Russian Empire in the 18th century briefly. Russian literature of the 18th century - general characteristics

For the history of Russia, the 17th century is a turning point. It marked the beginning of a systematic transition to a state that was changing both politically and culturally. began to turn their gaze to the West. Next, consider what the culture of Russia was in the 18th century. A summary of the features of its intensive growth will also be presented in the article.

General information

The culture of Russia in the 18th century was of key importance in the development of the state. This is the century of enlightenment and reason. This is how the great thinkers of that time spoke of him. The culture of Russia in the 17th-18th centuries is considered the heyday of an era of great socio-historical and ideological shifts. The latter was also marked by a struggle with religious dogmas and feudal-monarchical foundations.

Main manifestations

The culture of Russia in the 18th century is distinguished by the affirmation of the spirit of love of freedom and the spread of a materialistic worldview. This is most clearly reflected in literature, science, and philosophy. In a word, in the representative activity of the largest writers, philosophers and scientists of that time. We are talking about Radishchev, Lomonosov, Schiller, Goethe, Lessing, Rousseau, Voltaire, Holbach, Diderot and so on.

Main features of development

The culture of Russia in the 17th-18th centuries is a significant turning point, from which a new period began for the state. It is impossible not to take into account the three centuries of Mongol conquest. Because of him, the culture of Russia in the 16th-18th centuries seemed to be in isolation. In addition, it should be noted the influence of the Orthodox Church, which did its best to fence off Russia from the "Western" and "heretical". This also applies to forms of cultural life, customs and education. Nevertheless, the culture of Russia in the 18th century embarked on the path of pan-European development. She began to gradually free herself from medieval shackles.

Features of joining Europe

What is remarkable about the culture of Russia in the 18th century? the development, above all, of secular art, as well as the decisive victory of the rationalist worldview over the ascetic and uncompromising dogmas of religious morality. The culture of Russia in the 18th century (pictures will be presented below) gave "worldly" art the right to public recognition. It begins to take on a more important role. We are talking about the formation of new foundations for the life of society, as well as a system of civic education. However, the culture of Russia in the 18th century could not refute its past. Yes, Russian leaders shared the rich spiritual heritage of Europe. At the same time, they did not forget about the indigenous domestic traditions that had accumulated over a period of long artistic and historical development. The same applies to experience Why is the culture of Russia in the 18th century so interesting? Briefly considering its development, one can understand that it is characterized by a deep continuity of generations. Thanks to this, she firmly established herself in music, theater, painting, architecture, poetry and literature. At the end of the century, Russian art reached unprecedented heights.

General ratings

The culture of Russia in the 18th century experienced significant changes. This is clearly evidenced by the fact that for the first time in the country, non-church (secular) music came out of the realm of oral traditions. It has become a highly professional art. The culture of Russia in the 18th century (the table presented in the article contains information about some of the most striking events of that time) reached its peak due to major transformations in all spheres of society. We are talking about the reforms that were carried out in the era of Peter I. These transformations radically changed the entire social and cultural system of the country. "Domostroevsky" customs of the church-scholastic worldview of the Middle Ages began to crumble. Many areas were touched by the developing culture of 18th century Russia. The life of the people, traditions, foundations - everything and everything underwent changes. Thanks to political achievements, a sense of national pride was strengthened in people, as well as a consciousness of the power and greatness of the state. What were the 19th and 18th centuries marked by? The culture of Russia has received an invaluable contribution made by Russian musicians. We are talking about opera artists, performers and composers, who for the most part came from the people. They had a very difficult task to solve. They were forced to quickly master what Western European performers had been accumulating for centuries.

Main periods of development

The culture of Russia in the 18th century is briefly divided into three main stages:

First quarter of a century (Peter's reforms).
30-60s They were marked by the growth of national culture, as well as great breakthroughs in the field of art, literature, and science. At the same time, class oppression increased significantly.
last third of a century. It is characterized by the growth of the government, the significant democratization of Russian culture, the aggravation of social contradictions and major social shifts.

Features of education

This period is characterized by a general increase in literacy in Russia. If we draw parallels with Western Europe, then our level of education lagged noticeably behind. As for the social composition of the students, it was very motley. The same can be said about age. A significant contribution to the progression of education was made by soldiers' schools.

Features of the development of science

Many great events filled up the history of Russia (18th century). Culture contributed to the development of Russian society. Science began to free itself from the fetters of medieval scholasticism. For her, it was a kind of renaissance. An apt description of that time was given by F. Engels. He believed that this is an era that needed titans and gave rise to those in learning, versatility, character, passion and power of thought. At the same time, science needed "creators". Thus, discoveries of world significance were made in the Russian Academy of Sciences by the mathematicians Bernoulli and Euler, as well as by the chemist and physicist Lomonosov.

Major contributions

Research conducted by foreign scientists who were invited to the St. Petersburg Academy also influenced the development of world and Russian science. However, the latter was not created by their efforts. The same can be said about the "enlightened" monarchy. Domestic science was created by the Russian people. We are talking about people of "different ranks and ranks", among which the following can be distinguished:

I. I. Polzunov (soldier's son).
M. I. Serdyukov (Kalmyk builder and hydraulic engineer) - created a "fire-acting" machine, is the first Russian heat engineer.
A. K. Nartov (turner).
I. I. Lepekhin, V. F. Zuev, S. P. Krashennikov (soldier's children) - were among the first domestic academicians.
M. E. Golovin (soldier's son) - mathematician.

These are the true creators of science in serf Russia.

Lomonosov's contribution

His discoveries and brilliant conjectures stand out strongly among all the achievements of Russian scientific thought. He relied on experience, living practice and materialistically assessed the world around him. M. Lomonosov strove for a deep creative generalization. He wanted to know the secrets of nature. This scientist is the founder of physical chemistry and atomism.

additional information

The foundations of scientific biology were laid in the second half of the 18th century. At this time, the first Russian medical journal was published. We are talking about the "St. Petersburg Medical Gazette".

Historical science: main features

The second quarter of a century is the time of the formation of history as a science. Certain publications are collected and published. Many noble historians tried to engage in such activities. The history of Russia (18th century) is of great interest to society today. The culture of the empire continued to develop rapidly. VN Tatishchev is the largest researcher of the past. He began to work on the History of Russia. It was his attempt to coherently state the events from a noble point of view. Note that this work has become the basis for many scientists. In particular, this applies to M.V. Lomonosov and his Ancient Russian History. Also, do not forget M. M. Shcherbatov and his work "Russian History from Ancient Times", which traces the desire to exalt the nobility, justify serfdom and the privileges of the "higher" class. The author was frightened by the Peasant War led by Emelyan Pugachev. He understood that popular uprisings and movements were inevitable, but instead condemned them. I. I. Boltin is another noble historian. Critic, insightful, thoughtful scientist, he also studied the history of not only the nobility, but also other sectors of society - artisans, clergy and merchants. But his works also exalted the autocratic power of the tsar and the serf system.

Main achievements

Russian science developed as part of the world. At the same time, Russian scientists perceived the achievements of their Western European colleagues from a creative point of view. In addition, they themselves began to significantly influence world scientific thought. As for the general level of its development, it was somewhat lower than in Western Europe. In this regard, each new achievement acquires much greater significance. Scientists from other countries were well aware of the publications of the Russian Academy of Sciences. It is also worth noting that these successes have not become the property of the working masses. They were out of touch with it. The interests of the masses were far from science and education. As for the autocracy, those in power were afraid of the spread of knowledge. The people expressed their artistic ideas and socio-political views in a different way. We are talking about applied art and oral creativity.

Features of architecture

Innovations began to be made in the field of construction as early as in 18th century architecture, like the entire culture of Russia, is undergoing significant changes. Architectural structures are designed to express the greatness and power of the empire. Thanks to the country, civil engineering is also changing. The Arsenal in the Kremlin, Bolshoy Kamenny Bridge are the most famous buildings of that period.

Development of architecture

The first architectural school was organized in Moscow by Ukhtomsky. M. F. Kazakov and V. P. Bazhenov studied under his guidance. The Petrine era marks the construction of a new capital. For this, foreign architects are invited. We are talking about Rastrelli and Trezzini. The new capital was conceived as a regular city. At the same time, it was supposed to have long radial avenues and ensembles of quarters, squares and streets. Trezzini became the author of residential buildings for several categories of the population:

"Ordinary people.
"Prosperous" citizens.
"Eminent" citizens.

These public buildings were distinguished by the simplicity of style. Peter and Paul Cathedral can be reckoned among significant objects. Public buildings include the following:

Admiralty.
Exchange.
Gostiny yard.

Many other objects were erected together with St. Petersburg. In particular, this applies to country palaces with famous park assemblies. We are talking, first of all, about Peterhof. As for the style of Russian baroque, the work of the father and son Rastrelli made a huge contribution to its development. The first was an Italian sculptor. He took part in the decorative study of Peterhof. His son is already a Russian architect. He is the author of many significant structures, among which are the following:

Palaces: Ekaterininsky, Big, Winter.

The development of architecture in the second half of the century

In architecture, Russian classicism replaced the Baroque. At the turn of the 19th-18th century, the culture of Russia saw the flowering of this trend. There were also representatives of classicism. These include the architects I. E. Starov, M. F. Kazakov and V. P. Bazhenov. The latter worked in St. Petersburg and Moscow. They made significant contributions to the construction of such structures as:

Mikhailovsky Castle.
Nobility Assembly.
The Senate in the Moscow Kremlin.
Palace and park ensemble (meaning Tsaritsyno).

Straight rows of columns.
Compliance with strict symmetry.
Straight lines.

Palace Square (architect K. I. Rossi) is a vivid example of this direction. The surviving buildings of that period are now not only the decoration of cities - they are masterpieces of world significance.

Visual arts: features of development

Russia of the 18th century also underwent changes. This period was marked by the flourishing of portraiture. The most famous artists of the time of Peter the Great include the following:

Ivan Nikitin.
Andrey Matveev.

They are considered the founders of Russian secular painting. The turning point came in the late 1920s. The court direction of painting began to prevail. The best portrait painters of that period are:

V. L. Borovikovsky.
D. T. Levitsky.
F. S. Rokotov.
A. P. Antropov.

The classical direction in sculpture is represented by the following figures:

Mikhail Kozlovsky.
Fedor Shubin.

The Hermitage (the richest art collection in the world) was also formed in the 18th century. Its basis is a private collection of paintings by Empress Elizabeth Petrovna.

Features of the lifestyle of the capital's citizens

It has undergone dramatic changes. This was especially easy to notice in Moscow and St. Petersburg. Some other large cities of the country also stood out. The nobles began to build luxurious palaces for themselves. Nevsky Prospekt and Palace Embankment became popular places for this. Structures were erected right along the canals that flowed into the river. Granite embankments began to show off. All this work began to boil after the corresponding decree of the Empress. It is also worth noting that the notorious lattice of the Summer Garden was installed precisely thanks to her. By the end of the century, fashion in St. Petersburg had changed somewhat. Here, many were carried away by the maintenance of aristocratic salons. Here one could hear French speech or take part in disputes about art, literature or politics. In such salons, many personalities began to shine. In particular, this applies to Russian literary celebrities. Dapper carriages drove past luxurious mansions located on Nevsky Prospekt. Smartly dressed townsfolk and guards officers often walked here.

Moscow also underwent significant changes. It is worth noting that there was no St. Petersburg brilliance and wealth here. Nevertheless, the Moscow nobility was not going to lag behind the new trends of the times. The chaotic development of the city stopped, the streets began to level out. It is worth noting that these innovations did not capture the entire state. Rather, even vice versa. They emphasized even more the poverty of Russian life, traditionalism and general stagnation. A huge area of folk life remained outside urban civilization. This, first of all, refers to the village and the village. As in the cities, there were clearly felt significant differences in the features of the way of life and living conditions. The nobility continued to be part of the rural population. After the issuance of the relevant decrees (Charters and Liberties), representatives of this estate were freed from compulsory military and public service. Thus, a significant part of the nobility began to organize rural life, settled on their estates and began to do housework.

As for the main part of this class, it was represented by landowners of the "middle hand" and owners of rural estates. In this regard, we can safely conclude that the nobles were not separated from the peasant life by something insurmountable. Servants lived in their estates, as well as courtyard people with whom they could communicate. Representatives of two different classes have been side by side for many years. Thus, there was contact with the same folk culture, beliefs, customs and traditions. The nobles could be treated by healers, take a steam bath and drink the same infusions as the peasants. It is also worth noting that a significant part of this class was little or illiterate at all. Here it is very appropriate to recall Mrs. Prostakova Fonvizin. Estates of nobles were an integral part of Russian rural life. As for the peasants, the latest innovations did not touch them at all. Only a small part of them was able to break out into "people". In the villages, they began to build solid and clean huts. Peasants also used new household items (furniture and utensils). They were able to diversify their food and acquire better footwear and clothing.

Finally

In the table below, you can see the most striking events and phenomena characteristic of the first half of the 18th century.

Education

Theatre

The science

Architecture

Painting

Literature

Life

1. "Arithmetic" Magnitsky.

2. "Primer" Polikarpov.

3. "Grammar" Smotrytsky.

4. Prokopovich's "First Teaching to Youths".

The reform of the alphabet, the introduction of civil type.

Decree: nobility who evaded service had no right to marry.

Creation of schools:

1. Digital.

2. Navigation.

3. Marine.

4. Engineering.

5. Medical.

6. Artillery.

A Decree was issued on the formation of the Academy of Arts and Sciences.

A public theater has been created, the construction of the "Comedy trash" has begun

1. Creation of a lathe by Nartov.

2. Pharmaceutical garden became the basis of the botanical garden.

3. The first hospital was formed. There were surgical instruments.

4. The Kunstkamera was created - the first natural science museum.

6. In the Sukharevskaya Tower, J. Bruce opened an observatory.

7. The Kamchatka expeditions of Chirikov and Bering took place.

Baroque prevails. Style Features:

Monumentality;

The curvature of the lines of the facade;

splendor;

The abundance of columns, statues.

Monuments:

Cathedral of the Peter and Paul Fortress;

Building 12 colleges;

Kunstkamera;

Admiralty;

Smolny Cathedral, Winter Palace.

Nikitin created the painting "Peter on his deathbed".

Matveev wrote "Self-portrait with his wife".

1. Trediakovsky created the first ode.

2. The Vedomosti newspaper began to be published.

3. A library has been created.

The appearance of the assembly - a ball arranged in the homes of the nobility. Since 1700, a new chronology has been used.

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, Pakhsaryan N.. The authors of the articles that make up the sections of the monograph present various aspects of the emotional life of the `age of reason`, embodied in philosophical writings, poetry, drama, prose, as well as ...
XVIII century: laughter and tears in the literature and art of the Enlightenment, Pakhsaryan N. The authors of the articles that make up the sections of the monograph present various aspects of the emotional life of the "age of reason", embodied in philosophical writings, poetry, dramaturgy, prose, as well as ...

The 18th century in the history of Russia is a cruel, even merciless century, which decided to change in a short time, the time of archery riots and palace coups, the reign of Catherine the Great, peasant wars and the strengthening of serfdom.

But at the same time, this period is characterized by the development of education, the opening of new educational institutions, including Moscow University, the Academy of Arts. In 1756, the first theater appeared in the capital.

The end of the 18th century - the heyday of the work of artists Dmitry Grigorievich Levitsky, Fyodor Stepanovich Rokotov, sculptor Fedot Shubin.

Now let's take a closer look at the main events of the 18th century and the historical characters of that time. At the end of the 17th century, in 1676, he dies, and his son Fedor Alekseevich takes the throne. Peter Alekseevich, who later became emperor, will become king in 1682.

In 1689, Peter, at the suggestion of his mother, Natalya Kirillovna Naryshkina, marries Evdokia Lopukhina, which means that he reaches the age of majority, as it was believed at that time.

Sophia, who wanted to remain on the throne, raised archers against Peter, but the rebellion was suppressed, after which Sophia was imprisoned in, and the throne passes to Peter, although until 1696 his brother Ivan Alekseevich was Peter's formal co-ruler.

He had a rather remarkable appearance. His height was 2m 10 cm, he was narrow in the shoulders, had long arms and an unusual gait, so that his close associates had to not only follow him, but run.

From the age of 6, Peter began to learn to read and write and received an encyclopedic education at that time. Left without a father, Peter was engaged in self-education. With the permission of Princess Sophia, he creates a personal amusing guard, and later it was these two amusing regiments - Preobrazhensky and Semenovsky that played a big role when Peter came to power. In addition, the young tsar's favorite pastime was shooting the boyars with steamed turnips.

Gradually, the king also had "favorite" close associates, and these were different people. Alexander Danilovich Menshikov, or simply Aleksashka, the son of a palace groom, who, from the position of the royal orderly, became the most illustrious prince, the richest man; "German" (Dutch), who became the main adviser to the king after his accession to the throne.

It was he who advised Peter to establish foreign trade, but the problem was one of the two well-known Russian troubles - roads; Russia needed access to the sea through Sweden and Turkey. Peter I undertakes, the second of which was successful and ended with the foundation of the Taganrog fortress (on Cape Taganiy Rog).

The war with Turkey that began in 1697 showed that Russia needed loans, allies and weapons. For this, the Great Embassy is sent to Europe, in which Peter I was listed as a simple person - constable Peter Alekseevich. He was the first Russian tsar to visit Europe.

Returning from a trip, and plunging back into life in Russia, Peter hated it, decided to completely redo it, and, as you know, he succeeds.

The reforms of Peter I, with which he began his transformations, were as follows:

army, created a mercenary army, which he dresses in an almost European uniform and puts at the head of foreign officers.
He transferred the country to a new chronology, from the Nativity of Christ, the old was conducted from the creation of the world. January 1, 1700 in Russia began to celebrate the New Year.
He ordered every 10 thousand households to build 1 ship, as a result, Russia received a large fleet.
- self-government was introduced in the cities, burmisters were put at the head of the cities. Although this "Europeanization" of cities was completed.

In 1700, Peter I decides to start a war with Sweden, which ended in 1721. It started unsuccessfully, Peter was defeated near Narva, fled from the battlefield even before the battle began, but repented of this and decided to rebuild his army. Transformations were made based on the needs of the troops. For the war, cannons were needed, as a result, the bells of Russian churches are poured onto them, then metallurgical enterprises are built.

By the middle of the century, 75 metallurgical enterprises operated in the country, which fully met the country's needs for pig iron, almost half of the products were exported. It was necessary to arm the army, so arms factories are being built. In addition, Peter I orders the construction of linen factories. Shipbuilding, rope, leather and glass production are developing. Galleys are being built at shipyards, which played a decisive role in the defeat.

Peter introduces military service - recruitment - from 20 households 1 person went to serve for 25 years; also for 25 years, he introduces compulsory service to the nobility. These measures made it possible to quickly create a new army - 20,000 sailors and 35,000 ground troops.

Peter I understands that Russia needs knowledge and money. To do this, he forced hundreds of young nobles and boyars to go abroad to study, fiscal officers were assigned to monitor them; created a number of technical universities (Higher Artillery School), where Western professors were teachers.

In order to encourage not only nobles, but also ordinary people to study, Peter issues a decree according to which everyone who graduates from the gymnasium and knows foreign languages will receive the nobility.

To raise the economy, the king in 1718-1724. introduces a poll tax (a male soul). The tax was heavy and exceeded the solvency of the people. This has led to an increase in arrears.

To stop thefts, tk. everyone was actively stealing, and the first thief was Menshikov, the tsar orders not only the suspect, but his entire family to be hanged on the rack. A number of additional fees are introduced - a fee for a beard, for wearing a Russian dress, those who did not drink coffee were fined.

In order not to spend money on hired labor, Peter I introduces serf labor. Villages were assigned to factories, artisans were assigned to cities. By a decree of 1736, factory workers were assigned to manufactories forever and were called "eternally given." This form of labor hindered the development of Russia, got rid of it only in the 19th century.

In addition, Peter I seeks to develop trade. They impose customs duties on imported goods much more than on exported goods. As a result, by the end of the Northern War, Russia had a developed economy, but it was a serf.

The time of Peter's reign is the time of transformations in Russia, the time of reforms. In addition to those listed above, Peter carried out administrative and social reforms, and he also changed the judicial system.

1. Peter divides the country into provinces, at the head of the provinces was the governor-general, whose only form of punishment was the death penalty;
2. Peter in 1711-1721 abolished the order system, created collegiums-prototypes of ministries. The head of the collegium was appointed by the king "according to the mind, and not according to the nobility of the family", i.e. a good education was necessary for the service;
3. In 1711, the Senate became the highest state body, which, in the absence of the king, performed its functions;
4. At the head of all state power was Emperor Peter I. This title was approved by Peter himself in 1721 after the end of the war with Sweden.

In 1722, the "Table of Ranks" was introduced, according to which all service people were divided into 14 categories, the lowest rank was the ensign. Those who rose to the 8th category received the nobility. The judicial system was changed - "they were judged not with a word, but with a pen", i.e. all court cases were drawn up in writing and judged on the basis of written laws, which made it possible for judges to take new bribes.
In 1703, St. Petersburg became the capital of Russia, which was built on the bones of serfs. Peter I forcibly resettled about 1000 nobles in St. Petersburg.

In 1725, along with the death of Peter I, began. During the years of the reign, from 1725 to 1727, and from 1727 to 1730, Menshikov performed the functions of the emperor. During the reign, from 1730 to 1740, and Ioan Antonovich, from 1740 to 1741, various kinds of German adventurers were in power.

When, who ascended the throne in November 1741, the Razumovskys, the favorites of the empress, played a prominent role. He became Elizabeth's heir. He pursued a policy that was not accepted by the Russian nobility. As a result, in 1762, after another coup, his wife, Catherine II, ascended the throne at the age of 33. It was announced that her husband Peter was killed "accidentally".

34 years of reign went down in history as the "golden age of the nobility", because. she pursued a pro-noble policy. Following her husband, Peter III, she allowed the nobles not to serve, conducted a general survey in 1765, i.e. divided the land among the nobles. There was an opportunity to buy and sell a pledge, which did not give the treasury a penny, but all the nobility was on the side of Catherine.

In addition, she gave the nobles for their service, 600 thousand serfs, for example, got several thousand people. In the interests of the nobility, it deprives the peasants of their last rights - under the fear of hard labor it was forbidden to complain about the landowner, it was allowed to trade in serfs "at retail", i.e. Families were mercilessly divided.

Thus, if for the nobility the end of the 18th century was the golden period of history, then for the peasants it was the most terrible period of slavery. During her reign, Catherine II relied on the personal devotion of favorites, brought up a whole galaxy of Russian politicians, suppressed revolutions by all means, was sick of the ideas of the philosopher Voltaire, read the books of Rousseau and Montesquieu, but perceived the Enlightenment in her own way, in an original way.

She believed that education should affect only the upper strata of society, did not give freedom to the peasants, because. this would lead to a riot. Catherine II (1773-1775) was especially frightened, which was attended by serfs, Cossacks, working people, Bashkirs, Kalmyks. The peasant war was defeated, but Catherine learned from it the main lesson - you can not give freedom to the peasants, and did not abolish serfdom.

Transformations of Catherine the Great

1. Abolished state monopolies on tobacco and some other activities, which contributed to their development.
2. Created a number of educational institutions, for example, the Free Economic Society, the Institute of Noble Maidens. So, in the Free Economic Society, they studied and introduced agriculture, technical innovations (for each invention they gave prizes), potatoes are being introduced through the efforts of this society (the initiator is Andrey Bolotov).
3. Under Catherine, the construction of manufactories expanded, new industries appeared, such as hosiery, the number of manufactories increased by 2 times, while they were not only serfs, but also hired, i.e. the first workers from the peasantry appear (the right to otkhodnichestvo), foreign investment.
3. Development of new lands. To develop new territories in the south of the country (Crimea, Kuban, South Ukraine), she gives them to the nobles. After a couple of years, he realizes that this is ineffective and invites "foreigners" - the Greeks founded Mariupol, the Armenians - the village of Chaltyr, the Bulgarians bring viticulture. In addition, Catherine announces that those peasants who run away and settle in new lands will be free.
4. Catherine II did not sell Alaska to America, but rented it out for 100 years so that the Americans would master it.

After the death of Catherine II, her son (1796-1801) becomes emperor. Under him, domestic policy was also pro-noble and pro-serf. Serfdom is becoming more widespread. However, relations between the emperor and the nobility become extremely tense, after the next innovations of Paul I.

Pavel banned meetings of the nobility in the provinces, he, at his whim, could exile some nobles and elevate others. In addition, the rupture of relations with England hit the income of the landowners, because. agricultural products were exported there. The result of this policy was a conspiracy, Paul was killed in 1801 and his son Alexander ascended the throne. Thus ended the 18th century in Russia.

Thus, the 18th century in the history of Russia was characterized by the following:

1. Ever since the reign of Peter I, a tradition has been established that all reforms are carried out by the state.
2. The modernization of Russia is carried out according to the catch-up version, and we take from the West what we like.
3. Modernization is carried out at the expense of their own people, i.e. Russia is a self-colony.
4. Any modernization is accompanied by bureaucratization.

In Russian literature of the 18th century, the first independent trend began to take shape - classicism. Classicism developed on the basis of samples of ancient literature and art of the Renaissance. The development of Russian literature in the 18th century was greatly influenced by the reforms of Peter the Great, as well as by the school of European enlightenment.

A significant contribution to the development of literature of the 18th century was made by Vasily Kirillovich Trediakovsky. He was a remarkable poet and philologist of his time. He formulated the basic principles of versification in Russian.

His principle of syllabo-tonic versification was the alternation of stressed and unstressed syllables in a line. The syllabo-tonic principle of versification, formulated back in the 18th century, is still the main method of versification in the Russian language.

Trediakovsky was a great connoisseur of European poetry and translated foreign authors. Thanks to him, the first fictional novel appeared in Russia, exclusively on secular subjects. It was a translation of the work "Riding to the City of Love", by the French author Paul Talman.

A.P. Sumarokov was also a big man of the 18th century. The genres of tragedy and comedy were developed in his work. The dramaturgy of Sumarokov contributed to the awakening of human dignity and higher moral ideals in people. In the satirical works of Russian literature of the 18th century, Antioch Kantemir was noted. He was a wonderful satirist, ridiculed the nobles, drunkenness and self-interest. In the second half of the 18th century, the search for new forms began. Classicism ceased to meet the needs of society.

The greatest poet in Russian literature of the 18th century was Gavrila Romanovich Derzhavin. His work destroyed the framework of classicism, and brought live colloquial speech into the literary style. Derzhavin was a remarkable poet, a thinking man, a poet-philosopher.

At the end of the 18th century, such a literary trend as sentimentalism was formed. Sentimentalism - aimed at exploring the inner world of a person, personality psychology, experiences and emotions. The flourishing of Russian sentimentalism in Russian literature of the 18th century was the works of Radishchev and Karamzin. Karamzin, in the story "Poor Lisa" expressed interesting things that became a bold revelation for Russian society in the 18th century.

Russian culture of the 18th century was formed during a completely new stage in the history of Russia. The era of transformations of Peter I significantly influenced all aspects of state and public life. The process of Europeanization of Russian culture began.

Reforms of Peter I

Having cut through the "window to Europe", the young and energetic Russian tsar began to carry out large-scale reforms. Many undertakings and innovations of Peter I are called “firsts” in Russia (the first school, the first newspaper, etc.).

Peter I attached great importance to changing the entire way of life and life of the Russian nobility in the Western spirit.

Many of the reforms were of progressive significance and introduced Russia to the common European culture. On the other hand, the forcible introduction of a foreign culture often led to ugly manifestations.

In 1706, Peter the Great's attempt to create the first public theater in Russia, a "comedy temple", failed shamefully.

Characteristic features of the culture of the Petrine era:

Petersburg

Among the great deeds of Peter, a special place is occupied by the founding of St. Petersburg, which became the cultural capital of Russia.

On May 16, 1703, Peter I founded the fortress “St. Peter-Burkh” at the mouth of the Neva, which became the birthday of the city. Already in the early 20s. In the 18th century, the Imperial Court, central administrative institutions and the diplomatic corps moved to St. Petersburg. In fact, the city becomes the new capital of the empire.

Rice. 1. View of the Peter and Paul Fortress and Palace Embankment. F. Ya. Alekseev.

Culture of “Enlightened Absolutism”

In the “Era of Palace Revolutions”, the development of cultural traditions laid down by Peter I continued. During the reign of Elizabeth Petrovna, baroque became the leading style in architecture.

The real heyday of culture is experienced in the era of Catherine II. During these years, classicism, which is closely connected with the ideas of the European Enlightenment, becomes the dominant style.

Rice. 2. Peter and Paul Cathedral.

A huge role in the development of Russian culture was played by M. V. Lomonosov, who was at the same time a chemist, historian, poet and artist.

V. G. Belinsky called Lomonosov "Peter the Great of Russian literature."

Briefly about the Russian culture of the 18th century, the following table tells:

Table "Russian culture of the 18th century"

*Cultural area*	*Leading styles and genres*	*Representatives*	*Works*
Literature	Classicism; ode, fable, comedy	V. K. Trediakovsky	"Telemakhida"
		M. V. Lomonosov	“A word of praise to Peter the Great…”
		D. I. Fonvizin	"Undergrowth"
Architecture	Baroque, classicism	D. Trezzini	Peter and Paul Cathedral, Summer Palace of Peter I
		V. Rastrelli	Winter Palace in St. Petersburg, Catherine Palace in Tsarskoye Selo
		J. Quarenghi	Hermitage Theatre, Alexander Palace in Tsarskoye Selo
Painting	Historical and portrait painting	A. Matveev	“Self-portrait with wife”
		I. N. Nikitin	“Portrait of Peter I”
		A. P. Losenko	"Hector's farewell to Andromache"
		V. L. Borovikovsky	“Portrait of Empress Elizabeth Alekseevna”
		D. G. Levitsky