Speech apparatus. Anatomical and physiological mechanisms of speech

A number of organs take part in the production of speech sounds, which together form the human speech apparatus. This apparatus consists of four main parts: the respiratory apparatus, the larynx, the oral cavity, and the nasal cavity.
The respiratory apparatus consists of the diaphragm, or abdominal barrier, chest, lungs, bronchi, windpipe.
The role of the breathing apparatus in speech is similar to the role of bellows that force air: it produces the air jet necessary for the formation of sound.
There are two phases in the work of the respiratory apparatus: inhalation and exhalation.
When inhaled, air enters the lungs through the windpipe and bronchi; when exhaled, it comes out of them back. With simple breathing (not during speech), both phases are approximately equal in duration. During speech, the inhalation is fast, and the exhalation is prolonged. This is because in the process of speech, mainly exhalation is used, and inhalation only restores the air supply used up in speech. Thus, when we speak, air from the lungs through the bronchi through the windpipe enters the larynx.
The larynx forms the upper end of the windpipe. This is an organ that serves almost exclusively for the purpose of producing sounds. The larynx is like a musical instrument, which gives the most varied in pitch and strength sounds.
Across the larynx are two bundles of elastic muscles, similar to two lips, called the vocal cords. The edges of the vocal cords facing each other are free and form a gap called the vocal cord.
When the ligaments are not stretched, the glottis is wide open, and air passes freely through it. It is this position of the ligament that is occupied in the formation of deaf consonants. When they are stretched and in contact with each other, the free passage for air is difficult. The air current passes forcefully between the ligaments, resulting in an oscillatory motion that causes them to tremble and vibrate. The result is a musical sound called a voice. He takes part in the formation of vowels, sonorous and voiced consonants.
The oral cavity plays a dual role in the formation of sounds. On the one hand, it serves as a resonator, which gives a different color (timbre) to sounds. On the other hand, it is the place where independent noises of different quality are produced, which are either mixed with the voice, or themselves, without the participation of the voice, form sounds.
The quality of the noises in the oral cavity, as well as the role of the oral cavity as a resonator, depend on the volume and shape, which can be different due to the movement of the lips and tongue. These movements are called articulations. Through articulations, each sound of speech receives its final "finish". This makes it different from other sounds. The articulations of the tongue and lips are joined by the movement of the lower jaw, which, lowering, expands the oral cavity or narrows it in a reverse movement.
Language is especially important in the formation of speech sounds. It is extremely mobile and takes various positions in relation to the teeth and palate. The front part of the tongue is especially mobile, the tip of which can touch almost any place in the mouth, starting with the teeth and ending with the soft palate.
Depending on which part, how much and to what place of the palate the tongue rises, the volume and shape of the oral cavity change, resulting in various noises.
The language cannot draw any natural boundaries between its parts, so the division is made completely conditionally.
The part of the tongue located against the dentition of the palate (together with the tip of the tongue) is called the anterior. The part of the tongue located against the hard palate is the middle one.
The part of the tongue opposite the soft palate is called the back.
Differences in sounds depend on differences in the articulations of the tongue, and one must distinguish between the place and method of articulation.
The place of articulation is determined by:

1. what part of it articulates the language;
2. in relation to which point it articulates (to the teeth, palate).

The front of the tongue can articulate in relation to the upper teeth (for example, when forming consonants, [then], [h], [s], [k], [l]) and in relation to the dental part of the palate (for example, when forming consonants [g], [nі], [p]).
When the tongue articulates with its middle part, then its back approaches the hard palate (for example, when forming a consonant sound [/] or vowels [i], [e]).
When the tongue articulates with the back, then its back rises to the soft palate (when consonants [g], [k], [X] or vowels [y] gt; [o]) are formed.
When pronouncing consonant sounds of the Russian language, the movement of the middle part of the tongue can join other articulations, thanks to such additional articulation, the so-called soft pronunciation of consonants is obtained.
What we call “softness” of sound is acoustically determined by the higher pitch of oral noises compared to the corresponding “hard” sound. This greater pitch is associated with a change in shape and a decrease in the volume of the resonant oral cavity.
The work of the lips also plays a large role in the formation of sounds, but less than the tongue. Lip articulations are performed either with both lips, or only with the lower lip.
With the help of the lips, independent noises, similar to those produced by the tongue, can be produced. For example, lips, closing with each other, can form a shutter, which, with an explosion, is torn apart by a stream of air. This is how the consonants [and] (without a voice) and [b] (with a voice) are formed. If at the same time the passage to the nasal cavity is open, then a consonant [l *] is obtained.
The border between the oral cavity and the passage into the nasal cavity is the so-called palatine curtain (a movable soft palate ending in a small tongue). The purpose of the palatine curtain is to open or close the air passage from the pharynx into the nasal cavity.
The purpose of the nasal cavity is to serve as a resonator in the formation of certain sounds. During the formation of most of the sounds of the Russian language, the nasal cavity does not take part, since the palatine curtain is raised and air access to the nasal cavity is closed. In the formation of sounds
[g], [n] the palatine curtain is lowered, the passage to the nasal cavity is open, and then the oral cavity and the nasal cavity form one common resonating chamber, another qualitative color - timbre.

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Knowledge of the structure and functional organization of speech activity allows us to represent the complex mechanism of speech in the norm, analyze speech pathologies and correctly determine the ways of corrective action. Speech is one of the highest mental functions of a person. The speech act is carried out by a complex system of organs in which the leading role belongs to the brain. The basis of any higher mental function is complex functional systems located in different areas of the central nervous system, at different levels and united by the unity of the working action.

Speech is the perfect form of communication that only humans possess. In the process of communication, people exchange thoughts, influence each other. Speech communication takes place through language.

Language is a system of phonetic, lexical and grammatical means of communication. The words necessary for the expression of thought are selected, connected according to the rules of the grammar of the language and pronounced by articulation of the speech organs. In order for a person's speech to be articulate and understandable, the movements of the speech organs must be regular and accurate, automatic, which would be carried out without special efforts. The speaker follows only the train of thought, and not the position of the tongue in the mouth. This happens as a result of the speech mechanism. To understand the mechanism of speech delivery, it is necessary to know the structure of the speech apparatus well. The speech apparatus consists of two closely related parts: the central (or regulatory) speech apparatus and the peripheral (or executive). The central speech apparatus is located in the brain. It consists of the cerebral cortex (mainly the left hemisphere), subcortical nodes, pathways, brainstem nuclei (primarily the medulla oblongata), and nerves leading to the respiratory, vocal and articulatory muscles.

Speech develops on the basis of reflexes. Speech reflexes are associated with the activity of various parts of the brain. However, some parts of the cerebral cortex are of paramount importance in the formation of speech. This is the frontal, temporal, parietal and occipital lobes of the predominantly left hemisphere (in left-handers, the right). The frontal gyrus is a motor area and is involved in the formation of one's own oral speech. The temporal gyrus is the speech-auditory area where sound stimuli arrive. Therefore, we can perceive someone else's speech. For understanding speech, the parietal lobe of the cerebral cortex is important. The occipital lobe is the visual area and ensures the assimilation of written speech. The subcortical nuclei are in charge of the rhythm, tempo and expressiveness of speech. The cerebral cortex is connected with the organs of speech by two types of neural pathways: centrifugal and centripetal.

Centrifugal (motor) nerve pathways connect the cerebral cortex with the muscles that regulate the activity of the peripheral speech apparatus. The centrifugal path begins in the cerebral cortex. From the periphery to the center, that is, from the area of ​​\u200b\u200bthe speech organs to the cerebral cortex, there are centripetal paths. The centripetal pathway begins in proprioreceptors and baroreceptors. Proprioceptors are found inside muscles, tendons, and on the articular surfaces of moving organs. Baroreceptors are excited by changes in pressure on them and are located in the pharynx. In the nuclei of the trunk, the cranial nerves originate: trigeminal, facial, glossopharyngeal, vagus, accessory and hypoglossal. They innervate the muscles that move the lower jaw, facial muscles, muscles of the larynx and vocal folds, pharynx and soft palate, as well as the muscles of the neck, muscles of the tongue. Through this system of cranial nerves, nerve impulses are transmitted from the central speech apparatus to the peripheral.

The peripheral speech apparatus consists of three sections: respiratory, vocal and articulatory. The respiratory section is the chest with the lungs, bronchi and trachea. Speaking is closely related to breathing. Speech is formed in the exhalation phase. In the process of exhalation, the air stream simultaneously performs voice-forming and articulatory functions. Breathing during speech is significantly different from normal. The exhalation is much longer than the inhalation; at the moment of speech, the number of respiratory movements is half that of normal breathing. The vocal department is the larynx and the vocal folds located in it. Articulation is the activity of the speech organs associated with the pronunciation of speech sounds and their various components that make up syllables, words.

Organs of speech articulation - organs that provide movement of the oral cavity. Way (articulation) - the position that the organs occupy (take) during movement. The organs of the oral cavity and the oral cavity itself are important for articulation. It is in it that the voice is repeatedly amplified and differentiated into certain sounds, providing the emergence of phonemes. Here, in the oral cavity, sounds of a new quality are formed - noises, from which articulate speech is subsequently formed. The ability to differentiate the voice into certain phonemes occurs because the organs of the oral cavity and the structures that form the oral cavity are in motion. This leads to a change in the size and shape of the oral cavity, to the formation of certain closures that close or narrow the oral cavity. When closing, the air flow is delayed, then with noise it breaks through this shutter. This contributes to the emergence of some certain speech sounds. When narrowing, a rather long noise occurs, which occurs as a result of friction of the air flow against the walls of the narrowed cavity. This produces a different kind of speech sounds.

The main organs of articulation are the tongue, lips, jaws (upper and lower), hard and soft palate, and alveoli. In the anatomical relationship, the mouth is divided into two parts: the vestibule of the mouth and the oral cavity proper. The vestibule of the mouth is a slit-like space bounded from the outside by the lips and cheeks, from the inside by the teeth and alveolar processes of the jaws.

Mimic muscles are laid in the thickness of the lips and cheeks; outside they are covered with skin, and from the side of the vestibule of the oral cavity - with a mucous membrane. The mucous membrane of the lips and cheeks passes to the alveolar processes of the jaws, while folds form on the midline - the frenulums of the upper and lower lips. On the alveolar processes of the jaws, the mucous membrane is tightly fused with the periosteum and is called the gum. The oral cavity itself is bounded from above by a hard and soft palate, from below by the diaphragm of the mouth, in front and from the sides by teeth and alveolar processes, and from behind through the pharynx it communicates with the pharynx. The lips are a mobile formation. They are formed by the circular muscle of the mouth, which provides a certain state of the oral cavity (open, closed) and provides the ability to satisfy the need for food (sucking).

The lips have several more muscles in their composition - these are the square muscle of the lower lip, the chin muscle, the incisor muscle, the triangular, the square muscle of the upper lip, the zygomatic muscle (canine), the muscles that lift the upper lip and the corner of the mouth. These muscles provide mobility of the circular muscle - they are attached at one end to the bone of the face of the skull, and at the other end they are woven into the circular muscle of the mouth in a certain place. Without forming the basis of the lips, they provide the mobility of the lips in different directions. Lips are a special shutter of a certain group of sounds, they actively participate in the articulation of other sounds, which correspond to one or another mode of language. The outlines of the lips also provide articulation. The lips contribute to changing the size and shape of the vestibule of the mouth, thereby influencing the resonance of the entire oral cavity. Of great importance in speech activity is the cervical muscle (muscle of trumpeters). Being a fairly powerful formation that closes the oral cavity on the sides, it plays a sufficient role in the articulation of sounds. It forms a certain way together with the circular muscle of the mouth for pronouncing certain sounds, changes the size and shape of the oral cavity, providing a change in resonance during articulation.

The cheeks are a muscular formation. The buccal muscle is covered on the outside with skin, and on the inside with a mucous membrane, which is a continuation of the mucous membrane of the lips. The mucous membrane covers the inside of the entire oral cavity, with the exception of the teeth. The group of chewing muscles should also be attributed to the system of muscles that change the shape of the mouth opening. These include the chewing muscle, temporal muscle, internal and external pterygoid muscles. The masseter and temporalis muscles elevate the lower jaw.

The pterygoid muscles, contracting simultaneously on both sides, push the jaw forward. When these muscles contract on one side, the jaw moves in the opposite direction. The lowering of the lower jaw when opening the mouth occurs mainly due to its own gravity (the chewing muscles are relaxed at the same time) and partly due to contraction of the neck muscles. The muscles of the lips and cheeks are controlled by the facial nerve. The chewing muscles receive commands from the motor root of the trigeminal nerve. The hard palate also belongs to the organs of articulation.

The hard palate is a bony wall that separates the oral cavity from the nasal cavity and is both the roof of the oral cavity and the bottom of the nasal cavity. In its anterior part, the hard palate is formed by the palatine processes of the maxillary bones, and in the posterior part, by the horizontal plates of the palatine bones. The mucous membrane covering the hard palate is tightly fused with the periosteum. A bone suture is visible along the midline of the hard palate. In its form, the hard palate is a vault convex upwards. The size of the palatine vault varies greatly from person to person.

In cross section, it can be higher and narrower or flatter and wider, and in the longitudinal direction, the vault of the palate can be domed, gently sloping or steep. The hard palate is the passive component of the lingo-palatal shutter. The configuration of the hard palate is marked by diversity. There is a certain classification of the hard palate. In horizontal section, three forms of the sky are distinguished: an oval shape, a blunt oval, and a pointed oval oval. For speech articulation, the curvature of the palatine vault in the sagittal direction is especially significant. With various forms of the arch, there are certain methods for the formation of various ways.

The soft palate is a formation that serves as a continuation of the hard palate formed by the bones. The soft palate is a muscular formation covered with a mucous membrane. The back of the soft palate is called the velum of the palate. When the palatine muscles are relaxed, the palatine curtain hangs freely down, and when they contract, it rises up and back. In the middle of the palatine curtain there is an elongated process - the uvula. The soft palate is located on the border of the oral cavity and pharynx and serves as a second reed seal. In its structure, the soft palate is an elastic muscular plate, which is very mobile and, under certain conditions, can close the entrance to the nasopharynx, rising up and back and opening it. This regulates the amount and direction of the airflow from the larynx, directing this flow either through the nasal cavity or through the oral cavity, while the voice sounds differently. When the soft palate is lowered, air enters the nasal cavity, the voice sounds muffled. When the soft palate is raised, it comes into contact with the walls of the pharynx and ensures that sound production from the nasal cavity is turned off, only the oral cavity, pharyngeal cavity and upper part of the larynx resonate.

The tongue is a massive muscular organ. With closed jaws, it fills almost the entire oral cavity. The front part of the tongue is movable, the back part is fixed and is called the root of the tongue. Distinguish between the tip and front edge of the tongue, the lateral edges of the tongue and the back of the tongue. The back of the tongue is conditionally divided into three parts: anterior, middle and posterior. This division is purely functional, and there are no anatomical boundaries between these three parts. Most of the muscles that make up the mass of the tongue have a longitudinal direction - from the root of the tongue to its tip. The fibrous septum of the tongue runs along the entire tongue in the midline. It is fused with the inner surface of the mucous membrane of the back of the tongue.

The muscles of the tongue are divided into two groups. The muscles of one group start from the bone skeleton and end in one place or another on the inner surface of the mucous membrane of the tongue. The muscles of the other group are attached with both ends to different parts of the mucous membrane. The contraction of the muscles of the first group ensures the movement of the tongue as a whole, while the contraction of the muscles of the second group changes the shape and position of the individual parts of the tongue. The first group of muscles of the tongue includes the genio-lingual muscle, the hyoid-lingual muscle, and the awl-lingual muscle. The second group of muscles of the tongue includes the upper longitudinal muscle of the tongue, located under the mucous membrane of the back of the tongue, the lower longitudinal muscle of the tongue, which is a long narrow bundle located under the mucous membrane of the lower surface of the tongue, the transverse muscle of the tongue, consisting of several bundles, which, starting at septum of the tongue, pass through a mass of longitudinal fibers and attach to the inner surface of the mucous membrane of the lateral edge of the tongue. The intricately intertwined system of the muscles of the tongue and the variety of points of their attachment provide the ability to widely change the shape, position and tension of the tongue, which plays an important role in the process of pronouncing speech sounds, as well as in the processes of chewing and swallowing.

The floor of the oral cavity is formed by a muscular-membranous wall running from the edge of the lower jaw to the hyoid bone. The mucous membrane of the lower surface of the tongue, passing to the bottom of the oral cavity, forms a fold in the midline - the frenulum of the tongue. The hyoid bone plays an active role in the process of tongue motility. It is located in the midline of the neck, just below and behind the chin. This bone serves as a site of attachment not only for the skeletal muscles of the tongue, but also for the muscles that form the diaphragm or lower wall of the oral cavity. The hyoid bone, together with muscle formations, provide a change in the oral cavity in its shape and size, which means they take part in the resonator function.

The loudness and distinctness of speech sounds are created thanks to the resonators that are located in the entire extension tube. The extension tube is everything that is located above the larynx: the pharynx, oral cavity and nasal cavity. In humans, the mouth and pharynx have one cavity. This creates the possibility of pronouncing a variety of sounds. In animals, the pharyngeal and oral cavities are connected by a very narrow gap. In humans, the pharynx and mouth form a common tube - an extension tube, which, due to its structure, can change in volume and shape. For example, the pharynx can be elongated and compressed, and, conversely, very stretched. Changes in the shape and volume of the extension pipe are of great importance for the formation of speech sounds. These changes in the extension pipe create the phenomenon of resonance.

As a result of resonance, some overtones of speech sounds are amplified, others are muffled. There is a specific speech timbre of sounds. For example, when pronouncing the sound “a”, the oral cavity expands, and the pharynx narrows and stretches. And when pronouncing the sound “and”, on the contrary, the oral cavity contracts, and the pharynx expands. One larynx does not create a specific speech sound, it is formed not only in the larynx, but also in resonators (pharyngeal, oral, nasal). The extension pipe, in the formation of speech sounds, performs a dual function: a resonator and a noise vibrator (the function of a sound vibrator is performed by the vocal folds that are located in the larynx). Noise vibrators are the gaps between the lips, between the tongue and the alveoli, between the lips and teeth, as well as the junctions between these organs pierced by a jet of air.

With the help of a noise vibrator, deaf consonants are formed. With the simultaneous activation of the tone vibrator (oscillations of the vocal folds), voiced and sonorous consonants are formed. The first section of the peripheral speech apparatus serves to supply air, the second - to form a voice, the third is a resonator, which gives the sound strength and color and thus forms the characteristic sounds of our speech, resulting from the activity of individual active organs of the articulatory apparatus. In order for the pronunciation of words to be carried out in accordance with the intended information, commands are selected in the cerebral cortex to organize speech movements. These commands are called the articulatory program.

The articulatory program is implemented in the executive part of the speech-motor analyzer. In the respiratory, phonator and resonator systems. Speech movements are carried out so precisely that as a result certain speech sounds appear and oral (or expressive) speech is formed. Let us briefly summarize the functions of the various components of the speech apparatus in the articulation of sounds. The peculiarity of the extension tube of the human vocal apparatus is that it not only amplifies the voice and gives it an individual color (timbre), but also serves as a place for the formation of speech sounds.

Some parts of the extension pipe (nasal cavity, hard palate, posterior pharyngeal wall) are motionless and are called passive organs of pronunciation. Other parts (lower jaw, lips, tongue, soft palate) are mobile and are called active pronunciation organs. When the lower jaw moves, the mouth opens or closes.

Various movements of the tongue and lips change the shape of the oral cavity, form bonds or cracks in different places of the oral cavity. The soft palate, rising and pressing against the back wall of the pharynx, closes the entrance to the nose, descending - opens it. The activity of the active organs of pronunciation, which is called articulation, ensures the formation of speech sounds, i.e., phonemes. The acoustic features of speech sounds, which make it possible to distinguish them from each other by ear, are due to the peculiarities of their articulation. Consider the features of the articulation of vowels. A feature common to all vowels that distinguishes their articulation from the articulation of all consonants is the absence of obstacles in the path of exhaled air. The sound that arises in the larynx in the extension tube is amplified and perceived as a clear voice without any admixture of noise. The sound of a voice, as was said, consists of a fundamental tone and a whole series of additional tones - overtones.

In the extension pipe, not only the fundamental tone is enhanced, but also the overtones, and not all overtones are amplified equally: depending on the shape of the resonating cavities, mainly the oral cavity and partly the pharynx, some frequency areas are amplified more, others less, and some frequencies and are not enhanced at all. These enhanced frequency regions, or formants, characterize the acoustic features of various vowels. Each vowel corresponds to a special location of the active pronunciation organs - tongue, lips, soft palate. Due to this, the same sound that arose in the larynx acquires in the extension pipe, mainly in the oral cavity, the color characteristic of a particular vowel.

The fact that the features of the sound of vowels do not depend on the sound that arose in the larynx, but only on the vibrations of the air in the correspondingly established oral cavity, can be verified by simple experiments. If you give the oral cavity the form that it takes when pronouncing one or another vowel, for example, “a”, “o”, or “u”, and at this time let a stream of air from the furs past the mouth or flick a finger on the cheek, then you can clearly hear a peculiar sound, quite distinctly reminiscent of the corresponding vowel sound. The shape of the mouth and pharynx, characteristic of each vowel, depends mainly on the position of the tongue and lips. The movements of the tongue back and forth, its greater or lesser elevation to a certain part of the sky change the volume and shape of the resonating cavity. The lips, stretching forward and rounding, form a resonator opening and lengthen the resonating cavity.

The articulatory classification of vowels is built taking into account: 1) the participation or non-participation of the lips; 2) degree of tongue elevation; and 3) location of tongue elevation. A distinctive feature of the articulation of consonants is that when they are formed, various kinds of obstacles arise in the path of the exhaled air stream in the extension pipe. Overcoming these obstacles, the air stream produces noises, which determine the acoustic features of most consonants. The nature of the sound of individual consonants depends on the method of noise formation and the place of its occurrence. In some cases, the organs of pronunciation form a complete closure, which is torn with force by a stream of exhaled air.

At the moment of this break (or explosion), noise is produced. This is how stop, or explosive, consonants are formed. In other cases, the active organ of pronunciation only approaches the passive one, so that a narrow gap is formed between them. In these cases, the noise occurs as a result of the friction of the air jet against the edges of the slot. This is how fricative consonants are formed. If the organs of pronunciation, which have formed a complete closure, do not open instantly, by means of an explosion, but by passing the closure into a gap, then a complex articulation arises with a stop beginning and a slotted end. Such articulation is typical for the formation of stop-slit (fused) consonants, or affricates. The air jet, overcoming the resistance of the pronunciation organ blocking its path, can bring it into a state of vibration (trembling), resulting in a kind of intermittent sound. This is how trembling consonants, or vibrants, are formed. If there is complete closure in one place of the extension tube (for example, between the lips or between the tongue and teeth), in another place (for example, on the sides of the tongue or behind the lowered soft palate), there may be a free passage for the air jet.

In these cases, almost no noise occurs, but the sound of the voice acquires a characteristic timbre and is noticeably muffled. The consonants formed with such articulation are called stop-passing. Depending on where the air stream is directed - into the nasal cavity or into the oral cavity, the stop-passing consonants are divided into nasal and oral. The features of the characteristic noise for consonants depend not only on the method of its formation, but also on the place of occurrence. Both explosion noise and friction noise can occur at different locations in the extension pipe. In some cases, the active organ of pronunciation, forming a bow or gap, is the lower lip, and the resulting consonants are called labial. In other cases, the active organ of pronunciation is the language, and then the consonants are called lingual. When most consonants are formed, the main method of articulation (bow, narrowing, vibration) can be supplemented by additional articulation in the form of raising the middle part of the back of the tongue to the hard palate, or the so-called palatalization, the acoustic result of palatalization of consonants is their softening.

The classification of consonants is based on the following features: 1) the participation of noise and voice; 2) method of articulation; 3) place of articulation; 4) the absence or presence of palatalization, in other words, hardness or softness. Consonants formed with the help of voice and with mild noise are called sonorants. Sonorant consonants are opposed to all other consonants, which are called noisy. Unlike sonorants, they are formed with the participation of sufficiently strong and clearly distinguishable noises. Noisy consonants are divided into two groups. One group is consonants formed without the participation of the voice, with the help of noise alone. They are called deaf. When they are pronounced, the glottis is opened, the vocal cords do not oscillate.

Another group is consonants formed with the help of noise and accompanied by a voice. They are called voiced. Most noisy consonants are pairs of voiceless and voiced. According to the method of articulation, i.e. According to the way the barrier is formed between the active and passive organs of pronunciation, the consonants are divided into five groups. Noisy consonants form three groups. The first is stop, or explosive. The second is slotted (protoric), or fricative. The third is occlusive-slotted (fused), or affricates. Sonorant consonants are divided into two groups according to the method of articulation: stop-passing and trembling, or vibrants. According to the place of articulation, consonants are primarily divided into two groups depending on the active pronunciation organ involved in their formation, namely, labial and lingual. The labial consonants, in turn, are divided into two groups depending on the passive organ relative to which the lower lip articulates: labial and labial-dental.

Lingual consonants, depending on the passive organ in relation to which the language articulates, are divided into five groups: lingual-dental, lingual-alveolar, lingual-anteropalatal, lingual-mid palatal, lingual-posterior palatal. Palatalized consonants (that is, consonants formed using the additional articulation described above, which consists in raising the middle part of the back of the tongue to the hard palate) are called soft, in contrast to non-palatalized, or hard consonants. Most consonants are hard and soft pairs.

The speech apparatus is a set of interacting human organs that are actively involved in the emergence of sounds and speech breathing, thereby forming speech. The speech apparatus includes the organs of hearing, articulation, respiration, and today we will take a closer look at the structure of the speech apparatus and the nature of human speech.

Sound formation

To date, the structure of the speech apparatus can be safely considered 100% studied. Thanks to this, we have the opportunity to learn how sound is born and what causes speech disorders.

Sounds are generated due to the contraction of the muscle tissues of the peripheral speech apparatus. Starting a conversation, a person automatically inhales air. From the lungs, the air flow enters the larynx, nerve impulses cause vibration and they, in turn, create sounds. Sounds add up to words. Words into sentences. And the proposals - in intimate conversations.

Speech, or, as it is also called, voice apparatus has two departments: central and peripheral (executive). The first consists of the brain and its cortex, subcortical nodes, pathways, stem nuclei and nerves. Peripheral, in turn, is represented by a set of executive organs of speech. It includes: bones, muscles, ligaments, cartilage and nerves. Thanks to the nerves, the listed organs receive tasks.

Central department

Like other manifestations of the nervous system, speech arises through reflexes, which, in turn, are associated with the brain. The most important parts of the brain responsible for speech reproduction are: the frontal parietal and occipital regions. For right-handers, this role is played by the right hemisphere, and for left-handers, the left hemisphere.

The frontal (lower) gyrus is responsible for the creation of oral speech. The convolutions located in the temporal zone perceive all sound stimuli, that is, they are responsible for hearing. The process of understanding the sounds heard occurs in the parietal region of the cerebral cortex. Well, the occipital part is responsible for the function of visual perception of written speech. If we consider in more detail the speech apparatus of the child, we can see that his occipital part is developing especially actively. Thanks to it, the child visually fixes the articulation of the elders, which leads to the development of his oral speech.

The brain interacts with the peripheral region through centripetal and centrifugal pathways. The latter send brain signals to the organs of the speech apparatus. Well, the first ones are responsible for delivering the response signal.

The peripheral speech apparatus consists of three more departments. Let's consider each of them.

respiratory department

We all know that breathing is the most important physiological process. The person breathes reflexively without thinking about it. The process of breathing is regulated by special centers of the nervous system. It consists of three stages, continuously following each other: inhalation, short pause, exhalation.

Speech is always formed on the exhale. Therefore, the air flow created by a person during a conversation performs articulatory and voice-forming functions at the same time. If this principle is violated in any way, speech is immediately distorted. That is why many speakers pay attention to speech breathing.

The respiratory organs of the speech apparatus are represented by the lungs, bronchi, intercostal muscles and the diaphragm. The diaphragm is an elastic muscle that, when relaxed, has the shape of a dome. When it, together with the intercostal muscles, contracts, the chest increases in volume and inspiration occurs. Accordingly, when it relaxes - exhale.

Voice department

We continue to consider the departments of the speech apparatus. So, the voice has three main characteristics: strength, timbre and pitch. The vibration of the vocal cords causes the air flow from the lungs to be converted into vibrations of small air particles. These pulsations, transmitted to the environment, create the sound of the voice.

Timbre can be called sound coloring. For all people, it is different and depends on the shape of the vibrator that creates vibrations of the ligaments.

Articulatory department

The speech articulatory apparatus is simply called sound-producing. It includes two groups of organs: active and passive.

active organs

As the name implies, these organs can be mobile and are directly involved in the formation of the voice. They are represented by the tongue, lips, soft palate and lower jaw. Since these organs are composed of muscle fibers, they are amenable to training.

When the organs of speech change their position, constrictions and locks appear in various parts of the sound-producing apparatus. This leads to the formation of a sound of one kind or another.

The soft palate and mandible can rise and fall. With this movement, they open or close the passage to the nasal cavity. The lower jaw is responsible for the formation of stressed vowels, namely the sounds: "A", "O", "U", "I", "S", "E".

The main organ of articulation is the tongue. Thanks to the abundance of muscles, he is extremely mobile. The tongue can: shorten and lengthen, become narrower and wider, be flat and arched.

Human lips, being a mobile formation, take an active part in the formation of words and sounds. Lips change their shape and size, providing the pronunciation of vowel sounds.

The soft palate, or, as it is also called, the palatine curtain, is a continuation of the hard palate and lies at the top of the oral cavity. It, like the lower jaw, can rise and fall, separating the pharynx from the nasopharynx. The soft palate originates behind the alveoli, near the upper teeth, and ends with a small tongue. When a person pronounces any sounds other than "M" and "H", the veil of palate rises. If for some reason it is lowered or motionless, the sound comes out "nasal". The voice is raspy. The reason for this is simple - when the palate is lowered, sound waves, along with air, enter the nasopharynx.

Passive Organs

The speech apparatus of a person, or rather its articulatory department, also includes immovable organs, which are the support for the mobile ones. These are teeth, nasal cavity, hard palate, alveoli, larynx and pharynx. Although these organs are passive, they have a huge impact on

Now that we know what the human voice apparatus consists of and how it works, let's look at the main problems that may affect it. Problems with the pronunciation of words, as a rule, arise from the lack of formation of the speech apparatus. When certain parts of the articulatory department become ill, this is reflected in the correct resonation and clarity of pronunciation of sounds. Therefore, it is important that the organs that are involved in the formation of speech are healthy and work in perfect harmony.

The speech apparatus can be disturbed for various reasons, since this is a rather complex mechanism of our body. However, among them there are problems that occur most often:

1. Defects in the structure of organs and tissues.
2. Incorrect use of the speech apparatus.
3. Disorders of the corresponding parts of the central nervous system.

If you have speech problems, do not put them on the back burner. And the reason here is not only that speech is the most important factor in the formation of human relations. Usually, people whose speech apparatus is impaired not only speak poorly, but also experience difficulties in breathing, chewing food, and other processes. Therefore, by eliminating the lack of speech, you can get rid of a number of problems.

Preparation of speech organs for work

In order for speech to be beautiful and relaxed, it needs to be taken care of. This usually takes place in preparation for public performances, when any hesitation and mistake can cost reputation. Speech organs are prepared in work with the aim of activating (tuning) the main muscle fibers. Namely, the muscles that are involved in speech breathing, the resonators responsible for the sonority of the voice, and the active organs, on the shoulders of which the intelligible pronunciation of sounds lies.

The first thing to remember is that the human speech apparatus functions better with proper posture. This is a simple but important principle. To make speech clearer, you need to keep your head straight and your back straight. The shoulders should be relaxed and the shoulder blades should be slightly flattened. Now nothing prevents you from saying beautiful words. Getting used to the correct posture, you can not only take care of the clarity of speech, but also gain a more favorable appearance.

For those who, by the nature of their activities, speak a lot, it is important to relax the organs responsible for the quality of speech and restore their full working capacity. Relaxation of the speech apparatus is ensured by performing special exercises. It is recommended to do them immediately after a long conversation, when the vocal organs are very tired.

Relaxation posture

You may have already come across concepts such as posture and relaxation mask. These two exercises are aimed at muscle relaxation or, as they say, removal. In fact, they are nothing complicated. So, to assume a relaxation pose, you need to sit on a chair and bend forward slightly with your head bowed. In this case, the legs should stand with the whole foot and form a right angle with each other. They should also bend at right angles. This can be achieved by choosing the right chair. The arms hang down, with the forearms resting lightly on the thighs. Now you need to close your eyes and relax as much as possible.

To make rest and relaxation as complete as possible, you can do some forms of auto-training. At first glance it seems that this is a pose of a dejected person, but in fact it is quite effective for relaxing the whole body, including the speech apparatus.

Relaxation mask

This simple technique is also very important for speakers and those who, due to the specifics of their activities, talk a lot. There is also nothing complicated here. The essence of the exercise is the alternating tension of the various muscles of the face. You need to “put on” different “masks” on yourself: joy, surprise, longing, anger, and so on. Having done all this, you need to relax the muscles. It is not at all difficult to do this. Just say the sound "T" on a weak exhalation and leave the jaw in a free lowered position.

Relaxation is one of the elements of oral hygiene. In addition to it, this concept includes protection against colds and hypothermia, avoidance of mucosal irritants and speech training.

Conclusion

This is how interesting and complex our speech apparatus is. In order to fully enjoy one of the most important gifts of a person - the ability to communicate, you need to monitor the hygiene of the vocal apparatus and treat it with care.

The speech apparatus consists of two closely related parts: the central (or regulatory) speech apparatus and the peripheral (or executive) (Fig. 1).

The central speech apparatus is located in the brain. It consists of the cerebral cortex (mainly the left hemisphere), subcortical nodes, pathways, brainstem nuclei (primarily the medulla oblongata), and nerves leading to the respiratory, vocal and articulatory muscles.

What is the function of the central speech apparatus and its departments?

Speech, like other manifestations of higher nervous activity, develops on the basis of reflexes. Speech reflexes are associated with the activity of various parts of the brain. However, some parts of the cerebral cortex are of paramount importance in the formation of speech. This is the frontal, temporal, parietal and occipital lobes of the predominantly left hemisphere of the brain (in left-handers, the right). The frontal gyrus (lower) is a motor area and is involved in the formation of one's own oral speech (Broc's center). The temporal gyrus (upper) is the speech-auditory area where sound stimuli arrive (Wernicke's center). Thanks to this, the process of perception of someone else's speech is carried out. For understanding speech, the parietal lobe of the cerebral cortex is important. The occipital lobe is the visual area and ensures the assimilation of written speech (the perception of letter images when reading and writing). In addition, the child begins to develop speech due to his visual perception of the articulation of adults.

The subcortical nuclei are in charge of the rhythm, tempo and expressiveness of speech.

Conducting paths. The cerebral cortex is connected with the organs of speech (peripheral) by two types of nerve pathways: centrifugal and centripetal.

Centrifugal (motor) nerve pathways connect the cerebral cortex with the muscles that regulate the activity of the peripheral speech apparatus. The centrifugal pathway begins in the cerebral cortex at Broca's center.

From the periphery to the center, that is, from the region of the speech organs to the cerebral cortex, there are centripetal paths.

centripetal path It starts in proprioreceptors and baroreceptors.

Proprioreceptors are located inside the muscles, tendons and on the articular surfaces of moving organs.

Rice. 1. The structure of the speech apparatus: 1 - brain: 2 - nasal cavity: 3 - hard palate; 4 - oral cavity; 5 - lips; 6 - incisors; 7 - tip of the tongue; 8 - back of the tongue; 9 - the root of the tongue; 10 - epiglottis: 11 - pharynx; 12 -- larynx; 13 - trachea; 14 - right bronchus; 15 - right lung: 16 - diaphragm; 17 - esophagus; 18 - spine; 19 - spinal cord; 20 - soft palate

Speech sounds are formed as a result of a certain work of the speech apparatus. The movements and positions of the speech organs necessary for the pronunciation of a sound are called the articulation of this sound (from lat. articulare- "to speak articulately"). The articulation of sound is based on the coordinated work of various parts of the speech apparatus.

The speech apparatus is a set of human organs necessary for the production of speech.

The lower floor of the speech apparatus consists of the respiratory organs: lungs, bronchi and trachea (windpipe). Here an air jet arises, which participates in the formation of vibrations that create sound, and transmits these vibrations to the external environment.

The middle floor of the speech apparatus is the larynx. It consists of cartilage, between which two muscular films are stretched - the vocal cords. During normal breathing, the vocal cords are relaxed and air flows freely through the larynx. The same position of the vocal cords when pronouncing deaf consonants. If the vocal cords are close and tense, then when air passes through a narrow gap between them, they tremble. So there is a voice involved in the formation of vowels and voiced consonants.

The upper floor of the speech apparatus is the organs located above the larynx. The pharynx adjoins the larynx directly. Its upper part is called the nasopharynx. The pharyngeal cavity passes into two cavities - oral and nasal, which are separated by the palate.

Pronunciation apparatus:

1 - hard palate; 2 - alveoli; 3 - upper lip; 4 - upper teeth; 5 - lower lip; b - lower teeth; 7 - front part of the tongue; 8 - the middle part of the tongue; 9 - back of the tongue; 10 - the root of the tongue; 11 - epiglottis; 12 - glottis; 13 - thyroid cartilage; 14 - cricoid cartilage; 15 - nasopharynx; 16 - soft palate; 17 - tongue; 18 - larynx; 19 - arytenoid cartilage; 20 - esophagus; 21 - trachea

The front, bony part of it is called the hard palate, the back, muscular part is called the soft palate. Together with the small uvula, the soft palate is called the velum of the palate. If the palatine curtain is raised, then air goes through the mouth. This is how oral sounds are formed. If the palatine curtain is down, then the air goes through the nose. This is how nasal sounds are formed.

The nasal cavity is a resonator that does not change in volume and shape. The oral cavity can change its shape and volume due to the movements of the lips, lower jaw, tongue. The pharynx changes shape and volume due to the movement of the body of the tongue back and forth.

The lower lip has more mobility. It can merge with the upper lip (as in the formation of [p], [b], [m]), approach it (as in the formation of English [w], known to Russian dialects), approach the upper teeth (as in the formation of [ c], [f]). Lips can be rounded and stretched into a tube (as in the formation of [y], [o]).

The most mobile organ of speech is the tongue. Allocate the tip of the tongue, the back, which faces the palate and is divided into the front, middle and back, and the root of the tongue, facing the back of the pharynx.

In the formation of sounds, some organs of the oral cavity play an active role - they perform the basic movements necessary to pronounce a given sound. Other organs are passive - they are motionless during the formation of a given sound and are the place where the active organ creates a bow or gap. So, the tongue is always active, and the teeth, the hard palate are always passive. The lips and the palate can play an active or passive role in the formation of sounds. So, with articulation [p], the lower lip is active, and the upper lip is passive, with articulation [y], both lips are active, and with articulation [a], both are passive.