Speech apparatus departments. Filicheva T

Consonants

Vowels

Vowels are sounds that consist mainly of a voice tone. When pronouncing vowels, the position of the tongue, lips and soft palate is such that air passes through the oral cavity without encountering obstacles that can contribute to noise. Depending on the position of the language, German vowels are divided into front vowels (i, e, ä, ö, ü) and back vowels (a, o, u). Vowels are long and short (8 vowels make 16 vowels). Their duration is associated with the quality of the syllable they form. In this regard, there are open (ending in a vowel or consisting of one vowel) and closed syllables (ending in one or more consonants). A diphthong is a continuous pronunciation of two vowels in one syllable.

[ə]

[ί:] [ı]

[y]

[ε:] [ε]

[ø:] [œ]

[a]

[υ]

[ɔ]

[α:]

All phonological features of German vowels are represented schematically in the so-called quadrilateral of German vowels :

Consonants are called sounds, consisting of a voice and (or) noise, which is formed in the oral cavity, where the air stream meets various obstacles. Depending on the participation of the voice, German consonants are divided into deaf, voiced (explosive and fricative) and sonorous (sonorous). Affricates are understood as the continuous pronunciation of two consonants.

The key to correct pronunciation is the ability to properly manage your speech organs, i.e. speech apparatus .

The speech apparatus includes:

• respiratory system (das Amungssystem)
• larynx (der Kehlkopf)
• resonator (das Ansatzrohr) -oral cavity during the formation of sounds

The respiratory system is made up of lungs (die Lungen), bronchi (die Bronchien) and trachea (die Luftrohre), otherwise the windpipe.

The work of the respiratory organs is the basis for pronouncing sounds. In the process of breathing exhaled air through the trachea enters the larynx, where its first transformation takes place.

The larynx is the upper part of the trachea and ends epiglottis(der Kehldeckel) which closes the windpipe during meals. However, for the process of speaking, the larynx is important in that it contains vocal cords (die Stimmbander).

The vocal cords are two elastic muscles that are attached to the cricoid cartilage by the arytenoid cartilages. Due to their mobility, the vocal cords either approach each other or move away from each other. The gap that arises between the vocal cords is the basis for the subsequent pronunciation of sounds. (photocopy). Exhaled air, passing through this gap, touches the edges of the vocal cords, causing them to vibrate. Thus, under the influence of these oscillatory movements, the air begins to “ring”.

From the larynx, the jet of exhaled air enters the resonator (das Ansatzrohr), where its final transformation into a particular sound takes place.

The resonator consists of three cavities: oral cavity (die Mundhöhle), pharynx (der Rachen) and nasal cavity (die Nasenhöhle).

In the oral cavity are the main articulatory organs:

Ø upper lip (die obere Lippe)

Ø lower lip (die untere Lippe)

Ø upper teeth (die oberen Zähne)

Ø lower teeth (die unteren Zähne)

Ø alveoli (die Alveolen)

Ø hard palate (der Hartgaumen)

Ø soft palate (der Weichgaumen)

Ø tongue (das Zäpfchen)

Ø tongue (die Zunge), which is conditionally divided into 4 parts - the tip of the tongue (die Zungenspitze), the front back of the tongue (die Vorderzunge), the middle back of the tongue (die Mittelzunge) and the back of the tongue (die Hinterzunge).

The nasal cavity acts as a resonator in the formation of nasal sounds (m, n, ŋ). When they are pronounced, the back of the soft palate - palatine curtain (das Gaumensegel), descends, thereby closing the passage to the oral cavity for the air stream.

Rice. 1: Human speech apparatus

1 - hard palate; 2 - alveoli; 3 - upper lip; 4 - upper teeth; 5 - lower lip; 6 - lower teeth; 7 - front part of the tongue; 8 - the middle part of the tongue; 9 - back of the tongue; 10 - the root of the tongue; 11 - vocal cords; 12 - soft palate; 13 - tongue; 14 - larynx; 15 - trachea.

3. Articulatory base of the German language.

With a general, identical method of forming sounds, each language has its own characteristic articulation base. The articulatory base of a language is understood as a set of movements of the speech apparatus characteristic of a given language in the production of sounds.

Here are a few features characteristic of the articulatory base of the German language:

1. The German language is characterized by a stronger, in comparison with the Russian language, muscle tension of the speech apparatus when pronouncing all sounds.

2. The German language is characterized by the contact position of the tip of the tongue, i.e. when pronouncing all vowels and most consonants, the tip of the tongue touches the front lower teeth.

3. When pronouncing consonant sounds, the soft palate does not completely close the passage to the nasal cavity for the jet of exhaled air, which causes such a phenomenon as nasalization, those. sounds have a slightly nasal connotation (Name - to us).

4. German vowels are pronounced with a stable installation of the organs of speech in the oral cavity (to about ntr about l - k about ntr about lyate, K o ntr o lle-k o ntr o llieren).

5. Articulation of German sounds occurs with a more energetic movement of the lower jaw up and down, especially when pronouncing open sounds.

6. The German language has one sound, in the formation of which the tongue participates - [R].

7. German consonants are not opposed on the basis of "softness - hardness".

8. When pronouncing the nasal sound [ŋ], a tight closure of the back of the tongue and the soft palate is formed.

9. In Russian, when consonants are combined with front vowels, due to the rise of the front and middle back of the tongue to the hard palate, softening occurs, which is not typical for the German language (winter, silence - sie, Tisch).

4. The concept of phonemes, sounds, letters. German alphabet and phonetic transcription.

In order to understand what is the difference between such units as sound, letter and phoneme, it is necessary to determine what is the difference between speech and language.

Speech – specific. It displays objects, actions, sensations in a particular situation in the present, past and future.

Language – abstract. It is an abstract representation of reality.

At the same time, if language is the property of all speakers (it contains certain grammatical rules, words, sounds that any person can learn), then speech individual - each speaker uses a different vocabulary, uses grammatical structures individually, pronounces sounds differently.

So sound is a unit of speech, it is concrete, and phoneme is a unit of language that is an abstract representation of sound.

Def.3:A phoneme is the smallest unit of a language that is used to

folding and distinguishing significant units - words.

Phoneme functions:

ü semantic (significative)

house - volume, die Beeren - die Bären

ü perceptual - to be an object of perception.

In speech, under the influence of adjacent sounds, the same sound can be pronounced with some acoustic differences (water - water - water, Kiel - kühl - backen). However, these changes do not affect the meaning of the word, therefore they are considered only as variants of one sound. In the language, this change is called allophone .

Def.4:An allophone is a modification of a phoneme that is

the result of different pronunciation conditions.

Each language has a limited number of phonemes. Allophones of phonemes are written in letters.

Def.5: Letter - a graphic representation of sounds.

The German alphabet uses 26 pairs of Latin letters.(lowercase and uppercase); the umlauted letters ä, ö, ü and the ligature ß (escet) are not included in the alphabet. In alphabetical sorting, ä, ö, ü do not differ from respectively a, o, u, except for words that differ only in umlaut - in this case, the word with umlaut comes later; ß is equivalent to ss. However, when listing German letters, the signs ä, ö, ü are given not next to the corresponding “pure” letters, but at the end of the list.

A a a F f ef l l ale Q q ku (Ü ü) u-umlaut

(Ä ä) e (a-umlaut) G g ge M m Em R r er Vv fau

Bb bae H h Ha N n en S s es Ww ve

c c ce I i and O o about (ß) escet X x X

D d de Jj iot (Ö ö) o-umlaut T t te Y y upsilon

e e uh Kk ka Pp pe U u at Zz cet

Until the beginning of the 20th century. the Gothic script was officially used (in particular, there was a special Gothic script). Letters in the generally accepted European style are first used unofficially from the 19th century, and after the victory of the November Revolution of 1918 they are introduced officially. Nazi attempts to bring back Gothic as an official success were not successful, and it is currently only used for decorative purposes.

However, the letter image does not always match the sounds (Schule, Chef, Show). Also, the same letter can represent several sounds (gehen, Tag, ruhig). Therefore, for an adequate acoustic display of a word, there is a phonetic transcription.

Def. 6: Phonetic transcription is a recording of speech using a phonetic alphabet based on the Latin alphabet..

In transcription, each sound corresponds to only one conventional sign.

The speech apparatus consists of two closely related parts: the central (or regulatory) speech apparatus and the peripheral (or executive) (Fig. 1).

The central speech apparatus is located in the brain. It consists of the cerebral cortex (mainly the left hemisphere), subcortical nodes, pathways, brainstem nuclei (primarily the medulla oblongata), and nerves leading to the respiratory, vocal and articulatory muscles.

What is the function of the central speech apparatus and its departments?

Speech, like other manifestations of higher nervous activity, develops on the basis of reflexes. Speech reflexes are associated with the activity of various parts of the brain. However, some parts of the cerebral cortex are of paramount importance in the formation of speech. This is the frontal, temporal, parietal and occipital lobes of the predominantly left hemisphere of the brain (in left-handers, the right). The frontal gyrus (lower) is a motor area and is involved in the formation of one's own oral speech (Broc's center). The temporal gyrus (upper) is the speech-auditory area where sound stimuli arrive (Wernicke's center). Thanks to this, the process of perception of someone else's speech is carried out. For understanding speech, the parietal lobe of the cerebral cortex is important. The occipital lobe is the visual area and ensures the assimilation of written speech (the perception of letter images when reading and writing). In addition, the child begins to develop speech due to his visual perception of the articulation of adults.

The subcortical nuclei are in charge of the rhythm, tempo and expressiveness of speech.

Conducting paths. The cerebral cortex is connected with the organs of speech (peripheral) by two types of nerve pathways: centrifugal and centripetal.

Centrifugal (motor) nerve pathways connect the cerebral cortex with the muscles that regulate the activity of the peripheral speech apparatus. The centrifugal pathway begins in the cerebral cortex at Broca's center.

From the periphery to the center, that is, from the region of the speech organs to the cerebral cortex, there are centripetal paths.

centripetal path It starts in proprioreceptors and baroreceptors.

Proprioreceptors are located inside the muscles, tendons and on the articular surfaces of moving organs.

Rice. 1. The structure of the speech apparatus: 1 - brain: 2 - nasal cavity: 3 - hard palate; 4 - oral cavity; 5 - lips; 6 - incisors; 7 - tip of the tongue; 8 - back of the tongue; 9 - the root of the tongue; 10 - epiglottis: 11 - pharynx; 12 -- larynx; 13 - trachea; 14 - right bronchus; 15 - right lung: 16 - diaphragm; 17 - esophagus; 18 - spine; 19 - spinal cord; 20 - soft palate

More

orthognathia(ortho- + Greek gnathos upper jaw) - a bite characterized by such a closing of the teeth, in which the upper front and side teeth cover the lower ones of the same name (a variant of the normal bite).

Nasopharynx- the upper part of the pharynx, located behind the nasal cavity, communicating with it through the choanae and conditionally limited from the oral part of the pharynx by a plane in which the hard palate lies. The nasal passage is the part of the nasal cavity located between the nasal conchas.

resonator cavities(in speech therapy, phoniatry, vocal pedagogy) - four pairs of paranasal sinuses: maxillary (maxillary), frontal (frontal), main and ethmoid; together with the nasal cavity, they act as a voice resonator.

palatine curtain(velum palatinum, palatum molle) - the posterior movable part of the palate, which is a muscular plate with a fibrous base, covered with a mucous membrane.

Violations (defects) of the articulatory apparatus

Any disturbances in the structure of A.A. of a congenital or early acquired (trauma) nature (under the age of 7 years) invariably entail difficulties in the formation and development of speech. Later acquired AA defects, as a rule, do not lead to severe speech pathology, but can significantly affect the quality and individual characteristics of oral speech.

Options for violations of the articulatory apparatus

• Cleft- a congenital gap, or gap, in the palate. The minor fissure includes only the soft palate, although in severe cases it can expand into the hard palate, alveoli, and upper lip.

Cleft of the upper jaw(gnathoschisis) - an anomaly of development: splitting of the alveolar process of the upper jaw due to nonunion in the embryonic period of the maxillary and middle nasal processes. It causes speech disorders such as rhinolalia and voice (rhinophony).

cleft lip- (labium fissum; cheiloschisis; synonym: cleft lip, cleft lip, cheiloschisis) - developmental anomaly: the presence of a gap in the upper lip extending from its red border to the nose. With an isolated defect, there may be a violation or difficulty in articulating labial-tooth sounds.

• Anterior open bite as a result of prognathia, progeny or absence/defects of anterior teeth.

Progenia(pro- + Greek genys lower jaw) - a bite defect in which the lower jaw protrudes forward (compared to the upper) as a result of its excessive development.

Prognathia(pro- + Greek gnathos upper jaw) - malocclusion in which the upper jaw protrudes forward due to excessive development of the upper jaw, or vice versa, with underdevelopment of the lower jaw. Bite - the relationship of the dentition of the upper and lower jaws when they are closed.

• Anterior closed bite.
• Level bite- Orthogeny (ortho- + Greek genys lower jaw) - bite, in which the upper and lower teeth are in the same frontal plane.
• Diastema(diastema; Greek diastёma distance, gap) - an anomaly in the position of the teeth; excessively wide gap between the incisors of the upper jaw. Distinguish D. true (d. verus) - D. observed at the end of the eruption of all teeth and D. false (d. falsum) - D., observed with incomplete teething.
• Other violations of the integrity of the dentition.
• Short hyoid ligament (Language bridle short) - a congenital defect consisting in shortening of the lingual frenulum (hyoid ligament); with this defect, the movement of the tongue can be difficult. A common cause of impaired pronunciation of the sounds of the upper rise of the tongue.
• Disturbances in the mobility of the tongue with paralysis and paralysis, as well as with its congenital excessive development (macroglossia - massive tongue) or underdevelopment (narrow - microglossia). Normally, the tongue performs all the movements necessary for the articulation of speech sounds: it easily simplifies, arches, rises to the upper alveoli, descends to the lower alveoli, makes circular movements (licking the upper and lower lips), folds into a tube and even turns into a vertical plane. On this ability of his, a diagnostic and corrective technology was constructed (“The Tale of a Merry Tongue”).
• high and "Gothic" palate - arched palate (Gothic) - palate with an acute angle at the top; seen as a developmental anomaly.

Literature

1. Conceptual and terminological dictionary of a speech therapist / Ed. V. I. Seliverstov. - M.: Humanitarian publishing center VLADOS, 1997. - 400 p.
2. Pravdina O. V. Speech therapy. - M.: Enlightenment, 1973. - 272 p.
3. Encyclopedic dictionary of medical terms: In 3 volumes / Ch. ed. B.V. Petrovsky. - M.: Sov. encyclopedia. - T. 2. - 1983. - p. 217, 218
4. Encyclopedic dictionary of medical terms: In 3 volumes / Ch. ed. B.V. Petrovsky. - M.: Sov. encyclopedia. - T. 3. - 1984. - P.27.

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See what the "Voice apparatus" is in other dictionaries:

VOICE DEVICE- (from lat. Apparatus - equipment). The set of organs involved in the formation of speech sounds during their pronunciation (phonation). R. a. can be divided into three groups based on the role of speech organs in the process of phonation: 1) organs that are ... ... A new dictionary of methodological terms and concepts (theory and practice of teaching languages)

speech apparatus- Organs of the human body adapted for the production and perception of sound speech. In the broad sense of the word, the speech apparatus is also the central nervous system, hearing (and vision) organs necessary for the perception of sounds and correction ... ... Dictionary of linguistic terms T.V. Foal

VOICE DEVICE- [from lat. apparatus] a system of organs involved in the formation of speech sounds and speech production in general. Distinguish the central and peripheral departments of R. and. (see Peripheral speech apparatus, Central speech apparatus) ...

speech apparatus- See organi vocali ... Five-language dictionary of linguistic terms

speech apparatus- The totality of the organs of speech (lips, teeth, tongue, palate, small tongue, epiglottis, nasal cavity, pharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchi, lungs, diaphragm). see organs of speech ... Dictionary of linguistic terms

speech apparatus- a system of respiratory and chewing organs adapted in the process of human evolution for speech production. In R.'s system and. includes: diaphragm, lungs with intercostal muscles, bronchi, trachea, larynx with vocal folds, pharynx, tongue, lower ... ... Pedagogical speech science

VOICE DEVICE PERIPHERAL- the department of the speech apparatus, which in turn consists of three main departments: respiratory (lungs with a windpipe); voice-forming (larynx with vocal folds and a system of resonator cavities located above them); ... ... Psychomotor: Dictionary Reference

SPEECH DEVICE CENTRAL- the department of the speech apparatus, represented in the brain; consists of cortical centers, subcortical nodes, pathways and nuclei of the corresponding nerves, which provide the production of speech acts with the totality of their work ... Psychomotor: Dictionary Reference

General scheme of the structure of the speech sensory system.

The general scheme of the structure of the speech sensory system includes three sections: peripheral, conductive and central sections.

Peripheral apparatus(executive) includes three departments: respiratory, voice, articulation. Its main function is reproducing.

The respiratory section consists of the chest and lungs. Speech activity is closely related to respiratory function. Speech is carried out in the exhalation phase. The air jet performs both a voice-forming and an articulatory function. At the moment of speech, the exhalation is longer than the inhalation, since it is on the exhalation that the process of speaking takes place. At the moment of speech, a person makes fewer respiratory movements than during normal physiological breathing. At the moment of speech, the number of inhaled and exhaled air increases by about 3 times. Inhalation during speech becomes shorter and deeper. Exhalation at the moment of pronouncing the phrase is carried out with the participation of the respiratory muscles of the abdominal wall and intercostal muscles. Due to this, the depth and duration of the exhalation appear, and because of this, a strong air stream is formed, which is necessary for sound pronunciation.

The vocal apparatus includes the larynx and vocal folds. The larynx is a tube that consists of cartilage and soft tissues. From above, the larynx passes into the pharynx, and from below into the trachea. On the border of the larynx and pharynx is the epiglottis. It serves as a valve for swallowing movements. The epiglottis descends and prevents food and saliva from entering the larynx.

In men, the larynx is larger and the vocal cords are longer. The length of the vocal cords in men is approximately 20-24 mm, and in women - 18-20 mm. In children before puberty, the length of the vocal cords in boys and girls does not differ. The larynx is small and does not grow evenly in different periods: it grows noticeably at 5-7 years old, at 12-13 years old in girls and at 13-15 years old in boys. In girls it increases by one third, in boys by two thirds, in boys it is designated - Adam's apple.

In young children, the larynx is funnel-shaped, with age it acquires a cylindrical shape, as in adults. The vocal cords practically cover the larynx, leaving a small gap - the glottis. During normal breathing, the gap takes the form of an isosceles triangle. During phonation, the vocal cords close. The jet of exhaled air pushes them apart somewhat. Due to their elasticity, the vocal cords return to their original position, continued pressure pushes the vocal cords apart again. This mechanism continues as long as phonation occurs. This process is called vocal cord oscillation. The oscillation of the vocal cords occurs in the transverse direction, i.e. inwards and outwards. When whispering, the vocal cords are almost completely closed, only in the back there is a gap through which air passes when inhaling.

The articulation department is formed by the organs of articulation: tongue, lips, jaws, hard and soft palate, alveoli (see Profile of the organs of articulation).

Of the listed organs of articulation, the tongue, lips, lower jaw, soft palate are movable organs of articulation, and all the rest are not movable.

Language - participates in the formation of all, except for the lips. The organs of articulation, when approaching each other, form gaps or bonds. As a result of such rapprochements, phonemes are pronounced.

The loudness and distinctness of speech is formed due to resonators. The resonators are located in the extension pipe. The extension tube is formed by the pharynx, oral and nasal cavities. In humans, unlike animals, the mouth and pharynx have one cavity, therefore, only the oral and nasal cavities are distinguished. The extension pipe, due to its structure, can change in volume and shape: the oral cavity is expanded, the pharynx is narrowed, the pharynx is expanded, the oral cavity is narrowed. These changes create the phenomenon of resonance. Changing the extension pipe leads to a change in the volume and clarity of the sound.

The extension pipe in the formation of speech sounds performs two functions: a resonator and a noise vibrator. The function of the sound vibrator is performed by the vocal cords. Noise vibrators are also gaps between the lips, between the tongue and lips, between the tongue and the hard palate, between the tongue and the alveoli, between the lips and teeth. Bows interrupted by a jet of air, as well as cracks, form noises, therefore they are referred to as noise vibrators.

With the help of a noise vibrator, deaf consonants are formed. And when you turn on the tone vibrator, sonorous and sonorous sounds are formed.

The nasal cavity is involved in the formation of sounds: m, n, m`, n`.

It must be emphasized that the first section of the peripheral speech apparatus (respiratory) serves to supply air, the second section (voice) serves to form a voice, and the third (articulatory) - to create a resonance phenomenon that ensures the loudness and distinctness of the sounds of our speech.

So, in order for the utterance of the word to occur, a program must be implemented. At the first stage, teams are selected at the KGM level to organize speech movements, i.e., articulation programs are formed. At the second stage, articulation programs are implemented in the executive part of the speech-motor analyzer, the respiratory, phonator and resonator systems are connected. Commands and speech movements are carried out with high accuracy, so certain sounds appear, a system of sounds, oral speech is formed.

Control over the execution of commands and the work of the speech-motor analyzer is carried out through kinesthetic sensations and with the help of auditory perception. Kinesthetic control prevents an error and introduces a correction before the sound is pronounced. Hearing control is realized at the moment of sounding the sound. Thanks to auditory control, a person can correct a mistake in speech, correct it and pronounce a word or speech statement correctly.

conductor department represented by pathways. There are two types of neural pathways: centripetal pathways (conduct information from muscles, tendons and ligaments to the central nervous system) and centrifugal pathways (conduct information from the central nervous system to muscles, tendons and ligaments).

Centripetal (sensory) nerve pathways begin with proprioceptors and baroreceptors. Proprioceptors are located in muscles, tendons, and on the articular surfaces of the moving organs of articulation. Baroreceptors are located in the pharynx and are excited by changes in pressure in it. When we speak, proprioceptors and baroreceptors are irritated. The stimulus is converted into a nerve impulse and the nerve impulse reaches the speech zones of the cerebral cortex along the centripetal pathways.

Centrifugal (motor) nerve pathways begin at the level of the cerebral cortex and reach the muscles of the peripheral speech apparatus. All organs of the peripheral speech apparatus are innervated by cranial nerves: trigeminal V, facial VII, glossopharyngeal IX, vagus X, accessory XI, hypoglossal XII.

The trigeminal nerve (V pair of cranial nerves) innervates the muscles of the lower jaw. The facial nerve (VII pair of cranial nerves) innervates the mimic muscles of the face, the movement of the circular muscle of the mouth and moves the lips, puffing and retracting the cheeks. The glossopharyngeal (IX pair of cranial nerves) and vagus (X pair of cranial nerves) innervate the muscles of the larynx, vocal cords, pharynx, and soft palate. In addition, the vagus nerve is involved in the processes of respiration and the regulation of cardiovascular activity, and the glossopharyngeal nerve is a sensory nerve of the tongue. Accessory (XI pair of cranial nerves) nerve innervates the muscles of the neck. Hypoglossal (XII pair of cranial nerves) nerve innervates the tongue, promotes the implementation of various movements of the tongue, creates its amplitude.

Central department represented by speech zones at the level of the cerebral cortex. The beginning of the study of speech zones was laid by Brock in 1861. He described disorders of articulatory motility in the defeat of the lower parts of the precentral gyrus of the frontal region. Later, this area was called the motor center of Broca's speech, which is responsible for the movement of the organs of articulation.

In 1873, Wernicke describes a violation of speech understanding when the posterior sections of the superior and middle temporal gyri are affected. This area is defined as the sensory center of speech, responsible for recognizing the sounds of native speech by ear and understanding speech.

At the present stage of consideration of speech activity, it is customary to talk not about motor and sensory speech, but about impressive and expressive speech.

It is believed that both right-handed and left-handed people have the center of speech located in the left hemisphere. This statement was formulated after observing the operated patients. Speech disorders are observed in 70% of right-handers operated on the left hemisphere and in 0.4% of right-handers operated on the right hemisphere. Speech dysfunction is observed in 38% of left-handers operated on the left hemisphere and in 9% of left-handers operated on the right hemisphere.

The development of speech centers in the right hemisphere is possible only if the left-sided speech areas were damaged in early childhood. The formation of speech centers in the right hemisphere acts as a compensation for impaired functions.

Written speech and the process of reading are components of speech activity. These centers are located in the parieto-occipital region of the cerebral cortex of the cerebral hemispheres.

The subcortical region of the cerebral cortex is involved in the formation of speech utterance. The subcortical nuclei of the strio-pallidar system are responsible for the rhythm, tempo, and expressiveness of speech utterance.

It should be noted that the implementation of speech activity is possible only under the condition of the integrative activity of all structural formations of the brain and the processes occurring in them, the interaction of all departments of the implementation of the speech function: peripheral, conductive and central.

Knowledge of the anatomical and physiological mechanisms of speech, i.e. structure and functional organization of speech activity, allows you to imagine the complex mechanism of speech.
The speech act is carried out by a complex system of organs in which the main, leading role belongs to the activity of the brain.

The structure of the speech apparatus.

The speech apparatus consists of two closely related parts: the central (regulating) speech apparatus and the peripheral (executing) speech apparatus.

1. Central speech apparatus is located in the brain. It consists of:
- cerebral cortex (mainly the left hemisphere)
- subcortical nodes
- pathways
- nuclei of the trunk (primarily the medulla oblongata)
- nerves leading to the respiratory, vocal and articulatory muscles.

What is the function of the central speech apparatus and its departments?

Speech, like other manifestations of higher nervous activity, develops at the basis of reflexes. Speech reflexes are associated with the activity of various parts of the brain. However, some parts of the cerebral cortex are of paramount importance in the formation of speech. This is the frontal, temporal, parietal and occipital lobes of the predominantly left hemisphere of the brain (in left-handers, the right).

— Frontal gyrus (inferior) are a motor area and participate in the formation of their own oral speech (Broca's center).

— Temporal gyrus (superior) are the speech-auditory area where sound stimuli arrive (Wernicke's center). Thanks to this, the process of perception of someone else's speech is carried out.

- Important for understanding speech parietal cortex .

— Occipital lobe is a visual area and ensures the assimilation of written speech (the perception of letter images when reading and writing).

— Subcortical nuclei know the rhythm, tempo and expressiveness of speech.

— Conducting paths connect the cerebral cortex with the muscles that regulate the activity of the speech apparatus - centrifugal (motor) nerve pathways . The centrifugal pathway begins in the cerebral cortex at Broca's center.

From the periphery to the center, i.e. from the region of the speech organs to the cerebral cortex, go centripetal paths . The centripetal pathway begins in proprioreceptors and baroreceptors.

Proprioreceptors are located inside the muscles, tendons and on the articular surfaces of moving organs. Proprioreceptors are stimulated by muscle contractions. Thanks to proprioreceptors, all our muscle activity is controlled.

Baroreceptors are excited by changes in pressure on them and are located in the pharynx. When we speak, there is irritation of the proprio- and baroreceptors, which goes along the centripetal path to the cerebral cortex.

The centripetal path plays the role of a general regulator of all the activities of the speech organs.

In the cores of the trunk cranial nerves originate. All organs of the peripheral speech apparatus are innervated (innervation is the provision of an organ or tissue with nerve fibers, cells) cranial nerves. The main ones are: trigeminal, facial, glossopharyngeal, vagus, accessory and sublingual.

— Trigeminal nerve innervates the muscles that move the lower jaw;

— facial nerve - mimic muscles, including the muscles that move the lips, inflate and retract the cheeks;

— Glossopharyngeal and vagus nerves - muscles of the larynx and vocal folds, pharynx and soft palate. In addition, the glossopharyngeal nerve is a sensitive nerve of the tongue, and the vagus nerve innervates the muscles of the respiratory and heart organs.

— accessory nerve innervates the muscles of the neck, and the hypoglossal nerve supplies the muscles of the tongue with motor nerves and tells it the possibility of a variety of movements.

Through this system of cranial nerves, nerve impulses are transmitted from the central speech apparatus to the peripheral. Nerve impulses set the speech organs in motion.

But this path from the central speech apparatus to the peripheral one is only one part of the speech mechanism. Another part of it is the feedback - from the periphery to the center.

2. Peripheral speech apparatus consists of three departments:
1. Respiratory
2. Voice
3. Articulatory (sound-producing)

In the respiratory department included chest with lungs, bronchi and trachea .

Speaking is closely related to breathing. Speech is formed in the exhalation phase. In the process of exhalation, the air jet simultaneously performs voice-forming and articulatory functions (in addition to one more, the main one - gas exchange). Breathing at the time of speech is significantly different from normal when a person is silent. The exhalation is much longer than the inhalation (while outside of speech, the duration of the inhalation is approximately the same). In addition, at the moment of speech, the number of respiratory movements is half as much as during normal (without speech) breathing.

It is clear that for a longer exhalation, a larger supply of air is needed. Therefore, at the time of speech, the volume of inhaled and exhaled air increases significantly (approximately 3 times). Inhalation during speech becomes shorter and deeper. Another feature of speech breathing is that exhalation at the moment of speech is carried out with the active participation of the exhaled muscles (abdominal wall and internal intercostal muscles). This ensures its greatest duration and depth, and in addition, increases the pressure of the air jet, without which sonorous speech is impossible.

Voice department consists of the larynx with the vocal folds in it. Larynx is a wide short tube consisting of cartilage and soft tissues. It is located in the anterior part of the neck and can be felt from the front and sides through the skin, especially in thin people.

From above, the larynx passes into throat . From below it goes into trachea .
On the border of the larynx and pharynx is epiglottis . It consists of cartilaginous tissue in the form of a tongue or petal. Its front surface is turned to the tongue, and the back to the larynx. The epiglottis serves as a valve: descending during swallowing, it closes the entrance to the larynx and protects its cavity from food and saliva.

This is the voice mechanism. During phonation, the vocal folds are in a closed state (Fig. 2). The jet of exhaled air, breaking through the closed vocal folds, somewhat pushes them apart. Due to their elasticity, as well as under the action of the laryngeal muscles, which narrow the glottis, the vocal folds return to their original position, i.e. middle position, so that as a result of the continuing pressure of the exhaled air stream, it will again move apart, etc. Closing and opening continue until the pressure of the voice-forming expiratory jet stops. Thus, during phonation, vocal folds vibrate. These vibrations are made in the transverse, and not in the longitudinal direction, i.e. the vocal folds move inward and outward rather than up and down.
As a result of vibrations of the vocal folds, the movement of the stream of exhaled air above the vocal folds turns into vibrations of air particles. These vibrations are transmitted to the environment and are perceived by us as voice sounds.
When whispering, the vocal folds do not close along their entire length: in the back part between them there is a gap in the form of a small equilateral triangle, through which the exhaled stream of air passes. The vocal folds do not vibrate at the same time, but the friction of the air stream against the edges of a small triangular slit causes noise, which is perceived by us in the form of a whisper.
The voice has power, height, timbre.
The power of the voice depends mainly on the amplitude (range) of the oscillations of the vocal folds, which is determined by the magnitude of the air pressure, i.e. exhalation force. Such resonator cavities of the extension tube (pharynx, oral cavity, nasal cavity), which are sound amplifiers, have a significant impact on the strength of the voice.
The size and shape of the resonator cavities, as well as the structural features of the larynx, affect the individual "color" of the voice, or timbre . It is thanks to the timbre that we distinguish people by voice.
Voice pitch depends on the frequency of vibration of the vocal folds, and it in turn depends on the length, thickness and degree of tension. The longer the vocal folds, the thicker they are and the less tense, the lower the sound of the voice.
In addition, the pitch of the voice depends on the pressure of the air stream on the vocal folds, on the degree of their tension.

Articulatory department. The main organs of articulation are:
- language
- lips
- jaws (upper and lower)
- solid sky
- soft sky
- alveoli
Of these, the tongue, lips, soft palate and lower jaw are movable, the rest are immobile (Fig. 3).

The main organ of articulation is the tongue.

Language - a massive muscular organ. With closed jaws, it fills almost the entire oral cavity. The front of the tongue is movable, the back is fixed and is called tongue root. In the moving part of the tongue, there are: tip, front edge (blade), side edges and back.
The complex plexus of the muscles of the tongue, the variety of points of their attachment provide the ability to change the shape, position and degree of position of the tongue to a large extent. This is of great importance, because the language is involved in the formation of vowels and almost all consonants (except for labials).

An important role in the formation of speech sounds also belongs to lower jaw, lips, teeth, hard and soft palate, alveoli. Articulation also consists in the fact that the listed organs form gaps, or bonds that occur when the tongue approaches or touches the sky, alveoli, teeth, as well as when the lips are compressed or pressed against the teeth.
The loudness and distinctness of speech sounds are created by resonators. The resonators are located throughout the extension pipe.

extension pipe - this is everything that is located above the larynx: the pharynx, oral cavity and nasal cavity.

In humans, the mouth and pharynx have one cavity. This creates the possibility of pronouncing a variety of sounds. In animals (for example, in a monkey), the pharyngeal and oral cavities are connected by a very narrow gap. In humans, the pharynx and mouth form a common tube - an extension tube. It performs the important function of a speech resonator. The extension pipe in humans was formed as a result of evolution.

The extension pipe, due to its structure, can change in shape and volume. For example, the pharynx can be elongated and compressed, and, conversely, very stretched. Changes in the shape and volume of the extension pipe are of great importance for the formation of speech sounds. These changes in the shape and volume of the extension pipe create the phenomenon resonance. As a result of resonance, some overtones of speech sounds are amplified, while others are muffled. Thus, a specific speech timbre of sounds arises. For example, when a sound occurs a the oral cavity expands, and the pharynx narrows and stretches. And when making a sound and On the contrary, the oral cavity contracts and the pharynx expands.

One larynx does not create a specific speech sound, it is formed not only in the larynx, but also in resonators (pharyngeal, oral and nasal).
The extension pipe, in the formation of speech sounds, performs a dual function: a resonator and a noise vibrator (the function of a sound vibrator is performed by the vocal folds located in the larynx).
Noise vibrators are the gaps between the lips, between the tongue and teeth, between the tongue and the hard palate, between the tongue and the alveoli, between the lips and teeth, as well as the bonds between these organs pierced by a jet of air.

With the help of a noise vibrator, deaf consonants are formed. With the simultaneous activation of the tone vibrator (oscillations of the vocal folds), voiced and sonorous consonants are formed.

The oral cavity and pharynx take part in the pronunciation of all the sounds of the Russian language. If a person has the correct pronunciation, then the nasal resonator is involved only in the pronunciation of sounds m and n and soft options. When pronouncing the rest of the sounds, the palatal curtain, formed by the soft palate and a small tongue, closes the entrance to the nasal cavity.

So, the first section of the peripheral speech apparatus serves to supply air, the second - to form a voice, the third - is a resonator, which gives the sound strength and color, and thus, the characteristic sounds of our speech, resulting from the activity of individual active organs of the articulatory apparatus.

In order for the pronunciation of words to be carried out in accordance with the intended information, commands are selected in the cerebral cortex to organize speech movements. These commands are called articulation program . The articulatory program is implemented in the executive part of the speech-motor analyzer - in the respiratory, phonation and resonator systems.

Speech movements are carried out so precisely that as a result certain speech sounds appear and oral (or expressive) speech is formed.

B e b e c o n c o n s. Above, we said that nerve impulses coming from the central speech apparatus set in motion the organs of the peripheral speech apparatus. But there is also feedback.

How is it carried out?

This connection functions in two ways: the kinesthetic pathway and the auditory pathway.

For the correct implementation of the speech act, control is necessary:
1. with the help of hearing;
2. through kinesthetic sensations.

In this case, a particularly important role belongs to kinesthetic sensations that go to the cerebral cortex from the speech organs. It is kinesthetic control that allows you to prevent an error and make a correction before the sound is pronounced.

Auditory control operates only at the moment of pronouncing the sound. Thanks to sound control, a person notices an error. To eliminate the error, you need to correct the articulation and control it.

Reverse impulses go from the speech organs to the center, where they control at what position of the speech organs an error occurred. Then an impulse is sent from the center, which causes precise articulation. And again there is a reverse impulse - about the achieved result. This continues until articulation and auditory control are coordinated. We can say that the feedback functions as if in a ring - the impulses go from the center to the periphery and further - from the periphery to the center.

This is how feedback is provided and second signal system . An important role in this belongs to the systems of temporary neural connections - dynamic stereotypes that arise due to the repeated perception of language elements (phonetic, lexical and grammatical) and pronunciation. The feedback system provides automatic regulation of the speech organs.