Russia in the second half of the 17th century. Spain in the second half of the 17th and in the 18th to the Belgorod Law Institute of the Ministry of Internal Affairs of Russia

In the second half of the XVIII century. the feudal-serf system in Russia began to be undermined by the growth of capitalist relations. The penetration of commodity production into agriculture accelerated the property stratification of the peasantry, especially in quitrent districts. Hundreds of thousands of ruined peasants broke ties with the land and looked for work in non-agricultural trades. This created a labor market for large-scale industry and other conditions for the development of capitalist manufacture.

A striking indicator of the beginning decomposition of the feudal system was the desire of part of the landowners to introduce agricultural improvements, as well as to engage in commercial and industrial activities. This indicated that the traditional methods of organizing the economy and exploiting labor required significant changes.

1. Agriculture

Agriculture in this period, as before, remained the basis of the country's economy, and rural residents dominated the population (by the end of the century, about 4% lived in cities).

The development of agricultural production was mainly of an extensive nature and was achieved due to the following factors:

1. Population growth, which was ensured both by the annexation of new territories and by population growth in the central regions of Russia. If in 1721 15.5 million people lived in the Russian Empire, then in 1747 - 18 million people, and in 1796 - 36 million people.

2. Development of new territories. After the annexation of Novorossia (Northern Black Sea and Azov), Crimea, some regions of the North Caucasus, Ukrainian, Belarusian and Lithuanian lands that belonged to Poland, the country's territory increased significantly. At the same time, the growth occurred, first of all, due to the fertile black earth lands, which were provided not only to the landowners for the withdrawal of serfs (1.5-12 thousand dess.), but also to state peasants (60 dess.), retired soldiers , foreign colonists (Germans, Greeks, Armenians, Jews, Swiss, etc.).

In addition, the agricultural development of Siberia and the Urals continued, where, in addition to migration from the central regions, there was a gradual transition of the local population - Bashkirs, Buryats, from nomadic pastoralism to settled plow agriculture.

3. A major role in the growth of agrarian, primarily grain production was played by the preservation and strengthening of serfdom, as well as the expansion of the zone of serfdom to the Left-Bank Ukraine and the Trans-Volga region.

At the same time, progressive factors in the development of agricultural production began to operate. Some of them contributed to a slight intensification of production in certain areas and farms.

Increased regional specialization of agricultural production.

New crops were introduced. If the potato was still a garden crop, then the sunflower became widespread in Ukraine and New Russia. Sugar beet began to be cultivated.

The marketability of agriculture increased. On the one hand, the landlords needed more and more money to purchase luxury goods. On the other hand, the purchases of grain for the army, industrial crops for the growing industry increased, grain exports to Western Europe increased several times. In addition, with the development of industry and cities, an increasing part of the population moved away from self-sufficiency in agricultural products and needed to purchase them.

Due to the increase in demand, prices for agricultural products have increased.

By the end of the 18th, on the basis of the growth of marketability, the strengthening of trade ties between different regions of the country, and the transformation of such ties into regular ones, a single all-Russian grain market was formed.

As a result of these processes, commodity-money relations developed in the country.

During this period, the first attempts to apply new methods and technologies, scientific achievements for the development of agricultural production began. To this end, in 1765, on the initiative of Catherine II, the Free Economic Society was created. But his activities under the conditions of the serfdom did not lead to significant results, only in a few few estates the landowners bought some agricultural equipment and tried to introduce a multi-field crop rotation.

2. Industrial development

The growth of industrial production was more significant than in agriculture, which was ensured by the growth of the needs of the Russian army and navy, the increased demand in the world market for iron and sailing fabric, as well as the growth of the non-agricultural population in Russia.

Heavy industry. Ferrous metallurgy developed especially rapidly (primarily in the Urals), increasing production by 5 times. Russian iron not only became one of the important factors in strengthening the army and navy, but was also exported to Western Europe - at the end of the century, most of the iron shipped to England was of Russian origin. Gold mining began in Siberia.

Light industry also grew rapidly. Textile production developed rapidly, providing more than 80% of the value of all products of large, medium and light industry. New enterprises sprang up in the center of the country, and were especially active in the Ukraine (cloth manufactories), Estonia and Latvia.

Various forms of industrial organization developed in Russia. The main ones were handicraft, small-scale commodity production, as well as medium and large-scale commodity production in the form of manufactories.

Handicraft production was widespread both in the city and in the countryside. In a number of regions of the Center and the Volga region, the leather, textile peasant industry developed, which was such a serious competitor to urban handicraft and merchant enterprises that in the 1760s-1770s. complaints from merchants in many provinces about unmanaged peasant factories became commonplace. In some large villages of the Center, the peasants abandoned agriculture altogether.

Manufactory (medium and large-scale commodity production based on the division of labor and manual labor) dominated the iron and steel industry, the production of linen, cloth, silk, and a number of other industries. The number of factories increased rapidly - from 600 in the era of Elizabeth to 1200 by the end of the reign of Catherine II.

The main types of manufactories

State-owned - belonged to the state, provided with state orders and were based on serf labor. Their products were intended primarily for the army and navy. These manufactories developed slowly.

Possession private manufactories were provided with workers attached to enterprises from which they could not be alienated. The work of sessional workers who had their own plots of land was paid in money, they could not be used in agricultural work, be recruited, they were under the jurisdiction of the Berg and Manufactory colleges. But otherwise, their position did not differ from that of a serf.

Such enterprises were especially common in the Urals (mining and metallurgy) and in the Central regions (linen and cloth production), their products were also mainly bought by the state.

Estates - belonged to the landowners. On them, serfs worked out corvee. Such enterprises (primarily distilleries and textiles), despite their very low productivity, were profitable due to the free labor of serfs, but developed more and more slowly. The situation of the serf workers in these manufactories was extremely difficult. According to the memoirs of a contemporary, the peasants said - in this village there is a factory - with such an expression as if they said: There is a plague in this village.

Merchant and peasant manufactories were based on free hired labor. The number of such manufactories grew very rapidly, their size increased. Such enterprises formed the backbone of the cotton industry, where at the turn of the 18-19 centuries. more than 80% of the workers worked as freelance workers.

According to some quantitative indicators of large-scale industrial production, Russia was ahead of all continental Europe, including France, Holland, Prussia; Russian metallurgy continued to be a supplier of iron to European countries. But while England entered the era of the industrial revolution, the industrial technology of Russia remained old. The relations of production also wore backward forms in such branches of industry as the metallurgical and cloth industries. The mining industry of the Urals and the cloth industry of European Russia were, according to V. I. Lenin, an example of “that original phenomenon in Russian history, which consists in the application of serf labor to industry” (Lenin, Development of Capitalism in Russia, Soch., x. 3 , p. 411.).

By 1767, there were 385 manufactories in Russia (cloth, linen, silk, glass, etc.) and 182 iron and copper foundries, that is, a total of 567 industrial enterprises. The number of large enterprises by the end of the XVIH century. doubled.

The presence of large stocks of their own raw materials (flax, hemp, leather, wool, grain, etc.) and gratuitous labor, the possibility of profitable marketing of products pushed the landlords to set up patrimonial manufactories. On the estates of Russian, Ukrainian, Baltic landowners, cloth, linen, leather, glass, distilleries and other enterprises were created. The work of serfs in these enterprises was the most difficult form of corvée.

But, despite the absolute growth in the number of manufactories of the nobility, by the end of the century their share falls due to an increase in the number of merchant and peasant manufactories, which were the direct predecessors of the capitalist factory.

Capitalist manufactory grew most often out of peasant crafts, primarily in light industry. So, in the late 40s of the XVIII century. In the Ivanovo textile district, with rare exceptions, the manufactories used the labor of hired workers rather than sessional peasants.

Manufactories in the light industry of Russia were distinguished by their large size. Among them there were those that employed up to 2 thousand people and even more, and enterprises served by 300-400 workers were considered average. At the sailing manufactory of the Goncharovs at the end of the 18th century. there were 1624 workers, at the cloth factory of the princes Khovansky - up to 2600 workers.

3.Trade

Development of the domestic market

The granary of Russia in the middle of the XVIII century. there were central black earth regions, especially Belgorod and Voronezh provinces, and by the end of the century - the Middle Volga region. From here, bread was exported to Moscow and St. Petersburg, to Yaroslavl, Kostroma. The sellers of bread were both landowners and peasants. The landowners sold bread and other agricultural products in order to increase their cash income. Most of the peasants sold the bread they needed for their own consumption, because they needed money to pay quitrent and head tax, to buy salt and industrial products.

The detachment of the peasants from agriculture and household crafts contributed to the expansion of the capacity of the domestic market for manufactured goods. The products of large metallurgical plants and manufactories that produced linen gradually penetrate into the peasant and landowner economy, displacing household products. Both these branches of industry, which for a long time supplied most of their products abroad, began to produce consumer goods in connection with the expansion of the domestic market.

The development of domestic trade prompted the government to make major changes in its economic policy. They were determined both by the interests of the trading nobility, who sought the elimination of trade monopolies and restrictions, and by the interests of the merchants.

In the middle of the XVIII century. 17 different types of internal customs duties were levied. The existence of internal customs hindered the development of the all-Russian market. By decree of December 20, 1753, internal customs duties were abolished.

Equally important for the growth of trade and industry were the abolition by decree of 1767 and the manifesto of 1775 of industrial monopolies and the proclamation of freedom of industry and trade. The peasants were given the opportunity to freely engage in "needlework" and the sale of industrial products, which contributed to the more rapid development of small-scale commodity production into capitalist manufactory.

International trade

If in 1749 the export of goods from Russia amounted to about 7 million rubles, then 35 years later, in 1781-1785, it reached almost 24 million rubles annually, and the export significantly exceeded the import.

In the first place in Russian exports, as in previous times, were raw materials and semi-finished products - flax, hemp and tow, which accounted for 20 to 40% of all exports. They were followed by leather, fabrics, wood, ropes, bristles, potash, lard, furs.

Industrial goods became increasingly important in exports. For example, iron accounted for 6% of Russian exports in 1749, and 13% in 1796. The maximum figure for the export of Russian iron falls on 1794, when it reached almost 3.9 million poods; in subsequent years, the export of iron abroad has steadily declined. The export of grain fluctuated depending on the harvest and grain prices in the domestic market, on the prohibitions imposed on the export of grain. In 1749, for example, the export of bread was expressed in an insignificant figure - 2 thousand rubles (0.03% of the total export). From the 1960s, the export of grain began to grow rapidly, reaching 2.9 million rubles in the early 1990s.

Among the goods imported into Russia, items of noble consumption continued to dominate: sugar, cloth, silks, wines, fruits, spices, perfumes, etc.

4. The position of the main estates

The main socio-economic tasks of the state during this period were: the adaptation of the ruling class - the nobility to the developing commodity-money relations, the adaptation of the serf estate to the new economic system, and, ultimately, the strengthening of the renewed noble feudal state.

On the other hand, it was necessary to contribute to the economic strengthening of the country in order to contribute to its further transformation into a great power, to ensure the fulfillment of foreign policy tasks, and also to relieve social tension, resulting in speeches and even uprisings of various segments of the population. Catherine II, a supporter of free trade and industrial activity, considered it her task to free entrepreneurship from oppression.

These two tasks, objectively contradicting each other, at this stage were relatively successfully combined in the economic policy of the state.

Peter III provided new benefits to entrepreneurs from the nobility - in 1762, manufacturers of non-noble origin were forbidden to buy serfs for their enterprises, the nobles were exempted from compulsory public service, which was supposed to direct their efforts to the national economy.

These privileges were confirmed and expanded by the Charter to the nobility, issued by Catherine II. 1785 In 1782, mountain freedom was abolished - the landowners were declared the owners of not only the land, but also its subsoil. But the nobles were not very willing to go into business due to the lack of sufficient funds and estate vestiges in their outlook.

Catherine's main liberal measure was the Manifesto of 1775, which greatly facilitated the development of entrepreneurship. Representatives of all classes, including serfs, received the right to start camps and needlework without asking for any permissions and without any registration (therefore, the manifesto of 1775 is usually called the manifesto on freedom of enterprise in literature). This contributed to the rapid growth of peasant crafts and handicraft industries.

Strengthening of serfdom in the second half of the XVIII century. reached its climax. This was due to: the expansion of the zone of application of serf labor to the Left-Bank and Sloboda Ukraine (in 1783, the peasants here were forbidden to move from landowner to landowner), the areas of the Kursk-Belgorod and Voronezh zasechny lines, to the Don, Trans-Volga, Urals. In addition, state lands and lands confiscated from the church were actively distributed to the nobility: thus, under Catherine II, more than 800 thousand peasants became serfs; strengthening the power of the landlords over the peasants: the decrees of Peter III and Catherine II proclaimed the right of the landowner to send peasants into exile in Siberia (1760), to hard labor (1765) without trial, the peasants were forbidden to complain to the monarch about their landowner (1767), etc. Moreover, the exiled serfs were counted to the landowner as recruited, and as a result, he did not suffer any losses. For 5 years, about 20 thousand serfs were exiled and sent to hard labor. The sale and resale of serfs without land flourished, auctions were held.

As a result, serfdom at the end of the enlightened 18th century differed from slavery only in that the peasants ran their own households, while the serfs were practically equated with slaves.

The possibilities of developing the economy on the basis of feudalism were seriously reduced. Serfdom became a brake on economic progress.

The extensive development of the economy dominated. The level of development of the Russian economy and the rate of its growth lagged behind the advanced countries of the West.

At the same time, progressive trends developed in the country's economy. Industry, including manufacturing, and trade grew rapidly. Commodity-money relations developed, including in agriculture. In state policy, under the influence of the ideas of the European Enlightenment, elements of economic liberalism were practiced.

The development of commodity-money relations, the formation of the all-Russian market, the emergence of the capitalist way of life led to the deformation of the main features of serfdom. Gradually began the process of decomposition of the feudal-serf system.

At the same time, in the second half of the XVIII century. Russia's economy, especially industry and trade, developed at a relatively high pace. During this period, the combination of pro-noble policy and elements of economic liberalism was still bearing fruit and, by the end of the reign of Catherine II, ensured the creation of a powerful army and navy, the solution of foreign policy tasks and socio-political stabilization in the country.

Ticket 19.

Russia at the turn of the 17th-18th centuries.

Russia at the turn of XVII-XVIII was a state whose politics and public life were characterized by complete confusion. Society understood that the old way of life was beginning to fade into the past, but it was not ready to accept innovations.

Russia at the early stage of the Emperor's reign

After the death of Alexei Mikhailovich, the contenders for the throne began to wage a fierce struggle among themselves, which further complicated the already unstable economic state of the country. In August 1689, supporters of the son of Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich, 17-year-old Peter, were able to install their protege to the kingdom.

At the beginning of his reign, Peter showed absolute indifference to public affairs. He was satisfied with the fact that in fact the country was ruled by his closest relatives, in whose hands he was just a puppet that carried out their will.

Instead of being interested in the problems of society and gradually solving them, Peter indulged in various amusements, which consisted in making models of ships and organizing competitions that tested the viability of royal handicrafts.

As history will show us, over time, Peter, thanks to his hobby, will be able to create the most powerful fleet in Europe. But this will be later, but for now the young king idly indulged in fun and completely ignored his direct duties.

Peter was incredibly lucky with the environment, which was very capable and wise, and was able to maintain the prestige of the king in the eyes of the people. The tsar's associates, J. Bruce, F. Lefort, P. Gordon, were gradually able to convince the tsar of the need to change priorities and engage in state administration. Thanks to their influence, the first state activity of the king, as the sole ruler, began.

Peter's first achievements

The military amusements of Peter gradually transformed into the military strategy of the state. The king began to realize the need to open new trade routes that would make it possible to improve the economy of the state.

Peter logically understood that a strong flotilla was needed for this. However, it was not possible to open exits to the strategically important seas due to the unpreparedness of the army. The king did not have the opportunity to reform it at an early stage of his reign, therefore, special attention began to be paid to the construction of river ports on the Volga, which contributed to the development of domestic trade.

But the idea of ​​getting access to the seas did not leave Peter, for this it was necessary to find out the political situation in Europe in order to find future allies for himself in the war with the Ottoman Empire.

The Tsar initiated the creation of the Great Embassy in 1689, the main function of which was to visit European countries and resume diplomatic relations with them. Incognito, Peter himself was among the Russian delegations.

The activities of the Great Embassy played a grandiose role in the history of Russia and became a turning point in its further course. Peter was not only able to find allies for his state, he realized the depth of that large-scale abyss that separated progressive Europe and boyar Russia.

It was from this moment that a new stage in the policy of the tsar began - the reformism of Peter, who was able to further not only strengthen the Russian state, but make it a powerful European empire.

Reasons for popular uprisings in the second halfXVIIcentury

It was not by chance that contemporaries called the 17th century the "rebellious age": it was during this period that two Peasant Wars, archery uprisings, city riots, and the Solovetsky seat fell. Despite the heterogeneous composition of the participants in the movements - peasants, townspeople, Cossacks, Old Believers - the reasons for their speeches had common roots:

- the policy of enslavement of the authorities. During the second half of the XVI - first half of the XVII centuries. a system of serfdom was formed. A series of decrees progressively limited the rights of freedom of the peasant and townspeople and ended with the adoption in 1649 of the Cathedral Code of Alexei Mikhailovich.

- abuse of power. AT 40sXVIIin. the government increased the price of salt 3-4 times. Salt was the product without which it was not possible to prepare food for the future. Expensive salt was sold less than before, and the treasury suffered significant losses. The people began to starve, while thousands of poods of fish rotted on the Volga: the fish merchants, because of the high cost of salt, could not salt it. At the end of 1647, the salt tax was abolished, but the government could not prevent the Salt Riot. In the same 1647, it announced the collection of arrears from the population for the previous 3 years.

AT 50sXVIIcentury the tsarist government waged machinations with grain: it transferred the grain reserves of Sweden to pay off Russian debts.

AT 60sXVIIcentury in the context of protracted hostilities with Poland, the government carried out an inept monetary reform. Having no reserves of silver, the authorities issued a copper coin with a forced exchange rate for silver money. At first, copper money enjoyed complete confidence, but then the reform turned into a real scam: money masters from the Mint could not stand the temptation, they bought copper and produced coins for themselves. "Thieves" money filled the country, began to fall in their prices. At the beginning of 1662, 4 copper rubles were paid for a ruble of silver, in the middle of 1663 - 15 copper rubles. From the sharply depreciated money, first of all, people who received monetary salaries, soldiers and archers, as well as artisans and merchants, suffered.

- wars in the second halfXVIIin., which were inevitably accompanied by a deterioration in the economic situation in the country, an increase in taxes, an increase in the recruitment of "subject" people into the army.

- church schism which caused the movement of the Old Believers and schismatics as a kind of social protest against the authorities.

Urban uprisings

Moscow was the center of the movement of townspeople. June 3, 1648 in Moscow struck Salt Riot. The people stormed the gates of the Kremlin, plundered the courtyard of the head of the tsarist government and the initiator of the monetary reform, the boyar B.I. Morozov, demanding reprisals against him. The Kremlin decided to sacrifice L. Pleshcheev, head of the Zemsky order, who on June 4 was taken by the executioner to Red Square and torn to pieces by the crowd. The king managed to save only B.I. Morozov, urgently sending him into exile in the Kirillo-Belozersky Monastery.

The uprising in Moscow acquired a great resonance - a wave of movement in the summer of 1648 swept many cities: Kozlov, Salt Vychegodskaya, Kursk, Ustyug the Great, and others.

The most implacable and prolonged uprisings broke out in the summer of 1650 in Pskov and Novgorod, known as "bread riots". In both cities, power passed into the hands of zemstvo elders. However, the elected authorities in Novgorod showed neither steadfastness nor decisiveness and opened the gates to the punitive detachment of Prince I.N. Khovansky. The people of Pskov put up resistance to the government forces. The siege of Pskov lasted three months. The Zemskaya hut operated in the city, distributing among the townspeople the bread confiscated from the boyar granaries. In connection with the uprisings, a special Zemsky Sobor was convened, which approved the composition of the delegation to persuade the Pskovites. They stopped resisting only after they had achieved forgiveness for all participants in the uprising.

uprising in Moscow in 1662 city, known as copper riot, was also accompanied by pogroms of the houses of boyars and wealthy merchants. An excited crowd of townspeople, soldiers and archers laid siege to the village of Kolomenskoye, where the tsar was. Three archery regiments, which defended the tsar and carried out reprisals against the rebels, became a kind of guard and in subsequent years enjoyed various royal awards.

Peasant war led by S.T. Razin (1670-1671)

Urban uprisings testified to the crisis state of the country. Its pinnacle was Peasants' War under the leadership of Stepan Timofeevich Razin (1670-1671). The initiators of peasant wars and their leaders since that time were representatives Don Cossacks.

The way of life on the Don had its own characteristics. There was no land ownership, and consequently, no landlords. There were also no governors: the army was ruled by the elected. Don freemen attracted the attention of fugitives from the southern and central districts of the Russian state. The government, needing the services of the Don Cossacks, avoided conflicts with them and put up with the unwritten law: “ There is no extradition from the Don ”, that is, runaway peasants were not returned to their owners.

The Cossacks drew their vital resources from fishing and hunting. In addition, they received grain salaries and gunpowder from the government. It was a kind of payment for the defense of the borders - the Cossacks took the blows from the raids of the Crimean Tatars and Nogais. The Cossacks widely used another source of replenishment of their resources: they organized "Campaigns for zipuns". The objects of their attacks were the Crimean peninsula and the southern coast of the Black Sea. In the second half of the XVII century. opportunities for "zipun trips" became much less. After the departure of the Cossacks from Azov, which they owned for five years (1637-1642), the Turks made the fortress impregnable and closed the exit to the Azov and Black Seas. In the 50-60s. In the 17th century, the Cossacks tried to transfer their raids to the Volga, the Caspian Sea, where they robbed government and merchant caravans, as well as Iranian possessions. Yes, in June 1669 Cossacks led by S.T. Razin defeated the Iranian fleet. Derbent, Baku, Rasht, Farabat, Astrabat became their prey. The captured valuables were exchanged by the Razintsy for Russian prisoners who joined their ranks.

Actions of Razin on the Volga and the Caspian in 1667-1669. were spontaneous actions of the Cossacks for the purpose of material enrichment. However, from the end of 1669 they acquire an organized character. Campaign of the Don Cossacks in 1670 turned into Peasants' War against the boyars and the "primary people", but not against the tsar: the tsarist illusions among the rebels were still strong. Razin himself spread rumors that Tsarevich Alexei Alekseevich and Patriarch Nikon, who was then in disgrace, were allegedly with him.

April 13, 1670 The 7,000th detachment of S. Razin captured Tsaritsyn. June, 22 as a result of the assault took Astrakhan."Starting people", governors, nobles were killed; documents of the Astrakhan province were burned. The management of the city was organized according to the Cossack model: at the head of the administration stood Vasily Us, Fedor Sheludyaka and other atamans.

From Astrakhan, through Tsaritsyn, the Cossacks moved up the Volga. Saratov and Samara surrendered without a fight. Dispersed throughout the Volga region "lovely letters" Razin with a call to exterminate the boyars, governor, clerks, "worldly bloodsuckers." September 04, 1670 Razin approached Simbirsk. The siege lasted a month. City led by Voivode Prince Ivan Miloslavsky withstood four rebel assaults. On October 3, government troops approached Simbirsk from Kazan under the command of Yuri Baryatinsky and dealt a blow to the razintsy. The leader of the Peasant War went to the Don to gather a new army, but was captured by the Cossacks and handed over to the government. June 04, 1671 he was taken to Moscow and executed two days later on Red Square. The name of Razin has become a legend - the people's memory of him has preserved many songs and epics.

The uprising continued after the execution of Razin, but under the onslaught of superior forces of the government, it waned. In the spring and summer of 1671, the detachment Fedora Sheludyaki tried to capture Simbirsk. The attempt was unsuccessful. He also failed to keep Astrakhan, which passed into the hands of the government in November 1671. The peasant war was defeated - the participants in the movement were subjected to cruel repressions.

Solovetsky uprising (1668-1676)

After the suppression of the Peasant War, the resistance of the masses continued in different parts of the country. Many people went to distant schismatic sketes. It was during these years that terrible self-immolations began, when schismatics preferred martyrdom to imprisonment in the royal jails. In the Solovetsky Monastery, which refused to recognize Nikon's reform, the schismatic movement acquired a mass character.

The abbot of the monastery is a schismatic Nicanor accepted all the fugitives. Thick stone walls, cannons and squeaks guarded the monastery - all the attacks of the royal troops were unsuccessful. The monastic peasants also opposed them; quite a few among the participants in the Solovki sitting were former Razintsy. The siege lasted 8 years. Solovki fell because of betrayal: the monk Feoktist ran over at night to the side of the enemy and pointed out the secret entrance to the monastery. The archers entered the monastery and after a fierce battle occupied it.

Characteristic features and causes of the defeat of popular movements

The popular uprisings of the second half of the 17th century had common features that ultimately determined their defeatist outcome. The most characteristic of them were:

Local character of movements;

The superiority of government forces;

spontaneity;

Insufficient organization of the masses;

Weak weapons;

The heterogeneous composition of the rebels and differences in interests and demands;

Lack of a program of action;

Betrayal;

The naive consciousness of the rebels: faith in a good king.

additional literature

Main literature

Bibliography

Basic concepts of discipline

Princely congresses. Veche. Boyar Duma. Russian Truth. Vigilantes. Boyars. Separate princes. Polyudie. Carriage. Ognischanin. Smerd. Ryadovich. Purchase Serf. feudal division. Sudebnik. Coffers. Yard. Governor. Governors and volostels. Lip head. Tselovalnik. Zemsky Cathedral. Oprichnina. Seven Boyars. locality system. Cathedral Code. Corvee and quitrent. Orders. Okolnichiy. Thinking bastard. Colleges. Provinces and provinces. Senate. Recruitment duty. Mayor. Ministries. Constitution. Zemstvos. City Council. State Council. General conscription. Manifesto. The State Duma. Political Party. Censorship. Provisional government. All-Union Congress of Soviets. Council of People's Commissars. CEC. Council system. The Supreme Council. Politburo. Party Central Committee. The president. Universal Declaration of Rights and Freedoms 1948 Supreme Court. Superior Court of Arbitration. Constitutional Court.

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With the coming to power in Russia of a new tsar - Alexei Mikhailovich (1645-1676) - the central government decided to continue the course of Tsar Mikhail Fedorovich to strengthen the autocracy. But in doing so, she faced a number of difficulties. The treasury felt the need for money, both for the maintenance of the growing apparatus of power, and in connection with the intensification of foreign policy. The government of Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich increased indirect taxes, raising the price of salt by 4 times in 1646. But prices began to rise, and the solvency of the population was undermined. The salt tax was already abolished in 1647; It was decided to collect arrears for the last three years. This caused discontent and led to a number of uprisings, including in Moscow - the "Salt Riot" (1648). Impressed by him, the tsar convened the Zemsky Sobor, which ended with the adoption of the Council Code (1649).

It was necessary to ensure the further development of the Russian state: the Sudebnik of 1550 was clearly outdated and left too many cases to the discretion of the judges. Therefore, soon after the accession

″Aleksey Mikhailovich ... ordered ... to correct the judicial code, to supplement it with ... the latest decrees of the kings and ... additions to cases that are already encountered in the courts, but have not yet been resolved by a clear law. ″ Only the course to strengthen the autocratic Orthodox monarchy in Russia remained unchanged: according to the Council Code, any criticism of the church and blasphemy were punishable by burning at the stake. Persons accused of treason and insulting the honor of the sovereign, as well as boyars, governors, were executed.

The Cathedral Code regulated the performance of various services, the ransom of prisoners, customs policy, the position of various categories of the population in the state. It "attached servicemen and hard-working people to their states, associating certain rights and duties with each of these states. Thus, the former unstable ranks turned into closed ... estates, sharply separated from one another. ″ An indefinite search for fugitive and taken away peasants was introduced, peasant transitions from one owner to another were prohibited. At the same time, serfdom also extended to the black-haired and palace peasants, who were forbidden to leave their communities. In the event of flight, they were also subject to an indefinite investigation. This meant the legal registration of the system of serfdom. The Council Code limited the growth of church land ownership, which reflected the tendency for the church to be subordinate to the state. This trend met with strong opposition from the clergy.

Church reform followed a little later. Church reform was dictated by the need to strengthen discipline, order, and the moral foundations of the clergy. The expansion of ties with Ukraine and the Orthodox peoples of the former Byzantine Empire required the introduction of the same church ritual throughout the Orthodox world. The spread of printing opened up the possibility of unifying church books.

The reform began in 1652 with the election of Nikon as Moscow Patriarch. Nikon began a reform to unify the rites and establish the uniformity of the church service. Greek rules and rituals were taken as a model. But this reform provoked a protest from part of the boyars and hierarchs of the church, who were afraid that changes in the church would undermine its authority among the people. There was a split in the Russian Church. Adherents of the old order - the Old Believers - refused to recognize Nikon's reform and advocated a return to the pre-reform order. Outwardly, the disagreements between Nikon and his opponents, the Old Believers, among whom Archpriest Avvakum stood out, boiled down to what models - Greek or Russian - to unify church books. The dispute between them was also about how to be baptized - with two or three fingers, how to make a procession - in the direction of the sun or against the sun, etc. As a result, the church "Council of 1667 ... recommended the tsar to consider the Old Believers as heretics and schismatics ( schismatics) and use all the power of their power to punish them.″ Thousands of peasants and residents of the settlement, carried away by the passionate sermons of the schismatics, fled to the North, to the Volga region, to the Urals, to Siberia, where they founded Old Believer settlements. The most powerful protest against church reform manifested itself in the Solovetsky uprising of 1668-1676.

The fate of Patriarch Nikon was also tragic. Nikon put forward and fiercely defended the idea of ​​independence and the leading role of the church in the state. “According to his concept, the power of the patriarch ... is even higher than the supreme secular power: Nikon demanded complete non-interference of secular power in spiritual affairs and at the same time reserved for the patriarch the right to broad participation and influence in political affairs; in the sphere of church administration, Nikon considered himself a single and sovereign lord.″ ″Nikon received enormous power and the title of “Great Sovereign” similar to the royal one (1652). But ... Nikon ... was not always restrained, disposing of his power, not only in relation to the people of the Church, but also in relation to princes and boyars. ″ And soon the patriarch overestimated his influence on the tsar. In 1658, he defiantly left the capital, declaring that he did not want to be a patriarch in Moscow, but would remain the patriarch of Russia. In 1666, a church council with the participation of the Patriarchs of Alexandria and Antioch, who had powers from two other Orthodox patriarchs - Constantinople and Jerusalem, removed Nikon from the post of patriarch.

Meanwhile, the exhausting wars that Russia waged in the middle of the 17th century exhausted the treasury. The pestilence of 1654-1655, which claimed tens of thousands of lives, painfully hit the country's economy. In search of a way out of the difficult financial situation, the Russian government began to mint a copper coin instead of a silver coin at the same price (1654). For eight years, so much copper money (including counterfeit ones) was issued that they completely depreciated. The government collected taxes with silver, while the population had to sell and buy products with copper money. Salaries were also paid in copper money. The high cost of bread and other products that arose under these conditions led to famine. Driven to despair, the Moscow people rose up in an uprising - the "Copper Riot" (1662). It was brutally suppressed, but the minting of copper money was stopped, which was again replaced by silver. The uprising in Moscow in 1662 was one of the harbingers of a new peasant war.

This war was led by S.T. Razin in 1670-1671. It was attended by serfs, Cossacks, townspeople, small service people, barge haulers, working people. Razin's "charming letters" circulated among the people, which set out the demands of the rebels: to exterminate the governor, boyars, nobles, and orderly people. Razin everywhere promised the destruction of serfdom and servility. Naive monarchism was strong among the rebels. The peasants believed in a good king. A rumor was circulating that, together with Razin, the son of Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich, Alexei (who died in 1670), and the disgraced Patriarch Nikon, were going to Moscow. The uprising covered a vast territory - from the lower reaches of the Volga to Nizhny Novgorod and from Sloboda Ukraine to the Volga region. It was brutally suppressed, but forced the government to look for ways to strengthen the existing system. The power of governors in the field was strengthened, the tax system was reformed (since 1679 they switched to household taxation), and the process of spreading serfdom to the southern outskirts of the country intensified. The Council Code of 1649, allowing the exchange of estates for estates and vice versa, marked the beginning of the merging of boyars and nobles into one closed class-estate. In 1674, the black-tailed peasants were forbidden to enroll in the nobility. The title of the Moscow sovereigns has changed, in which the word "autocrat" appeared. After the reunification of Left-Bank Ukraine with Russia, it sounded like this: “The Great Sovereign, Tsar and Grand Duke of All Great and Small and White Russia, autocrat ...” In 1682 (during the short reign of Fyodor Alekseevich (1676-1682)) localism was abolished, the principle of official compliance began to be put forward (which opened access to the government of the country to people from the nobility and clerks). From the 80s of the XVII century. The convocation of Zemsky Sobors ceased; by the end of the 17th century, the Boyar Duma also lost its former influence. In Russia at the end of the 17th century, the transition from autocracy with the Boyar Duma, from a class-representative monarchy to a bureaucratic-noble monarchy, to absolutism, was completed. Absolutism is a form of government in which the supreme power in the state belongs completely and undividedly to the monarch. Power reaches the highest degree of centralization. The absolute monarch rules, relying on the bureaucratic apparatus, the standing army and the police, and the church as an ideological force also obeys him.

But after the death of Tsar Fyodor Alekseevich, a new turmoil began. According to tradition, Fyodor's brother Ivan was supposed to inherit Fyodor in 1682. However, the 15-year-old prince was sickly and not well suited for the role of king. Patriarch Joachim and the boyars, who had gathered in the palace, decided that the son of the second wife of Alexei Mikhailovich N.K. Naryshkina, ten-year-old Peter, who, unlike Ivan, was a healthy, strong and intelligent boy, should be proclaimed king. Relying on the archers, the Miloslavsky group, among which Ivan's sister Sophia acted most actively and decisively, decisively led the struggle for power.

Sagittarius not only carried out military service, but also actively engaged in economic activities. At the end of the XVII century. in connection with the creation of regiments of the new system, the role of archers fell, they lost many of their privileges. The obligation to pay taxes and duties from crafts and shops, the frequent delay in salaries, the arbitrariness of the archery colonels, the growth of property inequality among the archers themselves caused their sharp discontent. A rumor was spread around Moscow that Ivan had been strangled. With drumming, armed archers entered the Kremlin (1682). Peter's mother N.K. Naryshkin brought both princes, Peter and Ivan, to the palace porch. However, this did not calm the archers. The uprising raged for three days, the power in Moscow was in the hands of the archers. “Now the archers don’t care. They walked the streets in droves, threatened the boyars, treated their superiors insolently. ″ Taking advantage of this, the leaders of the archers tried to install the head of the Streltsy order, Prince I. A. Khovansky (“Khovanshchina”) as the head of the Russian sovereign. Sophia managed to stop the performances of the archers. Khovansky was summoned by deceit to Sophia and executed (1682). Archers came to obedience. The pillar on Red Square was demolished, many archers were executed. Power passed to Princess Sophia. The head of the Streltsy order was a supporter of Sophia F. Shaklovity. The actual ruler under Sophia (1682-1689) was her favorite, Prince V.V. Golitsyn. Sophia and her entourage did not seek radical changes.

In 1689, on the advice of his mother, Peter married the boyar daughter Evdokia Lopukhina. After his marriage, Peter was considered an adult and had all the rights to the throne; a clash with Sophia and her supporters became inevitable. It happened in August 1689: with the support of the Preobrazhensky and Semenovsky regiments loyal to Peter, Sophia was removed from power. She, who found herself in isolation, was imprisoned in the Novodevichy Convent in Moscow. The head of the archers Shaklovity was executed, Golitsyn was sent into exile. The throne passed to Peter. With the death of Tsar Ivan (1696), the autocracy of Peter I was established (formal co-ruler with Ivan V (1689-1696), sole rule (1696-1725)). However, in the summer of 1698, a new streltsy rebellion broke out in Moscow. He was depressed. The investigation established a connection between the rebel archers and the Moscow boyars and the disgraced Princess Sophia. After that, Sophia lived under supervision until the end of her life in the Novodevichy Convent. The Streltsy army was to be disbanded, the forces of the boyar opposition to Russian absolutism were undermined.

Meanwhile, in the field of education, Russia hopelessly lagged behind many European countries: in the 15th-16th centuries, many large European cities already had universities, and in Russia the first institution of higher education was opened only in 1689 (Slavic-Greek-Latin Academy).

Unlike many European countries, in which, thanks to the flourishing of cities, it was possible to gradually abolish serfdom, in Russia at the end of the 17th century, serfdom had just been established. This was a forced measure - due to the constant lack of money. “But the matter could not be limited to one attachment of the rural population to cultivated land: the so-called townspeople, taxable ... people live in the cities. They trade and trade on a very small scale, but they pay taxes, bear duties on a very large scale, "which creates a vicious circle: they do not have the opportunity to contribute to the development of the economy, they would not go bankrupt. It is not surprising that in Russia in those years, “the scale of manufactory production was insignificant. By the end of the 17th century, Russia was smelting a tenth of the iron produced by Sweden. ... The main mass of industrial products in the XVII century. produced not manufactories, but small craft workshops .... Foreign trade was entirely in the hands of foreign merchants, which caused ... dissatisfaction among the Russian merchants. In 1653 the authorities raised duties on foreign goods. The protectionist policy was confirmed in the New Trade Charter of 1667. The government doubled the duties on the goods of foreign merchants sold outside Arkhangelsk, and banned these merchants from retail trade throughout Russia. ”But the weakness of Russian industry could not be compensated for by this. The low combat effectiveness of the Russian army manifested itself during the Azov campaigns of 1695-1696.

For the young Peter I, the urgent need for radical reforms in all spheres of the life of the Russian state was obvious through numerous borrowings from the cultures of the advanced countries of Europe. “But at a time when in Moscow ... there were louder and louder cries ... about the need to borrow science, art and craft from other educated peoples, people who rested against the movement of the people on a new path did not remain silent and saw movement in this movement to the kingdom of the Antichrist,” the schismatics were not silent.″ Yes, and most of the population (including part of the boyars and the clergy) was hostile to such a movement.

Karamzin N.M. About ancient and new Russia in its political and civil relations // Karamzin N.M. History of the Russian state: XII vol. in 4 books. - M., 1997. - Book. 4. Vol. X-XII. - S. 501.

Klyuchevsky V.O. Brief guide to Russian history. - M., 1992. - S. 125.

Vernadsky G.V. Moscow kingdom: in 2 hours - Tver; M., 1997. - Part 2. - S. 126.

Platonov S.F. Lectures on Russian history. - M., 1993. - S. 398-399.

Gumilyov L.N. From Russia to Russia. - M., 2002. - S. 340.

Kostomarov N.I. Princess Sophia // Kostomarov N.I. Historical monographs and researches. - M., 1989. - S. 92-93.

Soloviev S.M. Public readings about Peter the Great - pp. 432-433.

Skrynnikov R.G. Russia IX-XVII centuries. - St. Petersburg, 1999. - S. 300-301.

Soloviev S.M. Russia before the era of transformation // Solovyov S.M. Readings and stories on the history of Russia. - M., 1989. - S. 384.

Mikhail Fedorovich Roman ascended the throne as a youth of incomplete 17 years. Grandees, near representatives at the throne saw in M.F. kindness and simplicity. At the age of 24, Mikhail married Princess Dolgoruky. But the young queen soon fell ill and died three years later. A year later, the monarch entered into a new marriage with Strezhneva. From her he had a son Alexei, the future king, and three daughters. Mikhail Vasilyevich died in 1645 at the age of 49. Having received the throne by right, Alexei Mikhailovich professed faith in the tsar's choice by God, his power. Aleksey M. survived a turbulent era of riots and a warrior, rapprochement and discord with Patriarch Nikon. Under him: 1) Russia's possession is expanding in the east, west and Siberia. 2) Active diplomatic activity is carried out. 3) A course was pursued towards the centralization of administration, the strengthening of autocracy. Zemsky Sobors helped Mikhail Fedorovich and his successor to solve the most difficult state affairs. But the role of Zemsky Sobors has changed. They became the body of representation of nobles and townspeople. They have become a governing body. Zemsky Sobors were called often under Mikhail, almost every year. In the first half of the century, Zemsky Sobors considered issues of war and peace, the collection of emergency taxes, and relations with neighboring countries. But under Alexei Zemsky Sobors began to be collected less frequently. The last Z. Council was convened in 1653. Throughout the 17th century. under the tsar, the Boyar Duma acted, important changes also took place in it: The number of people who were not noble increased, they received places in the Duma for merit. By the end of the 17th century, the Duma included 94 hours. it has become a cumbersome institution. And A.M began to ignore her.

The tsar began to solve current affairs with the help of a room thought. In the 17th century the power of orders reached its peak. In this system, there were no uniform principles for the creation and a clear distribution of functions. There were about 80 orders in total, evidence of the emergence of absolutism is the strengthening of the role of officials. The seventeenth century is a turning point, including in the development of the economy. New bourgeois relations are emerging in the economy: 1) A new phenomenon is the formation of an all-Russian market, that is, strong economic ties are being formed between countries. 2) Craft development, specification strengthening. Artisans began to work for the market. The geographical division of labor is intensifying, the specification of individual regions is being strengthened. 3) The first manufactories appear. Manufactory is the first capitalist enterprise in which the labor of free people is accepted, with a division of labor, still manual. But Russian manufactories had a number of features: they were state-owned, they used forced labor, that is, bonded peasants worked there. The number of manufactories in Russia did not exceed 30, the main industry in which they arose was metallurgy. Part of the Christian households is also drawn into the market economy. Home Christian crafts began to develop: canvases, shoes, dishes, etc. The growing exchange of agricultural and commercial products, the development of commodity-money relations lead to the gradual formation of an internal market. In the 14th and 16th centuries, local markets were relatively isolated. In the sixteenth century, they were directly or through other markets closely related to each other. Trade in the 16th century was mainly of a fair nature. Foreign trade also grew. Furs, timber, resin, tar, leather, lard, bread, etc. were exported from Russia. She traded with England, Holland, Sweden, Poland, and so on. Trade relations were regulated by special documents. In 1653, the Trade Charter was created, which established a single trade duty of 5% of the price of the goods sold. Foreigners paid 8%, and according to the Novgorod charter of 1667 - 10%.

16. Peter's reforms: causes, essence, results, consequences.

Peter 1 is one of the most prominent figures in Russian history. Attitude to ref Peter is ambiguous. Toli is a historical feat, roofing felts measures that doomed the country to ruin after the reforms. He was an outstanding commander and statesman, he implemented the ideas aggressively, sometimes not considering the personal interests of his subjects. he created a navy and regulated the army, reformed the apparatus of power, shaved his beards and created scientific centers, and directed military operations. Many writers were interested in his figure, he was endowed with the features of a charismatic leader.

The main contradictions in international relations

The emergence of centralized nation-states and the formation of the foundations of the capitalist structure in the countries of Europe had a significant impact on the nature of international relations. Two factors of influence acquire a vivid expression:

1. dynastic aspirations of monarchs seeking to expand their possessions by capturing and annexing territories;
2. the struggle for the mastery of overseas colonies and maritime trade routes necessary for acquiring markets for raw materials and selling goods far beyond the borders of Europe.

The second half of the $17th century turned into the rise of France. Spain and the Holy Roman Empire, after the end of the Thirteen Years, found themselves in a state of crisis. The English kings, being cousins ​​of the French king Louis XIV, became dependent on him. Louis pursued an active foreign policy, expanding the borders of the state. In 1672 he fought with Spain, trying to capture the Netherlands. In 1681, the king provoked an attack by the Turks on Vienna and captured Strasbourg.

Remark 1

In 1688-1697, Louis XIV unleashed a war with all European countries. But it ended for France to no avail. The economy of the kingdom was undermined, a crisis began. At this time, England is getting stronger. She pushed Holland on the seas and in the colonies, starting to form her own colonial empire.

18th century wars

In the first half of the $XVIII$ century there were three big wars that led to a violation of the balance of power.

War of the Spanish Succession began in 1701, when the childless King Charles II of Habsburg died. He appointed Philip of Anjou, grandson of the French king Louis XIV, as his heir. There was a prospect to unite the enemies - Spain and France. The Holy Roman Emperor Leopold also belonged to the Habsburg dynasty, so he tried to take possession of the Spanish lands. He was supported by England and Holland. The Spanish-French alliance was defeated and in 1713 went to peace negotiations. The Peace of Utrecht was signed, and in 1714 the Rastatt Agreement. They secured the right of Philip to remain the king of Spain, but it was forbidden to unite the state with France forever. The Franco-Spanish alliance collapsed, France lost its hegemony in Europe. The principle of the balance of power was recognized as fundamental in the system of international relations.

In 1700-1721 passed North War. It was conducted by European countries for the subordination of the Baltic lands and the Baltic Sea. The war ended with the defeat and loss of power by Sweden. A new empire appeared on the world map - the Russian.

In 1740, the Austrian emperor from the House of Habsburg Charles VI died. started War of the Austrian Succession. European monarchs tried to challenge his will and dismember the possessions of this dynasty. The rulers of Spain, Bavaria, Saxony, Poland and Sardinia opposed the legitimate heir Stephen of Lorraine. England and Russia acted as allies of Austria. In October 1748, the Peace of Aachen was signed, which retained the existing order of land ownership. Only Silesia and Glatz were separated from Austria.

Seven Years' War

The years 1756-1763 went down in history as the time of the Seven Years' War. Military operations were conducted in Europe, America and Asia. This war can be considered a prototype of the world war. France, Russia and Austria entered into an alliance to fight Prussia and other German principalities. England provided assistance to the Germans, but did not take part in the war on the continent itself. England and Spain, taking advantage of the moment, seized the French colonies in America and India. Although Prussia was defeated, and France seized English possessions in Europe, these results were devalued by Russia's withdrawal from the war (Peter III, an admirer of Prussia, becomes the Russian emperor). Borders in Europe have not changed.