished:

The first period lasted from ancient times, when geographical thought was born, and up to 1859. This is a classical period during which relatively little attention was paid to the definition and identification of separate branches of science. During this period, knowledge about the world as a whole was not yet so extensive, and each scientist could simultaneously be a specialist and a recognized authority in many sciences. So, for example, almost every one of the ancient Greek philosophers, also known as a historian, could just as well and on the same "legitimate grounds" be considered a geographer. Even in the 18th century, when the separation of individual branches of knowledge had already begun, such scientists as M.V. Lomonosov or Montesquieu, who were not geographers, made a very significant contribution to the history of geographical thought. Alexander Humboldt was the last among such encyclopedists. After his death in 1859, no one has been able to achieve such breadth of knowledge.

A new period began in the second half of the 19th century. It was characterized by the emergence of a professional field of activity called geography, which meant the emergence of professional geographers who, having received the appropriate qualifications, could earn their living doing research in this area.

In Germany, a new period in the development of geography began in 1874, when a department of geography was organized at the University of Berlin, headed by scientists with the rank of professor. Until that time, students had attended a certain course of lectures, and subsequently, perhaps, began to lecture themselves, but never before had entire groups of students specialized in geography. Therefore, when the department of geography appeared in 1874, there was not a single professional geographer among the teachers.

The innovation introduced in Germany was quickly adopted by universities in other countries, primarily France, Great Britain and Russia. It also reached the United States in various ways. Each of these five countries formed its own national schools and specific ideas about the new geography, which spread throughout the world. The difference between these schools consisted primarily in how they answered the question about the essence of geography.

The third period in the history of geography, which began in the 50s of the last century, is called modern. The Second World War had a huge impact on science. The scientific activity of scientists-geographers in those years was aimed at studying issues related to very complex political problems. In those years, geographers made serious progress in cartography and in the analysis of the significance of location, that is, in those areas that were usually not noticed by representatives of other sciences.

The experience of the war was reflected in the creation of the general theory of systems by Ludwig von Bertalanffy (367), in the development of new methods that made it possible to solve the problems of analyzing many variables, when it is necessary to use probability theory to predict the behavior of a system. Just at this time, electronic computing machines, or computers, came into life. They made it possible to quickly and accurately calculate the parameters of a huge variety of indicators. Then there was a real revolution in data collection methods: electronic devices appeared for scanning the Earth's surface from orbiting space satellites. These innovations, which appeared mainly after the 50s of our century, opened the third period in the history of geographical science.

At present, geographers are approaching the definition of geography without focusing on the issue of its demarcation from other disciplines. The new trend is that all sciences are making joint efforts to solve individual problems. The process of separation (differentiation) has now been replaced by a process of integration, in which scientists from each of the disciplines apply their special knowledge and skills to solve global problems such as uncontrolled population growth, racial relations, environmental degradation, the fight against hunger, etc. Geographical proper includes issues related to the significance of location and spatial (territorial) relationships of objects and phenomena (110,367).

14. The main stages of accumulation of knowledge about the Earth, its nature and population.

Geography is one of the first sciences that had to create people. After all, hunters and gatherers had to find out exactly where it was better to hunt near their homes, where to collect edible plants, where to hide from predators. Studying the history of the Ancient World, we got acquainted with the life of the population of Dr. Egypt. Egypt is the "child of the Nile", the whole life of its inhabitants is connected with this river. To zap. and to the east. from it - a lifeless desert. Gradually, people's ideas about the world expanded. Residents of Dr. Greece knew the sea much better. They sailed on rowing and sailing ships not only along the coast, but also in the open sea, they could already navigate - during the day by the Sun, and at night by the Polar Star. The Greeks founded many colonies along the shores of the Mediterranean, as well as the Black and Azov Seas, including on the territory of the modern. Russia.

Only two centuries later (in the 4th century BC), the great scientist of the ancient world, Aristotle, came to the conclusion that the Earth is spherical. The ancient Greek scientist Erastofen (III-II centuries BC) first used the term "geography", managed to accurately calculate the size of the Earth and make one of the first maps. Ptolemy (I-II centuries) compiled a much more perfect map of the world.

In the Middle Ages, the general level of knowledge initially declined sharply. Scientific knowledge about the world began to be replaced by myths about the "firmament", to which the stars are "nailed", about the "earthly paradise", which is located east of Jerusalem, about people with dog heads.

The leading role in geographical discoveries passed to the Arabs, who invented the compass, navigational instruments, and sea charts. The merchant Afanasy Nikitin traveled to India and compiled a description of the countries he saw.

Marco Polo traveled through Asia, visited Iran, China, Mongolia, India, Indonesia and described everything in the famous "Book of the Diversity of the World".

The Great Geographical Discoveries is a period in the history of mankind that began in the 15th century and lasted until the 17th century, during which Europeans discovered new lands and sea routes to Africa, America, Asia and Oceania in search of new trading partners and sources of goods that were in great demand in Europe.

At that time, GEOGRAPHY performed mainly the function of LAND DESCRIPTION, answered the questions: WHAT? WHERE? Geographical writings, maps and descriptions of that time served mainly as reference books. Christopher Columbus, in search of a new western route to India, discovered a new part of the world, later called America in 1492. The known world expanded dramatically. For Europeans, the Old World and the New World appeared. Not finding Indian treasures on the shores of the New World, the Spaniards did not calm down. And then Ferdinand Magellan proposed to go around the American mainland from the south. And from 1519 - 1521. Magellan made the first circumnavigation of the world, proving the sphericity of the Earth.

By the beginning of the XVII century. Europe, Asia, Africa, North and South Am were known to Europeans. In Russia, the development of Siberia began after the campaign of Yermak (1581-1584). In 1639 Ivan Moskvitin went to the Pacific Ocean, and in 1648 Semyon Dezhnev passed through the strait between Asia and Am. But even ancient scientists believed that in the south there is a huge mainland - "Unknown Southern Land". In her search, the Dutch discovered at the beginning of the 17th century. coast of Australia, and in 1644 Abel Tasman proved that this is a separate mainland. The famous English navigator James Cook - the leader of 3 round-the-world expeditions - repeatedly crossed the Arctic Circle south of Australia, but stopped in front of insurmountable sea and ice fields and did not find the mainland. Only in 1820, the Russian expedition on the ships "Vostok" and "Mirny" under the command of F.F. Bellingshausen and M.P. Lazarev discovered the last continent on earth - Antarctica.

By the end of the XIX century. almost all lands were open. The study of the interior regions of the continents, as well as the polar regions of the Earth, continued. The Norwegian Roald Amundsen decided to reach the North Pole, but in 1909 he was outstripped by the American Robert Peary. Amundsen got his revenge in 1911 when he raised the Norwegian flag at the South Pole.

In 1648, Semyon Dezhnev and Fedot circled the mainland from the northeast and reached the shores of the Pacific Ocean, proving the absence of a connection between Asia and North America. Subsequently, it was called the Bering Strait.

V.V. Atlasov made (1697-1699) a trip to Kamchatka, compiled a detailed description of the peninsula, its population and way of life.

The Great Northern Expedition of 1733-1743 is the largest exploratory expedition in the history of mankind. The sea and land detachments of this expedition explored and mapped the northern and northeastern shores of Eurasia, reached the northwestern shores of North America, discovered a number of islands off the coast of Alaska. As a result of the activities of Russian navigators and explorers during the Great Northern Expedition, the possessions of the Russian Empire spread into three parts of the world: Europe, Asia and America.

18th - 19th - early 20th centuries The most important stage in the accumulation of knowledge about the Earth

Numerous expeditions of the 18th - 19th and early 20th centuries enriched geography with knowledge about the nature and population of the Earth. During this era, the polar regions of our planet were discovered and explored.

Alexander Humboldt the Second Columbus" he was nicknamed for the 30-volume work "Journey through the tropical regions of the New World", in which he outlined the results of his 5-year expedition to America.

David Livingstone Explorer of Central and Southern Africa

Pyotr Petrovich Semyonov-Tyan-Shansky1856 - 1857 For the first time he visited and mapped this huge mountain system of Central Asia, unknown to science, which before him remained a “blank spot”.

Nikolai Mikhailovich Przhevalsky

The first European explorer of the interior regions of Central Asia. He explored the hard-to-reach regions of Mongolia, China and Tibet, passed through the endless Mongolian steppes, crossed the Gobi, Alashan, Takla-Makan deserts, the Ordos plateau and the northern outskirts of high-mountainous Tibet; explored the upper reaches of the Huang He, Yangtze and Tarim rivers, the lakes of Central Asia; discovered hitherto unknown mountain ranges in the Nanshan and Kunlun systems ... His travels brought world fame to Russian geographical science.

So geography moved from the accumulation of traditional reference material to the creation of complex descriptions of countries and individual territories. The first theories arose about the structure of the atmosphere, the movement of VMs, the doctrine of the origin of the land relief and its development under the influence of internal and external forces. Geographers put forward the idea of ​​the unity and integrity of the entire nature of the Earth.

The study of the Arctic, Antarctica and the World Ocean in the XX century. Regular research in Antarctica has been carried out since 1956. Various countries of the world have equipped research stations on the mainland and adjacent islands. In connection with the study of Antarctica, an international agreement was signed, according to which any economic activity and the deployment of military bases are prohibited on this mainland. Therefore, Antarctica is called the mainland of scientists.

Almost until the beginning of the 20th century, mankind had little idea of ​​the oceans. The focus was on continents and islands. It was they that were revealed to the gaze of travelers in the era of the Great Geographical Discoveries and at a later time. About the ocean during this time it became known basically only that it is almost three times larger than all land. Under the surface of the water there was a huge unknown world.

An oceanographic expedition in 1872-1876 discovered that the ocean floor has a very complex relief, that life exists in the depths of the ocean, despite the darkness and cold prevailing here. During the First World War, the study of the great depths of the ocean became possible thanks to the use of an echo sounder .. In the 40s of our century, scuba gear was invented. In the study of great depths, such underwater vehicles as bathyscaphes and bathyspheres are used.

In recent years, to study the oceans at the bottom, at a depth of 10-20 meters, underwater laboratories have been established, and submarines have been equipped with scientific equipment. Special ships, airplanes, Earth satellites participate in MO research, photographing and filming are carried out. When studying vast areas of the ocean, scientists from different countries join their efforts.

The results of the study of the expanses of the seas and oceans are of great importance for fishing, shipping, prospecting and mining.

Modern research..

After the aircraft appeared, aerial reconnaissance arose. Continuous observation of the Earth's surface became possible with the creation of artificial Earth satellites - spacecraft that constantly revolve around our planet.

Satellites collect a huge amount of information. They take pictures of the Earth, observe the weather, provide communication between countries and continents. On the basis of satellite images are geogr. maps, conduct a variety of studies ter-ii.

International studies of the Earth. Geography owes its great success in modern times to international cooperation. This is especially true for the study of the World Ocean, Antarctica, and space. So, in 1957-1958, scientists from all over the world joined forces in studying the Earth and near-Earth space. This year is called the International Geophysical Year. During this period, the Soviet Union launched the first artificial Earth satellite, and research geophysical rockets appeared in the USA, Australia, Canada, France, and Japan. With the appearance of signs of pollution of the Earth, the joint efforts of scientists becomes even more necessary. Together, geographers from different countries continue to explore the Earth.

The methodology of teaching geography uses methods by sources of knowledge, since it is impossible to imagine the study of the basics of geography outside of activities with sources of geographic information. Traditional sources geog. inf. – geog. maps and atlases. They are marked with what people have discovered on Earth over the centuries. And also these are encyclopedias and reference books, books, magazines, guides, Internet networks, aerospace images.

When working with a textbook, the basis of the ct is the tex, the student is trained in the mental operations of analysis and synthesis. The development and improvement of the operations of analysis and synthesis is largely facilitated by working with the text of the textbook. There are 3 levels of working with text:

Cognitive (main goal - assimilation); analytical (criticism); creative (creation of something new). For students, knowing is the most acceptable. level, including the most common methods of working with a book: A) highlighting the essential; b) semantic grouping; c) drawing up a plan, theses, abstract; d) drawing up diagrams, graphs, diagrams; e) formulation of conclusions; e) reading search.

The map is considered as an object of study and as a source of knowledge. Working with maps involves: a) studying the types and types of maps, atlases, aerial and space images; b) mastering the language of the map; c) the ability to work with maps (reading, comparison, analysis, etc.). A map is a necessary source of knowledge, and the ability to work with a map: read it, analyze it, compare maps of various contents, create models of new maps - is one of the main geography skills that students should master in the process of providing geography.

Visual aids include pictures, diagrams, tables, drawings, graphs, diagrams, etc. With the help of pictures, the teacher teaches students to highlight the main and secondary, to see the characteristics of the details of the object or phenomenon under consideration. Basic requirements for working with visual teaching aids: 1) work with visual aids should be combined with the use of a textbook and a map; 2) to provide for a different nature of cognitive activity of students, not only reproductive, but also creative; 3) be applied at various stages of learning: when studying new material, consolidating and generalizing it; 4) to stimulate the cognitive interest of the student. Possibilities of a personal approach to learning in the organization of educational knowledge on this topic?.

In the development of geographical knowledge about the Earth, the following stages are distinguished:

Primitive society (before 4 thousand BC)	Accumulation of individual geographic knowledge. Maps on wood and leather.
Slavovlad. system (4 thousand BC - 2 century)	The emergence of geographical literature and maps (Herodotus, Ptolemy - the first map of the world)
Middle Ages (up to 15th century)	The beginning of geographic travels: M. Polo to China, Al-Biruni to India and Iran, etc.
Age of the Great. Geogr. discoveries (15-ser. 17 in)	The invention of the globe - M. Behaim. The discovery of the New World by Columbus, the circumnavigation of F. Magellan, the travels of Vasco da Gama, A. Nikitin. Development of cartography.
Geography of the New Age (18-ser.19 in)	The division of geography into physical. and economics, the emergence of climatology, zoogeography, etc. The discovery of Antarctica (Bellingshausen, Lazarev).
The origin of modern geography (mid-19th - early 20th century)	Scientific study of nature (expeditions of Przhevalsky, Humboldt, Livingston, Stanley, etc.) Discovery of the Earth's poles (Piri, Amundsen) Exploration of the Arctic - Nansen.
Modern geography	Elimination of the last "white spots" on land maps. Comprehensive study of land and the ocean. The beginning of the space age. Rational nature management.

Origins of geographical knowledge

The history of geographical ideas spans several millennia. It cannot be separated from the history of mankind. Purposeful and systematic study of the surrounding nature and human interaction with it dates back to the time of the birth of scientific thought. European science originates in the writings of ancient thinkers; however, its roots go even deeper - to Ancient Egypt and Mesopotamia. In the "cradle" of sciences - Egypt - for the first time methods (methods, techniques) of understanding the world arose: observation, measurement, generalization. The Egyptians knew how to determine the meridian line (north-south direction), they invented writing, possessed mathematical, astronomical and other knowledge. The very first maps known to us were created in Sumer around 2700 BC. e.

Military campaigns, trade and travel in the civilizations of the Ancient World expanded the horizons of man. But still, this outlook covered individual regions of the Earth, that is, it was regional.

The development of trade and navigation in ancient times was impossible without special (geographical) knowledge about the surrounding lands and peoples. The need for this knowledge was satisfied by the so-called logographs. They made descriptions of coasts (periples) and countries (perigueuses). The first scientific method, with the help of which a person learned about the world around him, was a descriptive method. Geography as a science originally arose as a description of the nature and population of various localities. This is reminiscent of the very name of the science of geography - "earth description". The very first descriptions of the lands were compiled not only by specialists, but by merchants, warriors, and even people who accidentally found themselves in a foreign land. Often those descriptions were inaccurate and made without any purpose; sometimes they were fantastic, because compiled on the basis of rumors and legends.

The main questions in the description were: what is being studied (valley, island, mountains ...)? What is the subject of the description (its shape, size, color...)? Where is he located? The last question has become one of the main ones for geography.

Gradually, the practical study of the world is replaced by a spontaneous scientific view of nature and society. At the same time, in ancient Greece, for the first time, a model of scientific knowledge of the world was created, which dominated Europe for many centuries. Some of the methods of studying the world, developed by scientists of antiquity, are still used today. All sciences of the Ancient World, including geography, developed within the framework of philosophy. Therefore, the theoretical geographical ideas of that time are closely connected with philosophical ideas.

Ancient Greek philosophers considered the world as a whole, and man as a part of nature. But in connection with the gap between mental and physical labor, the science of that time was dominated by speculative (abstract) constructions. It is no coincidence that such a view of the world was called natural philosophy. Abstract general geographical ideas were associated with the development of cosmogonic hypotheses - hypotheses about the formation of the Earth, the Sun, stars, etc.

The first scientist involved in determining the location of various objects on Earth was Thales (c. 625-547 BC). he lived in the city of Miletus and was a well-known traveler and enterprising businessman. Thales was the first to point out the properties of magnetic iron ore. As an astronomer and philosopher, Thales imagined the Earth as a disk that floats in water. This is not surprising: the numerous Greek islands in the Mediterranean Sea represent something similar. Thinking about what the Universe consists of, he was sure that everything that exists consists of different forms of water. Thales tried to verify his conclusions with the help of observations, which contrasted science and faith.

It is known that Herodotus is considered the "father of history." His 9-volume "History" also contains numerous descriptions of the places visited by the scientist.

Herodotus is also called the "father of ethnography", because he described in detail the customs and traditions of the peoples known to him. He was the first to apply the historical method in geography. So, Herodotus reconstructed the ancient coastline at the mouth of the Nile and proved that river sediments formed the river delta. Therefore, numerous port cities were far from the sea coast.

A huge contribution to the development of geographical thought was made by Plato (428-348 BC) and his student Aristotle (384-322 BC) - the most famous philosophers of Ancient Greece.

Plato, like Pythagoras (VI century BC), believed that the Earth is not flat, but has the shape of a ball. It was a purely theoretical reflection. Greek thinkers believed that symmetry is one of the properties of perfection, and the sphere is the bearer of signs of a symmetrical form. Plato proposed a deductive method of knowing the world (which means knowledge from the general to the particular). Plato's contemporaries, proceeding from the idea of ​​the perfection of the sphere, created an idea of ​​climatic zones. The change in the inclination of the sun's rays on the surface of the spherical Earth, in their opinion, leads to a change in climate - hot, temperate, cold.

The first who tried to substantiate the theory with "true facts" was the encyclopedist of antiquity - Aristotle. A student of the Academy of Plato, after the death of his teacher and twelve years of travel in the Aegean and Greece, he founded his own school - the Lyceum. Aristotle proposed to cognize the world by the method from the particular to the general. This research method is called induction. Instead of deriving abstract conclusions from theory, he called on his students: "Come and see." With the works of Aristotle, ancient natural philosophy ends and experimental knowledge begins. The main geographical work of Aristotle "Meteology" is a kind of general geography of the ancient Greeks, in which physical and geographical knowledge is systematized.

In "Meteology" Aristotle tries to isolate the atmosphere as a separate shell of the Earth. To the atmosphere, he refers to the air and water shells, since moisture circulation occurs in the latter. Aristotle separately considers volcanoes and earthquakes, phenomena occurring on the seas. From his works originate the origins of hydrology, meteorology and geomorphology. Later, the views of Aristotle were developed by his followers, who used the teacher's method in the study of nature.

The method of scientific explanation of the world proposed by Aristotle was based on the use of logic and did not involve an experimental study of its results. It is well known that any scientific provisions after some time begin to slow down the development of scientific thought in a certain sense. So, relying on experience, Aristotle believed that life is impossible in a hot climate, because the hottest place - Libya heats up to 50-60 ° C. So, to the south - near the equator, all living things are destroyed by the sun. According to Aristotle, life is possible only in the temperate zone, and in a cold climate it dies due to the cold.

More than a century after Aristotle, the chief curator of the Alexandria Museum Eratosthenes (circa 276-194 BC) summarized the numerous information accumulated by the explorers of the Earth. It was him who would later be called the "father of geography", since he was the first to propose calling the science of the Earth geography. Eratosthenes is the author of the work "Geographia hupomnemata" - "Geographical Notes". Eratosthenes mathematically substantiated the boundaries between climatic zones, created a map of the world using lines of parallels and meridians. His book has not reached us, and its content is known from excerpts from the "Geography" of the ancient Roman scientist Strabo.

In ancient Rome, the geographical knowledge of Greek scientists was systematized. According to the works of Strabo (65-64 BC - 23-24 AD), we know about the geographical ideas of antiquity. It is no coincidence that some modern scientists count the science of geography precisely from Strabo. It is interesting that the 17-volume work of Strabo "Geography" has been preserved, but four dozen volumes of his "History" have perished. Strabo's "geography" was "discovered" only 600 years after it was written.

Strabo was critical of the methods of scientific explanation of the world proposed by Aristotle and Plato. Instead of explaining the world of the Earth, he limited himself to describing its various regions. Strabo created a work for government officials of the Roman Empire - the world's first reference book for the administrative apparatus.

In ancient Rome, descriptions of various countries, as well as guides for sailors, were quite accurate. Trade with Zanzibar flourished, because the Roman merchants had no idea what horrors, according to Aristotle, await those who dare to enter the Hot Zone.

Ancient geography ends with the works of Claudius Ptolemy (2nd century AD). It is known that Ptolemy is the author of the Almagest, a classic astronomical work in which the Earth was proclaimed the center of the Universe (according to Aristotle). He also created the "Guide to Geography", summarizing the knowledge accumulated by the Romans about the ecumene. Using a grid of parallels and meridians, the scientist mathematically calculated the location of hundreds of points (geographical objects); 6 volumes out of 8 "Manuals" contain tables of latitudes and longitudes. The last volume is made up of maps made on the basis of these tables (see "Ptolemy's World Map"), Ptolemy's maps "pushed" Columbus to go across the Atlantic and discover America, and James Cook - to search and find Australia (Unknown Southern Land - Terra Australiscognita ).

So, ancient geography was basically a descriptive science. This is the main feature of the first stage in the development of the science of geography. Theoretical ideas (broad generalizations) in the geographical works of that time are closely connected with the speculative positions of philosophy. Initially, geography develops within the framework of natural philosophy. After the works of Aristotle, there is a separation from natural philosophy of various sciences, including geography. In ancient Rome, Strabo and Ptolemy systematized the ideas of ancient geographers. It was in ancient times that the foundations of geography (Hecataeus, Strabo), mathematical geography (Eratosthenes, Ptolemy) and natural geographical sciences: hydrology, meteorology, geomorphology (Aristotle) ​​were laid.

Science geography at the stage of generalization of knowledge about the Earth.

After the fall of the Roman Empire, the ancient knowledge of the ecumene remained forgotten for a thousand years, and the word geography ceased to be used at all. Until the 12th century Thanks to pilgrimage, missionary work, crusades, the horizons of Europeans covered large regions. However, information about these regions was not combined together. Only in the XIII century. merchants and missionaries reached China. At that time, Muslim scientists and Byzantine monks preserved ancient knowledge about the Earth, so for several centuries the center of geographical thought moved to the East.

The heritage of ancient geographers was carefully multiplied by Arab scientists. In the X century. they create the first climate atlas of the world - "Kitab al-Ashkal". At the end of the same century, Arab geographers identified 14 climatic zones on the planet and found that the climate changes not only in latitudes, but also from West to East.

In medieval Europe, the works of ancient Greek geographers were forgotten for a long time. The natural economy of the feudal lords required only knowledge of a limited territory. However, over time, there was a need to expand trade, and this means geographic knowledge.

Geography in the era of the great geographical discoveries.

The renaissance is the time of the formation of industry in Europe, the strengthening of world trade relations, the unprecedented growth of science and culture; it is inseparable from the great geographical discoveries and the beginning of the formation of modern natural science. Never before have scientists received so much new information about the Earth. A wide flow of information filled Europe, pushed the horizons of knowledge. And the revival of geographical research was not accidental. The Europeans sought to master the spices of the East, replenish the reserves of gold and precious stones in order to provide capital for the development of trade and industry, and also to spread the Christian faith in response to the conquests of the Muslims. Therefore, by the XV century, the center of geographical thought again moved to the West - to Europe.

Thanks to oceanic expeditions, a man captured the planet with one glance, and recorded the results of his knowledge on globes and maps.

In the interval between the death of Magellan in 1521 in the Philippines and the death of Cook in 1779 in Hawaii, the main part of geographic research concerned the refinement of the outlines of the coasts of new lands. Throughout the era of the great geographical discoveries, scientists have tried to separate the true description of the continents from fantastic explanations.

Trying to describe new phenomena with old terms, travelers used the method of analogy. So, one Florentine described the giraffe as an animal similar to an ostrich with ram's horns, horse's hooves and bird's legs. The method of analogy (from the Greek analogia - similarity, correspondence) is also widely used by modern geographers. Having noticed the similarity of objects in some way, we can assume that they are similar to each other and to others. The use of analogies will be more reliable if the similarity is established not by external, but by the main (essential) features. For example, in geography, knowledge about the processes occurring in one landscape can be transferred to another. In science, this technique is widely used. Often analogies serve as the basis for scientific conjectures, hypotheses, without which science does not develop.

At the end of the era of great geographical discoveries, the formation of a new stage in the development of geography begins. Scientists are trying to systematize and theoretically explain a huge amount of new experimental, empirical facts, information about our planet. Geographers began to think about how the study of the unknown should take place. A new stage in the development of geographical knowledge arose against the background of the scientific revolution of the 17th century.

Bernhard Waren (1622-1650) - the author of "Geographia Generalis" - "General Geography" was the first to show the relationship between the two approaches that existed at that time in the study of the geographical world. According to Varen, the first approach - private descriptions of individual countries (territories) of the world should be combined with the second - broad generalizations in geography. He attributed the characteristics of individual areas to the field of knowledge, which he called Special Geography. The study of the general laws relating to all localities, according to Varen, is carried out by General Geography.

The subject of General Geography is the “amphibious circle”, consisting of land, water (oceans, rivers, swamps, lakes, etc.) and air. Varen created a work that satisfies the practical needs of people, primarily navigators. In it, readers could find a lot of new and general information about planetary phenomena (climate, relief, ores, the ratio of land and oceans, etc.). The third volume of "General Geography" was a practical guide to determining latitude and longitude, laying the path of the ship, according to map projections.

At the same time, Varen lacked a historical approach to the world of the Earth. He believed that mountains, seas, islands, etc. appeared simultaneously with the "circle of amphibians." In this, Varen was guided by the philosophical ideas of that time about the absolute immutability of nature.

The development of manufactory production and the expansion of world trade demanded that geography create accurate descriptions of the economies of countries. Already in the XVI-XVII centuries. the first economic and geographical studies appear. So, the representative of the Florentine companies in Antwerp created the "Description of the Netherlands" (1567). It not only described in detail the population, economy and nature of the country, but also made an attempt to identify the causes of economic and geographical phenomena; for example, to establish the reasons for the economic development of Antwerp.

Geography of the New Age.

In modern times, geography enters the next stage of its development. This is a period of broad generalization of the rich factual material collected over the centuries. At the end of the XVIII century. in Western Europe, conditions appeared for the synthesis of geographical knowledge.

The scientific geographic school in Russia originates from the colleague of Peter I V.N. Tatishchev (1686-1750) and M.V. Lomonosov (1711 - 1765). In the XVIII century. began an intensive colonization of the vast lands of Russia from the Baltic and the Black Sea to the Pacific Ocean. The involvement of various natural resources in the economy required their scientific study and recommendations for their use.

V.N. Tatishchev - historian, botanist, economist, geographer received an assignment from Peter I to create the history and geography of Russia. The system of geographical sciences proposed by V.N. Tatishchev, is similar to the Varen system, whose book at that time was published in Russian. However, V.N. Tatishchev singled out “historical geography” in the system of geographical sciences, dividing it into “ancient”, “middle” and “modern”. Thus, he "returned" the historical approach (method) to geography. Particularly important, he considered the issues of the division of labor in different territories, the specialization of various regions of Russia in the production of products.

M.V. Lomonosov also took a historical approach to the study of the nature of the Earth. In his opinion, the objects of nature develop under the influence of various reasons, which should be studied by scientists.

In modern science, this requirement has taken shape in the form of the principle of determinism (from Latin determinare - to determine) and requires the division of phenomena into causes and effects. Observation of interrelated natural phenomena leads to the understanding that one phenomenon (cause) is followed by another (consequence). For example, after climate change, vegetation inevitably changes, etc.

In 1758 M.V. Lomonosov headed the Geographic Department of the Academy of Sciences. For the first time in history, he proposed the term "economic geography". The main goal of economic geography, according to Lomonosov, is the economic development of natural resources of the vast territory of the country, the placement of production centers, the territorial division of labor in the state.

The end of the 17th - the beginning of the 19th century was the heyday of the creativity of the German philosophers Kant and Hegel in Europe, who created the doctrine of the universal development of the world (dialectics). Kant taught a course in physical geography at the University of Königsberg for forty years. His views on geography still determine the views of many Western European and American scientists today. Namely, those who believe that geography studies only territorial connections between objects. However, with all this, Kant tried to find the reasons for the emergence and development of objects.

Against the backdrop of the scientific revolution of the XIX century. the foundations of a new geography arose. They were laid down in the works of A. Humboldt (1769 - 1859), K. Ritter (1779 - 1859). Humboldt is a researcher of Central and South America, the author of more than 600 scientific works, the founder of Comparative physical geography. A comparison of the various regions of the world that he visited led the scientist to the idea of ​​a natural connection between parts of nature - relief, climate, soils, animals, plants, etc. He began to create a theory of landscape. Using the comparison method, Humboldt identified a number of natural (landscape) zones on the planet. For him, the comparison of different territories was at the same time a comparison of the history of their development. Humboldt also proposed the use of mathematical methods of comparison and demanded to accurately record the countdown of historical (geological) epochs.

A contemporary of Humboldt, the German geographer Ritter is also considered the founder of Comparative Geography. He was the first head of the first department of geography, created at the University of Berlin.

If Humboldt stands at the origins of modern physical geography, then Ritter is rightfully considered one of the founders of modern socio-geographical sciences. With the works of Humboldt and Ritter, the division of geography into natural-scientific and social branches begins.

The works of Humboldt and Ritter complete the evolution of classical geography, the main feature of which lies in its close interweaving with other sciences. In the 19th century the era of specialization of knowledge began. Now no scientist was able to master universal knowledge. The classical period of development of geography is over.

The formation of modern geography

Differentiation of the science of geography (formulation of the system of component physical and geographical sciences). You already know that in the XIX century. in geography, as in other areas of knowledge, the stage of differentiation has begun (from Latin differentia - difference, difference). Separation from the geography of individual branches occurred especially rapidly. The reason for this was the success of the experimental science of the century. Achievements in physics and chemistry led to the fact that natural processes began to be studied in laboratory conditions. The results thus obtained were extended to a wide range of objects. By the end of the XIX century. such an amount of geographical knowledge has accumulated that it became necessary to formalize independent geographical sciences, each of which would study a certain component of nature.

The component-by-component study of the world follows already from the peculiarities of human cognition. One of the methods of studying objects (phenomena) is their mental division into parts. It is called analysis (from the Greek analissis - decomposition, dismemberment). Analysis allows you to separately consider the parts of the whole and reveal the relationships common to all parts. Analysis is inseparable from another method - synthesis (from the Greek syntesis - connection). Synthesis involves the mental connection of all parts into a whole. At the same time, a person is aware of the subject as something integral, consisting of interconnected parts. In geography, a separate (analytical) study of the components of a single nature has always been combined with a holistic view of the world of the Earth. This is confirmed by the works of the founders of modern geography.

After the death of Humboldt and Ritter, the geography of the West was in crisis. The center of geographical thought moved to Russia.

Second half of the 19th century is notable for the huge number of bright works in geographical science. P.P. Semenov-Tyan-Shansky (1827-1914), V.V. Dokuchaev (1846-1903), D.N. Anuchin (1843-1923), A.I. Voeikov (1842-1916) created the basis of geographical science in Russia. P.P. Semenov-Tyan-Shansky, who headed the Russian Geographical Society from 1871 to 1914, was compiled by N.N. Przhevalsky program for the study of Central Asia, and N.N. Miklouho-Maclay - New Guinea.

According to P.P. Semenov-Tian-Shansky, the subject of geography is the study of the natural features of the earth's surface, as well as the activities of a person who changes nature. The pinnacle of geographical research, according to Semenov-Tyan-Shansky, is the study of society. His economic zoning of Russia has become classic.

D.N. Anuchin convincingly showed the role of man in the global change of earthly nature. In a dispute whether the geography studies a person or gives his study to other sciences (history, ethnography, etc.), he expressed the idea that "without a person" the existence of private geography-country knowledge is impossible.

World fame in the study of climate was acquired by A.I. Voeikov. Based on the results of research on the climate of different regions and countries of the world (Europe, America, China, India, Ceylon, Java, Japan), in 1884 he published the capital work “Climates of the Globe, Especially Russia”. In it, the climate was considered in three terms - historical, spatial and systemic, i.e. in relation to other natural components and human activities. Voeikov perfected the snow cover of Russia and its influence on weather and climate.

Having deeply studied the types of human impact on nature, he proposed specific methods for transforming the natural environment based on the laws of development of integral nature (land irrigation in Central Asia, forest cultivation, etc.).

In the last decade of the last century, the talent of the great Russian soil scientist V.V. Dokuchaev. He was the creator of the concept of "single, whole and indivisible" nature, as well as the doctrine of the interaction between the components of animate and inanimate nature. At the center of this teaching is the law of world zonality of nature, which operates both on land and in the ocean. Dokuchaev identified 5 zones:

• 1) boreal (or tundra);
• 2) northern forest (taiga);
• 3) chernozem (forest-steppe and steppe);
• 4) semi-deserts and deserts;
• 5) subtropical and tropical.

Formation of the system of geographical sciences. The modern stage of the study of natural-territorial and territorial-economic systems.

Significant scientific work in the XX century. the school of Berg-Borzov in physical geography, the biogeographical school of Sukachev, the geographical-geochemical school of Vernadsky-Polynov, the economic-geographical school of Baransky-Kolosovsky, and others stand out.

JI.S. Berg (1876-1950) is rightfully considered one of the founders of landscape science. Anuchin's student - Berg - implemented a systematic approach in geography in practice. He considered each landscape as an integral mechanism, the parts of which determine the whole and vice versa.

Berg pays special attention to the analysis of the influence of the landscape on human activity and the reverse impact of man on natural complexes. He introduced the notion of a cultural landscape into literature. Landscapes Berg considers as "atoms" of which the natural environment consists.

The ideas of the scientific school of V.V. Dokuchaev were developed by the botanist, forester V.N. Sukachev. He created the doctrine of biogeocenosis - a community of organisms in their unity with geographic conditions.

N.I. Vavilov united geography and genetics, creating the doctrine of the centers of origin of cultivated plants. He studied these centers during numerous expeditions around the world.

The most brilliant student and follower of V.V. Dokuchaeva is V.I. Vernadsky. He studied the migration of chemical elements on Earth and singled out extraordinary chemical activity in the biosphere. The scientist attached great importance to human activity in the circulation of substances. According to Vernadsky, modern humanity is becoming a powerful geological force. The area of ​​nature that changes under the influence of labor and human thought, Vernadsky called the "noosphere" or the sphere of the mind. The geographical envelope is gradually being transformed into the noosphere. Thanks to the work of V.I. Vernadsky, we have knowledge about this process.

A great contribution to the development of geography was made by S.D. Muraveisky (1884-1950) - an outstanding hydrologist. He considered runoff as a powerful geographical factor in the development of nature, including the organic world. Muraveisky proposed a structural model of a natural geographic system. In it, he linked together three main geographical factors - climate, runoff, topography and three natural processes - soil formation, weathering and the development of the organic world.

The formation of modern socio-economic geography is associated with the names of N.N. Baransky (1881 -1950) and N.N. Kolosovsky (1891 -1954). Baransky developed the question of the geographical division of labor as the main concept in economic geography.

He introduced economic geography into the system of geographical sciences, connected it with history, economics and, of course, with physical geography. Kolosovsky created the theory of economic zoning and laid the foundation for the theory of territorial production complexes (TPC); introduced into economic geography the concept of energy production cycles (processes) that are important for modeling economic regions. The founders of modern socio-economic geography managed to complete the synthesis of knowledge about nature, the history of the development of the territory, economy, population and lay the foundations for natural and economic zoning.

So, geography is a system consisting of closely related sciences. The idea of ​​synthesis of all geographical knowledge is especially relevant today.

An example of a complex, synthetic knowledge of the world of the Earth is the research carried out in all branches of geography. Modern geography, like no other science, has a broad view of the world and, in addition, it is closely connected with many other natural and social sciences.

The long-term development of geography as a science has led to a deepening of its internal differentiation and the emergence of a number of scientific areas. So in economic geography, the following are distinguished: the geography of population, industry, agriculture, services, transport, etc. New areas of scientific research have also appeared, such as medical, military, electoral geography, geoecology, etc.

All methods of geographical research can be divided into traditional and modern. Traditional methods include:

• 1) observations (provide actual data on geographical objects and can be - route and areal, periodic and continuous, stationary and remote);
• 2) cartographic (allows you to study the patterns of spatial distribution and development of the natural territorial complex (NTC) using various general geographic, thematic and complex maps);
• 3) statistical (processing and analysis of data from various observations);
• 4) historical (the study of geographic objects from the moment of their formation to the present time);
• 5) comparative (identification of similarities and differences of geographical objects and phenomena for their classification and prediction of their changes in space and time).

Modern methods of geographical research:

• 1) aerospace (exploration and mapping of the Earth with the help of aircraft, can be photographic, electronic, geophysical and visual);
• 2) geographic forecast and modeling (prediction of the future state of geosystems, graphic, mathematical and machine modeling are distinguished);
• 3) geoinformation (creation of data banks based on information received from satellites, weather stations and other sources).