Russian saints of the times of the Tatar invasion lesson summary. Lesson on Orthodox culture

Every nation has its best people, whose memory is carefully preserved and passed down from generation to generation. In Russia, such people were called saints. Saints are people from whose hearts, under the influence of grace, faith, hope and love flow. Holy lands of Russian

Sergius of Radonezh VIII centuries ago, the lad Bartholomew was born. One day he saw a man in a dark monastic robe. The boy told the monk that teaching was not given to him. The stranger said: "God will give you reason, you have a great future ahead of you." And so it happened. Later, Bartholomew became a monk and received the name Sergius of Radonezh.

Saints Boris and Gleb The first holy lands of Russia (sons of Prince Vladimir) were killed by their elder brother Svyatopolk, for which he received the nickname Cursed. The chronicler Nestor wrote about the brief life of the brothers. They are considered the protectors of the Russian land and the heavenly helpers of the Russian princes.

Did you know There is a place for your holiday in the church calendar! Maybe you don’t know that you bear the name of some saint, because almost all Russian names are the names of saints. Find the day of memory of your saint in the calendar, and you can celebrate your name day on this day.

Saints Peter and Fevronia They gave an example of an ideal family life, when a husband and wife put Christian duty to each other above all else. These Saints became patrons of the sacrament of marriage. In memory of them, every year on July 8, Russia celebrates Family Day.

Holy Blessed Xenia of Petersburg In Russia, the holy fools have long been loved. This feat is very difficult for modern people to understand. The blessed one had no family, no roof over his head, no food, no clothes. In Russia, for centuries, more than ten holy fools have been canonized as saints.

Saint Hermogenes The turn of the century is a troubled time for Russia. Impostors rushed to power. The Polish king sent an army to Moscow. Patriarch Hermogenes was threatened with reprisal, demanding to sign permission for the reign of a Pole. In response, Hermogenes sent messages to the people with a request to stand up for the Fatherland. The merchant Minin and Prince Pozharsky stood at the head of the liberation forces. November 4, 1612 Motherland was liberated from enemies.

St. John of Kronstadt The whole life of the saint was a feat of Christian service to people. For many years he wrote down his thoughts daily, they became the basis of his books "My Life in Christ". At the end of the 19th century, revolutionaries planted bombs and, along with those who were hunted, killed dozens of innocents. Their newspapers attacked Father John for helping the poor. In their opinion, instead of alms, he should have given them weapons and led them to fight against tsarism. Father John tried to unite society, not split it.

Patriarch of Moscow and All Russia Tikhon Creating a new type of man, the Bolsheviks declared war on all religions. They robbed and closed Orthodox, Catholic and Protestant churches, synagogues and prayer houses, killed priests and imprisoned millions of innocent people. The Christian Church taught to love enemies, and the Bolsheviks taught the people to class hostility. The church taught to forgive, and they taught to hate. Patriarch Tikhon was ready for any persecution against himself, if only to preserve the independence of the church from the godless authorities. He was canonized as a saint in 1989.

Lesson topic: Russian saints of the times of the Tatar invasion

The purpose of the lesson: - achieve educational results:

Personal result - to realize the meaning of the Christian feat and the feat of militarytimes of the Tatar invasion,the perniciousness of political fragmentation in the face of external danger.

The meta-subject result is to be able to formulate and solve cognitive problems based on the analysis of information, to establish logical connections.

The substantive result is to understand the reasons for the defeat of the Russian principalities, to be able to read a historical map, to know the names of Russian saints and their deeds in the name of affirming the Christian faith.

To cultivate the desire to imitate the Russian saints in the defense of the Motherland and its Faith.

Form UUD:

Personal UUD - ZHU table (I know, I want to know, I learned), tasks to choose from, self-assessment, reflection;

Regulatory UUD - individual work with definitions, explanation of the meaning of concepts;

Communicative UUD - through work in pairs, in a group;

Lesson type: Combined

Lesson structure:

1 ) Organizational stage.

2) Setting the goal and objectives of the lesson. Motivation of educational activity of students.

3) Actualization of knowledge.

4) Primary assimilation of new knowledge.

5) Initial check of understanding

6) Primary fastening

7) Control of assimilation, discussion of the mistakes made and their correction.

8) Information about homework, instructions for its implementation

9) Reflection (summing up the lesson)

General Methods:

- verbal,

visual,

Practical.

Student workflow:

Reception of drawing up the marking table "ZUH",

Building a cluster

Testing;

Self-assessment.

preliminary task :

Prepare customized messages and presentations:

- "Grand Duke Yuri Vsevolodovich";

- "New Martyr Vasilko of Rostov";

- "Chernigov prince Mikhail and his boyar Fedor";

- « Venerable Euphrosyne of Suzdal";

- "Prince Mikhail of Tver";

- "Saint Alexander Nevsky"

Visual aids : projector, presentation, computer. Map «The border of the Russian principalities before the Mongol-Tatar invasion, student worksheet.

During the classes:

I. Org. moment

Greeting, checking attendance and readiness for the lesson.

II Repetition of basic knowledge.

Questions for students.

What topic did we study in the last lesson?

Why was Russia - Russia "called a saint"?

Individual task - add suggestions.

1) The first Christians in Russia are…. /.Princess Olga and her grandson Vladimir

2) Boris and Gleb - ... / the first saints in Russia

3) The greatest shrine of the Kiev-Pechersk Lavra is the relics of saints.

Which (write)……./Saints: monk-bogatyr Ilya Muromets, Nestor the Chronicler, icon painter Alipiy, physician Agapit, Saint Kuksha.

The conclusion is made by the teacher together with the students – / The Christian Faith was bequeathed by the ancestors as a shrine.

How was the memory of Prince Vladimir and his sons, Saints Boris and Gleb, honored?

/Architectural monuments in honor of saints, temples, names of cities, towns, streets in different cities.

Teacher. - When we talk about princes, we use a beautiful appeal to the prince - Blessed

Task in pairs

The teacher invites you to reflect on the word "FAITHFUL"

Good is good, which means good faith.

Where else is this phrase found?

(gospel, good news)

Blessed - glorified for the good (synonyms are selected together with the students) confession of the Christian faith.

Motivation:

A huge number of people died, many were taken captive, mighty cities disappeared from the face of the earth forever, precious manuscripts, magnificent frescoes were destroyed, the secrets of many crafts were lost ...

This statement characterizes Russia in the thirteenth century. What happened in Russia? Let us think about the meaning of the Christian feat and the feat of wartimes of the Tatar invasion. This will be discussed in our lesson, the topic of which is “Russian saints of the times of the Tatar invasion»

Problem statement:

Christian feat and feat of arms - This is the same?

IIIAssimilation of new knowledge

1 . Speech by students who prepared reports on–

Grand Duke Yuri Vsevolodovich; New Martyr Vasilko of Rostov; Prince Michael of Chernigov and his boyar Fyodor;Venerable Euphrosyne of Suzdal;Prince Mikhail of Tver; Saint Alexander Nevsky.

2. Drafting cluster

Assignment: draw the "Sun" strategy and fill it in by answering the question: "What Christian virtues do you know?".

Draw a conclusion.

Pick up the Christian virtues that are opposite to the passions and sinful actions of a person: pride, impatience, cruelty, hatred, greed, hypocrisy, sadness, unbelief.

Task - On the worksheet, find the “Cloud”, circle its droplets with the answer to the question, “how is the memory of the saints revered?”

student performance ., who prepared reports onSaint Alexander Nevsky.

He won his main battles not on the battlefield, but at the negotiating table in the Horde. Alexander managed to stop the extermination of the Russian people and preserve the Orthodox faith. This is precisely what his lofty Christian feat, as the Holy One of All Russia, consists of.

They conclude that the feat of arms (on the battlefield) and the Christian feat (not to betray the Faith) have the same root.

Consolidation.

IV . Testing.

The successor of Khan Berke Khan Mengu-Timur in 1267 laid the foundation for another tradition in relations between the Horde and the Russian Church. For the first time, he gave the Metropolitan of Kyiv and All Russia Kirill II, the first after the Batu invasion, a label to govern the Russian Church. Probably, for this purpose, he undertook a trip to the Horde, since such an act required the personal presence of the Metropolitan in the Horde. Since the Mongols did not infringe on the rights of the Orthodox clergy, the appearance of labels was not a constituent measure, but a protective measure in order to save the clergy from the encroachments of the khan's officials who abused their powers. The first label was as follows: “Seeing and hearing this letter from the priests and blacks, neither tribute, nor anything else, the Basques, princes, scribes, scumbags, customs officers will take, but they will take it and apologize and die.” The label protected the lands, waters, orchards, orchards, mills belonging to the clergy. Even Mengu-Timur wrote in that letter: “We granted priests and blacks and all alms-house people, but with their right heart they pray for us to God, and for our tribe without sorrow, bless us ...; let them not curse us ... Is there anyone who has an unrighteous heart to pray to God for us, otherwise that sin will be on him. Apparently, by this decree, the khan, under pain of execution, forbade abuse of the Church and the Orthodox clergy. Also, complete freedom was given regarding the election of candidates from among the laity for spiritual service. Mengu-Timur wrote in the label: “if (the metropolitan) wishes to receive other people who want to pray to God, it will be at his will.” Mengu-Timur himself was a pagan and re-established shamanism in the Horde as the state religion.

Metropolitan Maxim (1283-1305), a Greek by birth, elected and ordained in Constantinople, was the successor of Metropolitan Kirill II, who served at the First Hierarchal See during the most difficult time of Mongol rule. Arriving in Russia, he immediately went to the Horde. Then the custom began to take shape, according to which all our metropolitans and bishops had to go to the Horde in order to receive approval from the khan for a chair and a label, or, in extreme cases, they sent their ambassadors there for this purpose.

As you can see, the Golden Horde khans in the 13th-14th centuries put the Russian metropolitans and the Russian Orthodox Church in a special position. Labels were issued to both metropolitans and princes, which actually equalized them. But the metropolitans had the right to communicate freely with Constantinople, which was not allowed to the princes. The spiritual power was placed by the khans above the secular one. The Church became an independent political force in Russian society. According to some historians, the Mongols patronized the Russian Orthodox Church, for the sake of the obedience and patience of the people.

But the inviolability of the Church, guaranteed by labels, applied only to calm periods. Making predatory campaigns, the troops of the Tatars destroyed churches and monasteries. In the annalistic story about the ruin of Moscow by Tokhtamysh in 1382, for example, a lot of murdered clergymen are listed.

In the same period, the significance of various regions of Russia changed significantly. Kyiv in its political significance fell completely. New centers are being formed. Initially, a rivalry for primacy arose between the Vladimir-Suzdal and Galicia-Volyn principalities.

In 1299, the Metropolitan of Kyiv and All Russia Maxim decided to move from Kyiv completely devastated by the Tatars to Vladimir. The choice of the Metropolitan was probably dictated by the adherence of the Vladimir-Suzdal princes to Orthodoxy as opposed to the pro-Latin adventures of the Galician princes. The saint correctly saw the peculiarities of the political situation in Russia, having made his choice in favor of the Vladimir-Suzdal, and not the Galicia-Volyn principality, whose fate had already been sealed by the disastrous policy of his princes. In addition, the decision of Metropolitan Maxim was due to the fact that Kyiv was once again subjected to defeat by the Mongols. Under the year 1300, the Laurentian and Nikon chronicles report: “... Metropolitan Maxim, not enduring Tatar violence, leaving the metropolis and fleeing from Kyiv, and all of Kyiv fled; and the metropolitan is going to Bryansk, and from there on going to the Suzhdal land, and with all his life and with the wings.

By transferring the church capital from Kyiv to Vladimir, the Greek Metropolitan rendered an invaluable service to both the Russian Church and the state. By electing Vladimir, Saint Maxim thereby gave his blessing to the Grand Dukes of Vladimir to collect the Russian lands. And throughout the entire “Mongolian” period, the Church, showing external obedience to the Kipchak khans, undoubtedly sought to contribute to the “gathering of Russia”. The efforts of the Church to strengthen its position, thanks to the patronage of the khans, coincided with the desire to create a unified Russian state, while at the same time keeping the people from doomed to failure direct resistance to the Horde. The church pursued all-Russian interests and was never the executor of the will of the Golden Horde khans.

CHRISTIANITY IN THE GOLDEN HORDE

In the first period, Russia had hope for the Christianization of the Horde. The Orthodox faith, undoubtedly, acquired followers among the Horde. The Khan allowed the Bishops of Sarai to convert their Asiatic subjects to Christianity. Orthodox churches, chapels and monasteries existed in the cities of the Golden Horde. Russian princes, boyars, merchants, artisans lived in uluses, and nobles and merchants of the Horde lived in Moscow and other cities of Russia.

In 1269 Bishop Mitrofan of Saray "left his Bishopric of Saray, and sent his signature with his own hand to the Metropolitan of Kyiv and All Russia... and was tonsured into the schema." His Grace Mitrofan was replaced by Bishop Theognost. At the same time, the “lying churches along the Don” were attached to the Sarai diocese. The Saint of Sarai began to be called Sarsky and Podonsky, since his area extended from the Asian borders along the Khoper and along the Don.

Three times Bishop Theognost traveled to Constantinople, where he was highly respected as the most learned archpastor of Sarai. Moreover, for the second time, in 1279, he traveled not only on church affairs, but also on behalf of Khan Mengu-Timur as the Khan's ambassador to Emperor Michael Palaiologos, Nogaev's father-in-law. This is evidenced by the surviving chronicle message: “Bishop Theognost in the winter of 1279 “returned from Greece, sent by the Metropolitan [Kirill] to the Patriarch and Tsar Mengutemer to Tsar Michael.”

It is known that on August 12, 1276, Bishop Theognost, on behalf of Metropolitan Cyril, submitted to the Patriarchal Synod in Constantinople questions regarding the rules of church service. Most of the questions asked by Bishop Theognost were caused by the new conditions of service of the Russian clergy in which they found themselves in the Horde. Of particular interest are the following questions of Bishop Theognostus: “How should Nestorians be baptized? Is it possible to transfer the "consecrated Meal" from place to place and use it in worship? The council answered in the affirmative with the addition: "Walking people (i.e. nomads) do not have a resting place for themselves." The question of the Tatars who wished to receive Holy Baptism was also discussed: “Those who come from the Tatars to be baptized and there will not be a great loan, what to immerse them in?” To this, the cathedral gave a blessing to baptize with sand for lack of water.

From this it can be concluded that the Bishop of Sarai served not only the Russians and Greeks, who had settled by that time on the territory of the Golden Horde, but also the Horde nomads themselves, who accepted the holy faith. A significant number of the Turko-Tatar population of the Horde lands converted to Orthodoxy, including a considerable number of representatives of the Horde elite. There are several cases of conversion to Christianity of persons even from khan and princely families, as well as khan nobles, murzas and other eminent Tatars.

The first example of an appeal to the holy faith among the khan's families is St. Peter, Prince of the Horde. He was the native nephew of Khan Berke, and was constantly with him. When Bishop Kirill of Rostov came to the Khan for the first time to intercede for his diocese and, at the request of Berke, spoke about the enlightenment of Rostov by Saint Leonty, about the miracles performed from his relics, and together offered various Christian teachings, this young man, hearing the words of the saint, was touched by the soul. He began to reflect on the vanity of the Mongol gods and seek the true God. The next trip was soon made by Bishop Kirill of Rostov at the invitation of Khan Berke himself. Although he was the first of the khans of the Golden Horde to convert to Islam, he called the Right Reverend Cyril to heal his sick son. The bishop, with his prayer, was able to heal his son Berke, for which the khan ordered to give an annual tax for the "house of the Most Holy Theotokos." Then the Khan's nephew decided to secretly run away from his relatives. Together with Bishop Kirill, the prince arrived in Rostov, where he asked for baptism. Vladyka baptized him (around 1267), naming him Peter. Tsarevich Peter built a church and a monastery in the name of the Holy Apostles Peter and Paul near Lake Nero. He married the daughter of a Horde nobleman who lived in Rostov (and this prince “before he came to the faith), had children and died at a ripe old age, having pleased God with his virtuous life. Before his death, he took the monastic form and was canonized in 1549.

Subsequently, many other nobles of the Horde accepted the holy faith: Prince Beklemish, the son of Prince Bakhmet, was baptized in Meshchera with many other Hordes, received the name Michael and built a church in the name of the Transfiguration of the Lord. He became the ancestor of the princes Meshchersky. Tsarevich Berka, who arrived in 1301 from the Great Horde and was baptized in Moscow by Metropolitan Peter with the name Ioanniky, was the ancestor of the Anichkovs. Tsarevich Aredich, who was baptized in an unknown year, is the ancestor of the Beleutovs. Chet-Murza, who came from the Horde in 1330 to the Grand Duke John Danilovich Kalita and was baptized as Zachary, the founder of the Saburovs and Godunovs, became the founder of the Kostroma Ipatiev Monastery. He founded the monastery on the spot where the Mother of God appeared to him with the upcoming saints, one of whom was Saint Hypatius of Gangra. After this appearance, Zechariah received healing from his illness. Tsarevich Serkiz, who left the Great Horde to the Grand Duke Dimitry Donskoy and was baptized along with his son Andrei, is the ancestor of the Starkov family. The grandson of Temnik Mamai, Prince Alexa, was baptized in Kyiv together with his son John from the Metropolitan himself, he was named Alexander, the ancestor of the Glinsky princes.

It is widely known that the anti-Horde indignation in Vladimir under Prince Andrei Yaroslavich was suppressed by the temnik Nevruy. In 1296, “there was a scolding by the Russian prince”, “at that time there was an ambassador from the Horde Alex Nevruy” - he was already an Orthodox Christian. The great Baskak of Vladimir under the first three Golden Horde khans and under the three great princes of Vladimir was a certain Amirkhan. His Orthodox name is Zakhary, it is known that he was the godson of Alexander Nevsky himself. The great-great-grandson of Zakhar-Amirkhan was the Monk Pafnuty of Borovsky (the iconography of the Monk Pafnuty retains Asian features). From the brother of the Monk Pafnuty came the noble families of the Baskakovs and the Zubovs.

Marriages between Russians and the Horde were a very frequent occurrence. Especially, in order to ensure the support and favor of the khan, the Russian princes married noble Horde women. Ordyns accepted Christianity when they married Russian princes. Already in 1257, Prince Gleb Vasilkovych of Rostov married the Great Khan in Mongolia. The daughter of Khan Mengu-Timur in 1279 married the Holy Prince Theodore Rostislavich of Yaroslavl and Smolensk. The bride received holy baptism with the name Anna. After several years of living together in the Horde, at the parental home, the couple moved to Yaroslavl. There Anna built a church in the name of the Archangel Michael and other churches, often visited the monastery of the Holy Savior, loved to read Divine books, and in general cared most about a pious life. In 1302, Prince Konstantin Borisovich married in the Horde. There is no doubt that the wives of other Russian princes who married in the Horde were Christians. It should be noted that Alexander Nevsky himself on the maternal side was the grandson of Khan Konchak.

Among other Tatars, noble and ignoble, who adopted the holy faith in Russia, the former Ustyug Baskak, the hero Baguy (otherwise Bug) is known. In 1262, when the Tatars carried out a total census and established a new system of taxes - per capita, then in many cities the people's veche was agitated and killed the numerals and Baskaks. Baguy, having learned that the inhabitants of Ustyug wanted to kill him, expressed his intention to be baptized and was named John in holy baptism. Then all the popular unrest against him subsided, his insults and oppressions were forgotten. Subsequently, John was distinguished by special piety and virtues, which won the love and respect of the people. John built a monastery on Sokolnichya Hill, where he used to enjoy hunting, and built a church in the name of his angel, St. John the Baptist. Also known: Horde Kochev, who came to the Grand Duke Dimitry Ioannovich Donskoy, baptized Onesiphorus, the ancestor of the Polivanovs. Murza, who came to the same prince from the Great Horde, was baptized Spiridon, the founder of the Stroganovs. Olbuga, who was an ambassador to the same prince and was baptized, the ancestor of the Myachkovs. Murza Salahmir, baptized John, who arrived at the Ryazan prince Oleg and married his sister Anastasia. Horde Kichibey, baptized Selivan, who arrived at the Ryazan prince Feodor Olgovich, the ancestor of the Kichibeevs. Lines of noble families and the Russian national elite of Horde origin stretch from the baptized Horde: Aksakovs, Alyabyevs, Akhmatovs, Berdyaevs, Bibikovs, Bulgakovs, Bunins, Gogols, Gorchakovs, Karamazovs, Karamzins, Kireevskys, Korsakovs, Kutuzovs, Meshcherskys, Milyukovs, Michurins, Rakhmaninovs, Saburovs, Saltykovs, Stroganovs, Suvorovs, Timiryazevs, Tretyakovs, Turgenevs, Turchaninovs, Tyutchevs, Shirinskys, Chessmens, Sheremetevs, Uvarovs, Urusovs, Ushakovs, Yusupovs, and many others - these are all Tatar surnames that have adopted Christianity.

The higher spiritual and cultural level of the Russian people contributed to the gradual assimilation of the Tatars. Moreover, the adoption of Christianity had, as a result, not only the transition to the service of the Russian princes, but also Russification. That is why the concepts of "Christianity" and "Rus" were identified at that time. In general, the Russian chroniclers of the "Mongolian" period mention only two peoples - "Christians" and "nasty". The Russian people zealously asked God to enable the infidels to know the light of Truth: “Turn, Lord, the filthy into the peasantry,” they prayed, “and there will be our brothers who have received holy baptism, and may there be one flock and one Patyr!” That is, for Russia from a very early time it was alien to distinguish people by ethnicity. The division has always been based on religious and cultural views. By changing his faith and adapting to a new culture, yesterday's Tatar became a completely Russian person.

But, despite the adoption of Christianity by a part of the Horde elite, the Christian mission in the Horde was not crowned with complete success. Horde converted to Islam in the 14th century. Russia lost the missionary competition with the Muslims, despite the fact that in the 13th century there were immeasurably more Christians in the Horde than Muslims. The reason for this was the obvious weakness of the Russian people, the decline of the national spirit, its disunity, the violation of intra-ethnic solidarity. Or, perhaps, it was not possible to baptize the Horde because Alexander Yaroslavich died too early? But if Russia could win the competition with Islam, and the Horde would become Orthodox, this victory, I think, would be much more significant than the victory at the Kulikovo field.

KRUTITSKY COMPOUND OF THE SARAY DIOCESE

The next Primate of the Russian Church after Metropolitan Maxim was St. Peter (1308-1326), who was installed as Metropolitan in 1308. A very important historical stage is connected with the personality of this holy First Hierarch - the beginning of the Muscovite period. Met hostilely in Vladimir, and having suffered slander from Bishop Andrei of Tver, he, justified by the Council of 1311, forgave his slanderer. But due to new intrigues and the hostile attitude of Prince Mikhail of Tver towards him, the First Hierarch did not feel very comfortable in the capital and cathedral Vladimir and was looking for an ally among other princes. He found it in the face of the Moscow princely house. Therefore, Saint Peter often lived for a long time in Moscow, which belonged to his metropolitan district, and from 1322 the metropolitan began to live in Moscow almost without leaving.

During this period, there is a struggle for primacy between Moscow and Tver. And it is impossible not to see in the appeal of St. Peter to Moscow the Providence of God about this city, which will soon be destined to become the new spiritual and political capital of Russia.

At the same time, the Bishops of Sarai often had to visit Russian cities, including Moscow. To accommodate the bishop and his large retinue in the capital of the Moscow principality, the Sarai bishop needed to have his own courtyard.

In the distant past, the people circulated “The Tale of the Conception of the Reigning City of Moscow and the Krutitsy Episcopacy,” which spoke of the area of ​​Krutitsy, on which the holy Prince Daniel of Moscow initially decided to set up his court. But the hermit who lived in that place dissuaded the prince from this, predicting that there would be a temple and a monastery on Krutitsy, which later came true.

At that time, Bishop Varlaam came from Greece to Moscow and brought with him, for consecration to the churches, many parts of the incorruptible bodies of the saints of God. Grand Duke Daniel ordered him to consecrate in 1272 a church in the name of the Holy Apostles Peter and Paul on the mountains near the Moscow River. According to the steepness of the places, he called the mountains Krutitsky, and Varlaam lord of Krutitsky. And, probably, after the death of Bishop Varlaam, Saint Daniel of Moscow, realizing the spiritual and state significance of the Sar and Podonsk diocese, presented a place on Krutitsy to the bishops of Sarai. This is how the Krutitsky Monastery, known as the Krutitsky Compound of the Sarsk and Podonsk diocese, arose. Here the Bishops of Sarai stopped when they visited the All-Russian Metropolitans and the Grand Dukes of Moscow.

It is not surprising that the farmstead arose precisely on Krutitsy - near the water (Moscow River) and land (Nikolo-Ugreshskaya road) highways. Heading to the Horde, the Moscow princes often began their journey along the Nikolo-Ugreshskaya road.

Subsequent Russian princes also did not forget the Krutitsy Compound with their favors. John Ioannovich (Red), who received a label for the great reign in 1354, in his spiritual letter bequeathed a significant contribution "to the Holy Mother of God on Krutitsy, in memory of himself." The Holy Right-believing Prince Dimitry Donskoy repeated a similar order in his ecclesiastical letter of 1371. There is an assumption that the Grand Duke John II was even a ktitor of the farmstead and the founder of the Assumption Church on Krutitsy.

The bishops of Sarai continued to live in Sarai the Great until the 15th century, until the time when the ecclesiastical and political significance of Sarai fell along with the weakening of the Golden Horde. Under Metropolitan Jonah, after the acquisition of autocephaly by the Russian Church, in 1454 Sarai Bishop Vassian moved from the disintegrating Horde to live in Moscow's Krutitsy. He had a permanent residence in the Krutitsky Monastery in Moscow and his cathedral was a church in the name of the Holy Apostles Peter and Paul, arranged by Bishop Vassian. This temple was the forerunner of the current Cathedral Church of the Assumption of the Mother of God, erected in 1665-1689. Thus, the chair of the Sarai bishops established itself in Krutitsy. The rulers of Krutitsa, out of respect for antiquity, were still called Sarsky and Podonsky.

KRUTITSKY DEPARTMENT

Having settled in the Krutitsy monastery, the bishops of Sarsky and Podonsky no longer ruled the former diocese, but became the closest assistants to the All-Russian metropolitans.

In connection with the constant stay in the capital, the Sarai and Podon bishops acquired certain features or prerogatives of honor and power: for example, from a year onwards, the advantage of filling the vacant primatial see during her widowhood was granted by the cathedral rules to the Sarai bishop. This decision was made at the Stoglavy Council, in which Bishop Savva of Sarsky and Podonsky participated. At this council, a decision was also made on the ecclesiastical court and it was agreed that in the event of illness of the Moscow Metropolitan, his judicial functions were performed by Vladyka Sarsky and Podonsky.

Surprising is the fact that in 1550 Metropolitan Macarius of Moscow with Bishop Savva of Sarsky and Podonsk gave their blessing to start an aggressive campaign against the former patrons of the Sarai bishops: “The tsar and Grand Duke Ivan Vasilievich arrived in Volodimer. And in 1552, Bishop Savva of Sarai was among the bishops who met the tsar in the village of Taininsky, who was returning to Moscow after the capture of Kazan, "bearing a blessing from the Most Reverend Father Macarius Metropolitan." And on Sunday, January 8, 1553, Bishop Savva was baptized in the Chudov Monastery of Kazan Tsarevich Utemish-Girey, named in Holy Baptism Alexander (†1566), who was baptized by Metropolitan Macarius. On February 26 of the same year, in the second week of Great Lent, in the presence of the Tsar and Grand Duke Ivan Vasilievich, the Holy Cathedral and many boyars, Bishop Savva baptized the Kazan Tsar Ediger-Magmet, named Simeon in Holy Baptism. In 1554, on October 5, Bishop Savva married the Kazan prince Simeon with A. Kutuzov's daughter Maria.

In 1589, when the Patriarchate was established in the Russian Orthodox Church, the former privileges were conciliarly confirmed for the Sarai bishops, and at the Council it was determined: “To be a metropolitan near the reigning city, Moscow on Krutitsy.” As a result of this decision, Bishop of Sarsky and Podonsky Gelasius, who headed the department at that time, was elevated to the rank of metropolitan. The Metropolitan of Sarsky and Podonsky went to Moscow every Sunday to serve with the Patriarch, and during the illness of the Primate, he replaced him. Upon the death of the patriarch (up to the election of a new Primate of the Church), the Krutitsy hierarchs became locum tenens of the patriarchal throne, and the “patriarchal region”, that is, the city of Moscow, passed under their control. During the locum tenure, the Krutitsy bishop occupied the patriarchal seat during divine services and even had a procession “on a donkey” around the city on Palm Sunday.

It is with the Krutitsy Compound that the events that took place in Moscow in 1612 and determined the fate of Russia are connected. The second people's militia led by Prince Dmitry Pozharsky and a citizen of Nizhny Novgorod Kozma Minin in July 1612 came to Krutitsy. Krutitsy Cathedral became at that time the central temple of the capital and all of Russia, since the main Russian shrine - the Kremlin Cathedral of the Assumption of the Mother of God, was in the hands of the Polish invaders. After serving a prayer service in the Assumption Cathedral of the Krutichsky Compound, the militia kissed the cross and vowed to liberate Moscow from foreigners. In August 1612, the Polish army was defeated.

The last bishop with the title of Sarsky and Podonsky was Archbishop Leonid, after which, in the year, His Grace Platon (Malinovsky) was appointed Bishop of Krutitsky. Thus, the Krutitsy Metropolis was established, which has a vast territory with the residence of the metropolitan in the Krutitsy Monastery.

The former name of the episcopal title "Sarsky and Podonsky", out of respect for antiquity and according to the customs that existed in some monasteries, was transferred to the topography of the Krutitsky tract (Sara river, Podon stream). And to this day, the current name of Sarinsky passage reminds of them.

Metropolitan Krutitsky became the first assistant to the Patriarch of Moscow and All Russia, just as before that the Bishop of Sarsky and Podonsk had been the closest assistant to the Metropolitans of All Russia. The Krutitsy Metropolitans became the first in importance and influence on all-Russian affairs after the Patriarch and often represented him.

The Metropolitan of Krutitsy, the vicar of the Patriarch of Moscow and All Russia, is a reminder of an unfulfilled historical opportunity - the Patriarch of Sarai, for whom the Saint of Moscow, on the contrary, would have become a vicar. And the Krutitsy pulpit remains an ancient symbol of the unity of Russia with the East.

KHAN UZBEK

But back to the history of the Golden Horde. Its vast territory, numerous population, strong central authority, combat-ready army, skillful use of trade caravan routes, collection of tribute from conquered peoples - all this created the power of the Horde empire. It grew stronger and stronger and in the first half of the XIV century experienced the peak of its power.

With the ascension of Khan Uzbek to the Golden Horde throne in 1313, the first attempts were made to establish Islam as the state religion in the Horde. However, the very coming to power of the young prince Uzbek was prepared by those circles of Genghisites and the Turkic-Mongolian nomadic aristocracy who stood for the Islamization and centralization of the state. Moreover, the word was taken from Prince Uzbek that if he ascended the throne, he would accept Islam and strictly adhere to its instructions. Uzbek Khan fully justified these hopes. Having ascended the throne, he accepted Mohammedanism and "proclaimed the confession of Islam." “Tsar Ozbyak became disheartened,” Russian chroniclers noted.

But not all the Horde were in a hurry to obey the decree of Uzbek and convert to Islam. Some part of the Horde population was told to the khan: “You expect humility and obedience from us, but what do you care about our faith and confession? And how will we leave the law and yassa of Genghis Khan and go over to the faith of the Arabs? In response, Uzbek killed a large number of shamans and Buddhist lamas. Despite harsh measures, the numerous and diverse population of the Golden Horde continued to practice various religions. Islam in the Golden Horde was mainly committed only to the ruling elite and the urban population.

But despite the fact that Uzbek, with the help of the "Inquisition", asserted Islam among the pagans, he did not put any obstacles to the transition of the Mongol-Tatars to Orthodoxy. In many cities of the Golden Horde, mosques still coexisted with Orthodox churches.

The adoption of Islam also did not prevent Uzbek from continuing the tradition of his predecessor Tokhta (he was married to the daughter of the Greek emperor Andronicus the Elder) and married the daughter of the emperor Andronicus the Younger. And his sister Konchaka, who received Holy Baptism with the name Agafia, in 1317 to marry the Moscow prince Yuri Danilovich.

With the adoption of Islam by the Horde, many Christian Mongols emigrated to Russia, entering the service in the Russian principalities. And in subsequent years, there were often cases of the transition of the Horde to Orthodoxy. So, in 1393, Saint Metropolitan Cyprian solemnly baptized in the presence of the Grand Duke and the court in the Moscow River three noble murzas - Bakhtyi, Khidyr and Mamatya, giving them the names of the three holy youths - Ananias, Azariah and Misail. Such facts indicate that the dependence of Russia on the Golden Horde throughout their relationship was limited to the political sphere and did not extend to the religious area.

Moreover, the official recognition of Islam in Sarai not only did not weaken the Russian Church, but, on the contrary, strengthened it. In 1313, the Primate of the Russian Church, Metropolitan Peter, together with the Grand Duke of Vladimir Mikhail Yaroslavich, went to the new Khan Uzbek and received a label confirming all the rights of the Russian Church. Moreover, according to the words of the Nikon Chronicle, St. Peter "in the Horde with the king was in great honor and was released from the king with great honor in the battle." Khan Uzbek confirmed the freedom of all church people from the state tax: “Do they pay tribute to us,” says Met. Peter, or something else: whether it’s tamga, whether it’s plowed, whether it’s pit, whether it’s washed ... but no one charges from the cathedral church and from Peter the Metropolitan, and from their people and from all his clergy. Moreover, Uzbek expanded the privileges of the Church: “All the ranks of the Orthodox Church and all the monks are subject only to the court of the Orthodox metropolitan, not by any means to officials of the Horde and not to the princely court. Whoever robs a clergyman must pay him three times. Whoever dares to mock the Orthodox faith or insult a church, a monastery, a chapel - he is subject to death without distinction: he is Russian or Mongol. May the Russian clergy feel themselves to be free servants of God.” And Khan Uzbek also said: “We favor them with labels, may God grant us, intercede; but we keep God's things and do not take what is given to God...; May the Metropolitan remain in a quiet and meek life... Yes, with a right heart and right thought, he prays to God for us, and for our wives, and for our children, and for our tribe.”

By 1330, when Bishop John was installed in Sarai, the following entry refers: “Tsar Azbek Orda granted the Lord of Sarai, gave him everything at his request, and no one would offend him in any way.”

Uzbek firmly held power in his hands and severely suppressed any separatist uprisings in the outskirts. Crimea and the Volga region, Khorezm and the Kirghiz steppe implicitly obeyed him. The reign of Uzbek became the time of the highest power of the Golden Horde. The era of Uzbek Khan was marked by a cultural upsurge and extensive urban construction. By the middle of the XIV century, there were more than 100 cities in the Golden Horde. Many of them were founded by the Horde. These include the capitals of the Golden Horde - Sarai and the new Sarai in the Lower Volga region, Saraichik and Western Kazakhstan, where the burial places of the khans were. Under Uzbek and his son Dzhanibek, the cities of the Golden Horde flourished. Palaces, mosques, loaf-sheds, rich quarters of the nobility and merchants, and more and more populous settlements of artisans, built by the labor of hundreds of thousands of slaves, turned them into the center of economic and cultural life. The Arab traveler Ibn-Batutta, who visited Sarai-Berke during the reign of Uzbek Khan in 1333-1334, wrote: streets. Different peoples live in it, somehow: the Mongols are the real inhabitants of the country and its rulers: some of them are Muslims; Ases [Bulgars], who are Muslims, Kipchaks, Circassians, Russians and Byzantines, who are Christians. Each nation lives separately in its own area: their bazaars are also there. In Sarai, by the time of Uzbek, coins were minted with the image of a double-headed eagle and, probably, the Virgin (a woman with a baby). The Christian population coexisted in cities with the Muslim population, had their own cemeteries and churches.

Under Uzbek, strife between the Russian princes escalated, and Uzbek encouraged and provoked these civil strife and intrigues. At the same time, the rise of Moscow began, which Uzbek supported in the fight against Tver. In one of the battles, the Tver prince Mikhail Alexandrovich defeated the Moscow prince Yuri Danilovich and captured Agafia, the sister of Uzbek. Having been captured by the Prince of Tver, Agafia died. Immediately a rumor was started about her special poisoning. On the denunciation of Yuri Danilovich, Saint Prince Michael of Tverskoy was executed. Russian chronicles report that in the Golden Horde there was the city of Bezdezh, the Christian population of which met the coffin of the murdered Prince Mikhail of Tver.

Uzbek Khan, continuing the traditional Horde policy towards the West, restrained his onslaught on Russian lands. In 1324, Uzbek managed to organize a campaign of Russian princes against Lithuania and prevent the Lithuanian pagan Grand Duke Gediminas from converting to Catholicism. Under Uzbek, the last major campaign in Eastern Europe took place. In 1329, the Pope of Rome appealed to all Western European rulers with an appeal to organize a crusade against the Tatars. But Uzbek defeated the combined army of Poland and Hungary. In 1340, when the Polish king Casimir invaded Galicia, plotting to subdue the entire country to the Church of Rome, Uzbek helped the Russian princes in their struggle against Casimir. As a result of this struggle, Casimir was forced to allow the Orthodox to freely celebrate services in Galician Russia, which he had captured.

But, despite the loyalty of the Uzbek in relation to Orthodoxy, with the adoption of Islam, the final line was drawn between the Golden Horde and Russia. This choice predetermined the Kulikovo field and the further fragmentation of the Kipchak kingdom into many uluses. But if we imagine that Uzbek Khan would have introduced not Islam, but Orthodoxy, as the state religion, then further historical processes in the Horde would have developed in a different direction, and then the Battle of Kulikovo would not have happened at all. But there would be no Muscovy either. What would happen in this case? Perhaps there would have been an allied unification of Russia and the Horde into a gigantic Orthodox Empire. Then, probably, not Moscow, but Sarai would have turned out to be the spiritual and cultural center of the Russian land. And the Metropolis of All Russia, having lost its Kievan roots, would have finally strengthened itself not in Moscow, but in Saray.

MOSCOW IS THE CENTER OF ALL RUSSIA

During the reign of Uzbek, the Moscow princes gained great strength. After a hundred years of Tatar rule, contrary to the Tatar policy in Russia, the process of unification around the Moscow principality began.

A special role in the unification of the Russian lands around Moscow belongs to the Grand Duke John Daniilovich Kalita (1328-1340). It is to this prince that an important merit is attributed - he obtained permission to deliver the “exit” to the Horde on his own, without the participation of Tatar tribute collectors. This action destroyed the main reason for the Tatars to enter the Russian lands. While other principalities suffered from Tatar invasions, the possessions of the Prince of Moscow remained calm and filled with inhabitants. According to the chronicler, “... the filthy people stopped fighting the Russian land, they stopped killing Christians; rested and rested Christians from the great languor and much burden and from the violence of the Tatars; and from that time on there was silence over the whole earth. The main means to achieve peace was the special ability of John I to get along with Khan Uzbek. He often traveled to the Horde and earned the favor and trust of the khan.

John Kalita, after a long period of time, became the first authoritative prince whose influence spread throughout North-Eastern Russia. He began to consider himself not only Moscow, but also the Grand Duke of "All Russia." John Kalita independently disposed of Tver, which he had conquered, in Novgorod, in weak Rostov, and even distant Pskov experienced his power. The possessions of the Moscow prince began to noticeably move towards the Far North. Under John Daniilovich and under his two sons Simeon Proud (1341 - 1353) and John the Red (1353 - 1359), who, like their father, were the great princes of all Russia, Moscow decisively prevailed over other principalities . The first successes of the Moscow princes aroused the sympathy of the boyars towards Moscow. Already Simeon the Proud, according to the chronicler, "all the princes of Russia were given under the arm."

Relying on their strength and wealth, having support in the Horde, the Moscow princes were a real force capable of maintaining order and silence not only in their inheritance, but throughout the Vladimir-Suzdal region. By the beginning of the reign of Prince Dmitry Donskoy (1359), Moscow had actually united most of the Russian principalities under its rule. This was so important and desirable for the people, exhausted by the Tatars and internal turmoil, that he willingly went under the auspices of Moscow and assisted the Moscow princes. The people settled on the Moscow lands, and the Moscow princes built cities, settlements, villages for them. They bought entire destinies from the impoverished Yaroslavl, Belozersky, Rostov princes and simple villages from small owners, bought the Russian “full” in the Horde, brought it to their lands and populated entire settlements with former captives - “Horde”. So the population multiplied in the Moscow volosts, and at the same time the strength of the Moscow princes increased.

The Russian clergy also showed special sympathy and assistance to the Moscow princes. Metropolitan Peter supported Prince John Kalita in his struggle with Tver, lived with him for a long time in Moscow and founded the famous Assumption Cathedral there. The successor of St. Peter, Metropolitan Theognost, a Greek by birth, finally established his place of residence in it. Under John Daniilovich, Moscow became the church capital of the entire Russian land, the permanent residence of Russian metropolitans. It is difficult to overestimate the political significance of the transfer of the metropolitan see from Vladimir to Moscow. Moscow thus received indisputable advantages over all other cities, and the Moscow diocese rose immeasurably higher than all the others. Moscow contacted Constantinople, and through it with the South Slavic lands. At the same time, the center of political and ecclesiastical power was formed in Moscow, and before that the small city became the center of "All Russia". And later, when the Moscow princes led Russia in the struggle against the Horde and Lithuania, Moscow became the core of the people's association, and the Moscow princes became national sovereigns. It was during the Muscovite period that Russia made a colossal path of comprehensive development, preserving at the base of its statehood the "organic system embodied in law" and the spirit of people's life.

SAINT THEOGNOST

Relations with the Horde were the subject of labor and care of the successor of St. Peter, Metropolitan Theognost (1328-1353). He went to the Horde twice: for the first time five years after his accession to the metropolitan see (in 1333) - perhaps in order to receive a label for the metropolis from Khan Uzbek. Another time, in 1342, on the occasion of the accession of a new khan, the son of Uzbekov Dzhanibek. During his last trip to the Horde, Metropolitan Filaret found himself in an extremely unpleasant situation. Some persons, in all likelihood, specific princes (primarily Tver), dissatisfied with the union of the metropolitan with Moscow, reported to the khan that the metropolitan had huge funds. Janibek began to demand from the Saint that he annually pay tribute for himself and for all the clergy. Such a claim by Khan Dzhanibek was unprecedented in the history of the Horde. Metropolitan Theognost rejected this demand. Then the Khan handed him over to the Tatars, who for a long time forced him to do so, tormented the Saint and subjected him to various tortures. But the Metropolitan endured everything and, having distributed rich gifts (up to six hundred rubles) to the Tatar nobles, he returned to the fatherland with two new labels from Khan Dzhanibek and from his wife Taidula, which confirmed all the previous benefits of the Russian Church and the clergy. The Novgorod chronicle under the year 1343/1344 tells: “Metropolitan Fegnast Grichin go to the Horde to the Caesar to the filthy Zhenbek, and rob him of Kalantai to the Caesars, rob him, and yash himself and izmuchish, and rkusche: “give tribute in flight”; he’s not in the right place, and put a promise of 6 hundred rubles and you’ll go to Russia in good health. For this act of Metropolitan Theognost for the benefit of the Church, he was especially glorified by his pious compatriots.

SAINT ALEXY

The incident between Khan Dzhanibek and Saint Theognost was probably the only black spot in their relationship. In general, Dzhanibek took the same favorable position towards the Russian Church as his father Uzbek. The Nikon chronicle says: “Because this tsar Chanibek Azbyakovich is very kind to Christianity, do a lot of benefits to the Russian land.” During his reign, thanks to St. Alexy of Moscow, the influence of the church in Sarai was even more established.

Saint Alexis (1354 - 1377) did not escape the fate of traveling to the Horde. He made his first trip in 1354, not yet being officially appointed to the metropolis by the Patriarch of Constantinople. He received a label in his name - a travel document for travel through the Golden Horde to Constantinople. The letter guaranteed his personal safety and instructed the khan's officials not to detain him and to provide him with quarters along the way. In this label, Saint Alexy was already called a metropolitan.

The next trip was made by him in 1357, no longer of his own free will, but at the invitation of Khan Dzhanibek himself. Khanov's wife, Taidula, was extremely ill for three years and lost her sight. No doctors and no medicines helped her. Meanwhile, rumors about the holy life of the Russian Primate and the power of his prayer reached the Tatar uluses. Dzhanibek wrote to Prince Ivan Ivanovich of Moscow, asking him to send the bishop of God to the Horde, and at the same time asked Alexy himself to visit the ailing queen. The request was accompanied by threats: for non-fulfillment, the khan threatened war. It was impossible to refuse, and the saint went to the Horde, not knowing what awaited him. If Taidula had not recovered, he could have been in real danger of death. The Metropolitan sacrificed himself in order to avert the threat of a new Tatar invasion to Russia.

This trip was reported in the Moscow chronicle of the end of the 15th century: “Then the ambassador from Queen Taidula from the Horde came to Metropolitan Alexei, calling him to the Horde, yes, having come, she would visit her unhealthy. He even began to prepare for the path of need, and then the candle lit up by itself at the tomb of the miracle-worker Peter on August 18. The Metropolitan, singing a prayer service with the whole kliros, and crush that candle and distribute it to the people for blessing. And on the same day, go to the Horde and, having come there, heal the ailing queen. And the packs were soon released with great honor. And in the Horde then the hush was great. After the healing of the khansha, Saint Alexy gained even greater authority in the Horde. Taidula, on the other hand, was a woman of great intelligence and, feeling deep gratitude to the Metropolitan, disposed the khan in his favor.

Saint Alexis returned to Moscow with honour, and in gratitude for the healing of Taidula he was presented with a Tatar court in the Moscow Kremlin. Similar courtyards existed in every major city of Russia and were the centers of administrative control of the Tatars over the Russian principalities. On the site of the court in 1365, in memory of the miracle of healing that happened on September 6, the Saint founded a stone church in the name of the miracle of the Archangel Michael in Khonekh and founded the Miracle Monastery under him, in which he was subsequently buried in accordance with his will. A label issued in November 1357 by Taidula to St. Alexis, traditional in content, has been preserved. According to him, the Russian Church, praying for the khans, was freed from all tributes, extortions and violence from the secular authorities.

According to his life, Metropolitan Alexy led a debate about faith in the Horde in the presence of the khan. Saint Alexy contributed in every possible way to the unification of Russia around Moscow, received the greatest number of legal and economic benefits from the Golden Horde khans and enjoyed their greatest respect.

During the stay of the Metropolitan in the Horde, the Great Troubles began here (in Russian - the Great Zamyatnya), caused by the illness of Khan Dzhanibek and his murder in 1357. Saint Alexei found himself in a disturbing situation.

THE GREAT HEAT

The crisis in the development of the Golden Horde that began in the second half of the 14th century caused a protracted struggle between rival factions of its ruling elite. The turmoil began as a family strife, a conflict between the three sons of Janibek - Berdibek, Kulpa and Navrus. Berdibek sat on the throne, having killed his father Janibek. He threatened that he would go on a campaign against Russia, for he was not satisfied with the tribute that she paid at that time to the Horde. But the parricide was able to tame Saint Alexy, who had come to the Horde. He, although he received "a lot of support" from Khan Berdibek, nevertheless subdued his anger with his wisdom. With the assistance of Taidula, the Saint persuaded Berdibek to abandon his intention to go on a campaign against Russia and received from him a label in confirmation of the former privileges of the Russian Church.

But in 1359, a new palace coup led by Kulpa took place in the Golden Horde: Berdibek was killed and Kulpa was proclaimed khan. It should be noted that the two sons of Kulpa bore Christian names - Michael and Ivan. This suggests that both of them were Christians. However, in 1360, Janibek's younger son Navrus organized another palace coup, in which Kulpa and his sons were killed.

Taking advantage of another khan's need for Russian silver, Metropolitan Alexei managed to obtain a khan's charter in exchange for financial support, certifying that the great reign was the hereditary right of the Moscow princes from the dynasty of John Kalita. Thus, the political tradition of Kievan Rus was finally abolished.

In 1361, several nobles secretly invited one of the Genghisites, a descendant of Shiban named Khuzr, to take the throne. During the implementation of a new palace intrigue, Navrus was also executed with his entire family. Between the princes and princesses killed then was the “Great Khatun” Taidula.

But among the warring khans, no one had the ability to reunite individual uluses into a powerful state. The Kipchak Horde did not get out of the state of unrest and was more and more divided into separate uluses. While the Horde was temporarily paralyzed by internal strife, two new centers of Mongol-Turkic power were formed in Central Asia. The White Horde (Ak-Orda) separated from the Golden Horde, where in 1361 the most powerful of the descendants of the Horde-Ichen, Urus Khan, came to power, who refused to recognize himself as a vassal of the Sarai khans. Moreover, aggression in the direction of Saray became the leitmotif of his reign. In southern Kazakhstan, in the lower reaches of the Syr Darya in the city of Sygnak (Sugnak), Urus Khan established the capital of Ak-Orda. More and more Juchid princes and Mongol temniks recognized him as their ruler. "Urus" in Turkic means "Russian". In all likelihood, Urus Khan had Russian roots on the maternal side.

Also refused to recognize its dependence on Sarai and another part of the Golden Horde - the Blue Horde (Kok-Orda), ruled by Khan Pulad (1350-1370), who settled his court in Samarkand, in Maverannahr.

In the west of the Golden Horde, on the right bank of the Volga, Temnik Mamai came to power and also became an independent sovereign. In the remaining territory of the Golden Horde, separate uluses soon also begin to stand out.

In Maverannakhr, during the protracted period of local conflicts, the personality of Timur (Tamerlane) stood out. However, he was not Chinggisid and had no right to the throne. Even having become omnipotent, he was forced to rule on behalf of the puppet khans of the house of Genghis.

Having captured Samarkand, Tamerlane decided, first of all, to establish his control over Ak-Orda. This meant a possible clash with Urus Khan. At this point, Urus began a campaign to the west and around 1372 his army reached the lower reaches of the Volga, and the following year captured both Sarai. After entering New Sarai, Urus Khan declared himself Khan of the Golden Horde.

However, at that time, one of the most capable commanders of Urus Khan, Tokhtamysh, the son of Emir Mangyshlak, who was killed by Urus Khan, fled from him to Tamerlane, seeking protection and support. Tamerlane received Tokhtamysh with due honors and recognized him as the ruler of Sygnak.

In 1377 Urus Khan died and was succeeded by his younger son Timur-Melik. Tamerlane gave Tokhtamysh the opportunity to try his luck in a campaign against the new ruler of the Ak-Orda, Khan Timur-Melik. In the end, Tokhtamysh came out victorious and captured Sygnak in the same year. But the ambitious plans of Tokhtamysh were not limited to this - he also wanted to become the Khan of the Golden Horde and, thus, establish his power over the entire ulus of Jochi.

The Russian chronicles of that time speak of many murders and coups: “The same summer in the Horde it was noticeable, and the princes of Ordinskaya beat the former among themselves, and the Tatars fell countless; so the wrath of God will come upon them because of their iniquity.” In total, over the course of 20 years of unrest in the Golden Horde, 21 khans were replaced.

In the initial period of the Great Troubles, the Russian princes continued to act in accordance with the previously established order and asked each new khan for confirmation of their labels. With rapid changes on the throne of the Golden Horde, it sometimes happened that the ruling khan did not have time to issue new labels, and the princes had to wait in the Horde for the next khan to do so.

As a result of "hushing up", the authority of the khans was shaken sharply, while the consolidation of the spirit of the Russian people began to take on real outlines. In 1374, the grandson of John Kalita, the Grand Duke of Moscow Dimitri Ivanovich stopped paying tribute to the Horde, and then, having overcome the contradictions between the Russian princes, he managed to rally them for a joint struggle.

The last label received by the Russian metropolitan is dated 1379. He was given to the betrothed Metropolitan Mikhail (Mityai) during the reign of Mamai by the puppet Khan Atyulyak (Tulunbek) "by Mamaev's uncle's thought." The famous Battle of Kulikovo soon followed, and relations between Russia and the Horde entered a different phase. The power of the Mongol-Tatars in Russia was rapidly weakening, and the khans' confirmation of their disposition towards the Russian Church lost all meaning. In addition, the old Mongolian traditions of religious tolerance gradually disappeared, replaced by fanatical Islamism.

MAMAI

The beginning of the disintegration of the Golden Horde was stopped by the commander Mamai, a friend of the Genoese and Lithuanians who came to power.

Mamai, like Tamerlane, was not a Genghisid, as a result of which he did not have the right to the throne and for a long time ruled in the Horde on behalf of dummy khans, descendants of Jochi, whom he placed in the Golden Horde at his own discretion. According to his religious views, Mamai belonged to the order of the Ismailis, who were in contact with the Western European knightly order of the Templars. The basis of the doctrine of the "Ismailis" was the doctrine of the "god-man" ("Imam"). The order had 9 levels of initiation, ascending through which the initiate learned that “although the founder of Islam Muhammad is higher than Moses and Christ, he is lower than the imam-god-man”, that “all religions are the same, and their prescriptions are obligatory only for common people, and not for those who comprehended the highest mystical meaning.

At that time, the largest colonial states were Genoa and Venice. Almost all world trade was in their hands. The significance of these states especially increased in connection with the Crusades, which paved the way for Genoese and Venetian merchants to the countries of the Middle East and the Black Sea region. In the XIII century, after the capture of Constantinople by the Crusaders and the defeat of the Byzantine Empire, the Venetians, followed by the Genoese, penetrated the Black Sea coast. In the 14th century, with the help of their colonies, the Genoese controlled the basin of the Black and Azov Seas, closely followed the countries through which the main trade routes to these seas went, and actively interfered in their internal affairs. There is reason to believe that Mamai was a protege of the Genoese, who, not by chance, were among the inspirers and direct organizers of Mamai's campaign against Moscow.

With the help of Mamai, they established complete control over the Golden Horde, through whose territory half of the total length of the Great Silk Road passed. The Genoese then tried to do the same with the Principality of Moscow, located to the north of their Black Sea possessions, which by that time had become the center of the unification of Russian lands.

In this regard, the relationship between Genoa, the Moscow principality and the Golden Horde in the period 1370-1381 is very characteristic. Moscow adhered to the traditional policy of alliance with the heirs of the Ak-Orda khans, primarily with Tokhtamysh, carried out since the time of Batu. Mamai, as we see, relied on an alliance with the West, mainly with the Genoese colonies in the Crimea. This difference turned out to be decisive in the subsequent course of events.

In the early 70s of the XIV century, the agent of the Genoese in Moscow, the richest merchant, a Greek by nationality, Nekomat Surozhanin, organized a conspiracy to overthrow the Moscow prince Dimitri Ioannovich. This conspiracy, through a military coup, was to be carried out by the head of the Moscow city militia (thousand) Velyaminov. But in 1375 the plot was uncovered and Velyaminov was executed. Unable to establish control over the Moscow principality with the help of an internal coup, as they managed to do with the Golden Horde, the Genoese decided to subjugate Moscow with the help of external military pressure through Mamai. But Mamai intended not only to subjugate Russia to himself in order to collect tribute, as was the case in the days of the former Golden Horde khans. He intended to settle directly with his entourage in the best Russian cities - to expel the Russian princes and sit in their place - which the Golden Horde rulers never encroached on. The author of the “Tale of the Battle of Mamaev” also speaks about this: “Mamai ... began to speak to his upat and prince and lancer: “I don’t want to do such things, like Batu; how the princes are exhausted and which breeds of red dominate us, and we’ll sit down , we will live quietly and serenely ... "And adding many of the Hordes to themselves and the rati of other Ponaimov ... And go to Russia ... and command with your ulus: "Do not plow bread for a single one of you, but you will be ready for Russian bread .. ."". Similarly, in the Word on the Life of Dimitry Ioannovich Donskoy, it is noted about Mamai, as if he, going to Russia by war, said: “I will take the Russian land, and I will destroy the Christian churches, and I will put their faith on my own, and I will order them to worship their Mohammed.”

This goal was set, presumably, by the Genoese, for the khans of the Golden Horde never had such intentions. Therefore, the Mamaev Horde was a fundamentally different, special phenomenon than the Golden Horde, and set itself other goals.

At the same time, the Moscow principality was being strengthened, which concluded a long-awaited peace with Tver in 1375. In this world, Prince Mikhail of Tver for himself and for his entire family renounced the great reign of Vladimir and recognized himself as the "younger brother" of Demetrius of Moscow. Mikhail refused an alliance with the Lithuanian prince, and pledged to fight with Lithuania if the Moscow prince so required. According to one of the articles of the agreement, Mikhail undertook to follow Moscow's policy towards the Horde in everything: “Whether we will be at peace with the Tatars is up to us; whether we will give a way out - it depends on us; we do not want to give - it also depends on us. If the Tatars go against us or you, then we will fight together, but if we go against them, then you will go with us together.

In 1377-1378, the Golden Horde army undertook a number of large-scale campaigns against Moscow Rus. However, it was not possible to overthrow Prince Dimitri Ivanovich or force him to submit to Mamai. And then the Golden Horde begins preparations for a big war against Moscow with the aim of completely defeating it and incorporating its territory into the Golden Horde state. To implement this plan, the Genoese allocated a lot of money, with which Mamai managed to hire a gigantic army at that time - 120 thousand people by the summer of 1380. In addition, Mamai came into contact with Lithuania, which, as you know, was then hostile to Moscow. The Lithuanian prince Jagiello promised Mamai to unite with him on September 1, 1380.

The Genoese, helping Mamai, in return, among other things, demanded from him a concession for the production of furs and trade in the north of Russia, in the region of Veliky Ustyug. Mamai tried to negotiate with Prince Dimitri of Moscow that for granting concessions he would give the young Prince Dimitri a label for a great reign. If the prince had agreed to this deal, Muscovite Russia would have turned into a Genoese trading colony in a very short time. And although many in Moscow found the proposal profitable, the Church then had its say. St. Sergius of Radonezh declared that there could be no business with the Latins: foreign merchants should not be allowed on the Holy Russian Land, for this is a sin.

All these circumstances explain why Russia only once in almost two and a half centuries of the "Mongolian era" came out into a wide field for mortal combat. Russia rose to defend Orthodoxy, but not its political or land interests, and won.

As for Northern Russia, she waited with fear for Mamaev's invasion. Tver and Suzdal-Nizhny Novgorod princes hid, waiting for the development of events. Veliky Novgorod was also in no hurry to help. The Ryazan prince, showing cowardice, "changed", entering into a submissive agreement with the enemy. One Moscow prince, having gathered his strength, decided to repulse Mamai and, moreover, not on his own line, but in a wild field, where he shielded not only the Moscow principality, but all of Russia.

As you know, Mamai's campaign against Russia was unsuccessful. In the battle on the Kulikovo field, about 350 km from Moscow on September 8 (21), 1380, on the day of the Nativity of the Blessed Virgin Mary, Mamai's army suffered a crushing defeat and was mostly destroyed.

After his defeat, Mamai paid the Genoese for the money spent on his campaign with part of the territory of the Golden Horde, transferring to them the Southern coast of Crimea from Balaklava to Sudak under an agreement. After that, he received a new loan from the Genoese to organize the next campaign against Russia.

However, in the midst of the preparations for this campaign, Mamai was attacked by the Khan of the White Horde, Tokhtamysh. Mamai was defeated and fled to the Crimea, to the capital of the Genoese possessions, Kafu (Feodosia), hoping to find refuge with his masters. But without an army, without a state, they did not need him, and therefore he was soon robbed and killed.

Speaking of the Battle of Kulikovo, one cannot but say that initially St. Sergius of Radonezh refused to bless the Grand Duke for the war with Mamai. In one of the manuscripts of the life of the greatest Russian saint, his direct objection to Dimitry Ioannovich is given: "... Your duty is holding (holds), you must submit to the Horde tsar." Probably, these words were uttered some considerable time before the Battle of Kulikovo, when in the Holy Trinity Monastery they had not yet figured out what Mamai really was, and they saw him as the traditional Khan of the Golden Horde.

On the eve of the Battle of Kulikovo, St. Sergius said something completely different: “It is fitting for you, sir, to worry about the flock handed over by God to the Christ-named flock. Go against the godless, and those who help God, win." The Monk Sergius was supported by Metropolitan Alexei. Moscow rejected the offer of the Genoese and thus remained faithful to the alliance with the legitimate heir to the khans of the Golden Horde - Tokhtamysh. Thus, two coalitions participated in this war: the union of the chimeric power of Mamaia, Genoa and the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, that is, the West, and the bloc of Moscow with the White Horde (Ak-Orda), which was initiated by St. Alexander Nevsky.

After the victory at the Kulikovo field, the sovereigns of Moscow no longer had rivals in Russia. It is no coincidence that the Kazan chronicler, fixing the events that happened after 1380, gave them the following name: “On the final desolation of the Golden Horde; and about her king, and about freedom, and about the majesty of the Russian land, and honor, and about the beauty of the glorious city of Moscow. From that time on, Demetrius from the Prince of Moscow turned into the “Tsar of Russia,” as literary works of that time began to call him, and his principality grew into a new strong Muscovite state, unlike Kievan Rus. The Russian people at that moment historically felt matured, spiritually grown into a great nation. If Muscovites, Vladimirians, Tver residents, Pskovites came to Kulikovo Field, then they all returned from Kulikovo Field as Russians.

Polovtsev and created a strong military organization. He made a number of trips to the Kyiv and Pereyaslav lands. In 1185 he defeated Prince Igor Svyatoslavich and captured him. The description of the campaign of Igor Svyatoslavich and other Russian princes against Konchak formed the basis of The Tale of Igor's Campaign.

Ruban V. G., "Moscow Curious Mental Book for 1776". Moscow.

The largest cities of the Golden Horde on the territory of modern Southern Kazakhstan were: Sygnak (located on the right bank of the Syr Darya near the city of Yanykurgan, Kzyl-Orda region); Yassy (in the 16th century the city was named Turkestan and played a prominent role in the history of the Kazakh khanates); Sauran (located 30 km northwest of the city of Turkestan); Otrar (located 15 km west of the Timur railway station in South Kazakhstan); Dzhend (located on the right bank of the Zhana-Darya, 115 km west of Kyzyl-Orda), as well as other cities located on the territory of Northern and Western Kazakhstan.

Ibn Battuta Abu Abdallah Muhammad ibn Abdallah al-Lawati at-Tanji (February 24, 1304, Tangier -1377, Fes), Arab traveler, wandering merchant. He left notes about his stay in the Golden Horde at the court of Khan Uzbek, abounding in economic, ethnographic, cultural and everyday information.

This is evidenced, in particular, by the Vodyanskoye settlement, where a site inhabited by Russians was excavated. The settlement was located on the right bank of the Volga, 2 km north of the city of Dubovka, Volgograd Region.

VL Egorov compares Bezdezh (Beljamen) with the Vodyansk settlement.

Gediminas - the Grand Duke of Lithuania since 1316. He subjugated all the Russian principalities from Polotsk to Kyiv and prepared the annexation of Volhynia. Gediminas interfered with the unification policy of the Moscow principality, seeking to tear Pskov and Novgorod away from Russia. In this struggle, Gediminas relied on an alliance with Tver, sealed by the marriage of Gediminas' daughter Maria with Prince Dmitry Mikhailovich (1320). Gediminas was the first to title himself "King of Lithuanians and Russians". [SMIZO, vol. 1, p. 306.] At the same time, Gediminas did not prevent the settlers from living according to their customs, allowed the Lithuanians to be baptized, and even some of his sons converted to Orthodoxy and married Russian princesses; but he himself died a pagan.

Grand Duke John I Danilovich Kalita died on March 31, 1340, having accepted the schema with the name Ananias. In 2001, by the decision of His Holiness Patriarch Alexy II, he was ranked among the locally revered saints of Moscow.

"Labels of the Tatar khans to the Moscow metropolitans". Brief collection, p. 470.

In the Moscow Kremlin, at the place where in the late 50s of the XIV century Metropolitan Alexy founded the Chudov Monastery, not far from the main - Frolovsky (from the middle of the XVII century - Spassky) - gates was the residence of the Tatars "Tsarev Posolsky Dvor" and " Khan's stable place. Horde envoys came here; Khan's Baskaks lived here, who, in addition to their main activities, were engaged in closely following the events taking place in Moscow. Here, apparently, Tatar merchants also stopped. Under John III, the Tatar House, or Horde Compound, was still located here.

The monastery was destroyed in the 1930s, and the relics of St. Alexis were subsequently transferred to the Patriarchal Cathedral of the Epiphany in Yelokhovo.

Despite Islam, in the Golden Horde, a woman enjoyed equal rights and great honor. This is explained by the remnants of Mongolian law - yassa, which, along with Sharia, continued to operate in the Golden Horde in the 14th century. Al-Omari wrote: "Inhabitants of this state do not follow as those (Iraqis) the establishments of the caliphs and their wives participate with them in management...". Ibn Battuta also wrote about the same. Women, he said, do not hide their faces. In the Horde letters it was written: “The opinions of the khatuns and emirs agreed on this.” In addition to issuing labels by the khans, it is known that coins were minted on behalf of the khansha Tulunbek-khanum.

Sygnak is a medieval city, now ruins in the Sunak-Ata tract, 18 km to the North-East from the Tyumen-Aryk station in Kazakhstan.

The area between the rivers Amu Darya and Syr Darya, including the cities of Samarkand, Bukhara, Khujand.

"Temnik" - the head of the 10,000th military unit.

"Monuments of Russian Law", Issue 3, M. 1955, p. 465.

CM. Solovyov "Readings and stories on the history of Russia" - M., "Pravda", 1990, pp. 229, 241.

The Tatar invasion played a significant role in the fact that the Christian worldview was significantly strengthened in the ancient Russian consciousness. Starting from the 13th-14th centuries, Orthodoxy became the main component of the entire national ideology, playing a decisive role in the formation of all significant social ideals. After all, the preservation of one's own faith, according to the sages of that time, meant the preservation of the independence of the spiritual life of the people. And spiritual independence must necessarily lead to the restoration of political independence. Therefore, the idea of ​​protecting Orthodoxy began to be firmly and directly linked in the minds of people with the idea of ​​national-state independence. And it is not for nothing that it was during this period that the concepts of "Russian" and "Orthodox" become synonymous.

In this regard, a new understanding of Russian holiness becomes extremely important. Lives of Russian saints, written in the vague 13th-14th centuries, at first were mainly short, dry records, reminiscent more of "memory" of the saint than real lives. But in the literary and philosophical monuments of the XIII-XIV centuries. new heroes appear, whose images began to be considered both as the most important socially significant ideals and as examples to follow in their personal lives. The most important place among these heroes is occupied by new martyrs who died for the faith. Princes Yuri Vsevolodovich and Vasilko Konstantinovich, who died at the hands of the invaders, soon began to be revered as such, for example.

Under the year 1239, a real anthem appears in the Laurentian Chronicle to the Grand Duke Yuri Vsevolodovich, who was killed in the battle on the City River. This mournful song, in fact, became a prologue to the church canonization of the prince: "... God punishes with various misfortunes, so that they appear like gold tested in a furnace, Christians, after all, through many troubles will have to enter the Kingdom of Heaven; for Christ God Himself said: it is difficult the path to the Kingdom of Heaven and those who have overcome difficulties will find it. Yuri, whose name is courage! Your sufferings were washed with blood; for if you do not attack, then there is no crown, if not torment, then no retribution; for everyone who adheres to virtue cannot be without many enemies ... "Later, Grand Duke Yuri Vsevolodovich was canonized. Memorial Day - 4 (17) February.

The chronicle pays even more attention to the feat of Prince Vasilko Konstantinovich of Rostov, who was the first of the Russian people to become a new martyr for the faith, refusing to submit to the Tatar pagan rites.

The Laurentian Chronicle reports: “And Vasilko Konstantinovich was led with constant compulsion to the Shern forest, and when they became a camp, the many godless Tatars forced him to accept Tatar customs, be in their captivity and fight for them. He did not submit to their lawlessness, and reproached him a lot them, saying: "O deaf kingdom, defiled! Nothing will force me to renounce the Christian faith, although I am in great trouble; how will you give an answer to God, having destroyed many souls without the truth? God will torment you for their torments, and save the souls of those whom they have destroyed. "They gnashed their teeth at him, wanting to feed on his blood. Blessed Prince Vasilko prayed ... And for the last time he prayed:" Lord Jesus Christ Almighty! Receive my spirit, and I will rest in Your glory. "And he said this and was immediately killed without mercy. And he was thrown into the forest, and a certain faithful woman saw him and told the God-fearing husband of the priest Andrian about it. And he took Vasilko's body and He wrapped him in a shroud and laid him in a secluded place. Having learned about this, the God-loving Bishop Kirill and Princess Vasilkova sent for the body of the prince and brought him to Rostov. And when they carried him to the city, many people came out to meet him, shedding sad tears, having lost such consolation And many people of the faithful wept, seeing that the father of the orphans and the breadwinner was departing ... And this blessed prince Vasilko was numbered by God with death, like Andreeva, he was washed from his sins with the blood of martyrdom, with his brother and father Yuri, the Grand Duke. And it was amazing, because even after death God united their bodies: Vasilka was brought and laid in the Church of the Holy Mother of God in Rostov, where his mother lies ...

Vasilko was handsome in face, bright and formidable in eyes, immensely brave in hunting, light in heart, affectionate with boyars. Who from the boyars served him and ate his bread and drank his cup, he could not serve any other prince for his love; Vasilko loved his servants especially strongly. Courage and intelligence lived in him, truth and truth walked with him, he was skilled in everything, he knew how to do everything. And he sat in good spirits on his father's table and on his grandfather's, and died as they heard. "For his martyrdom, Prince Vasilko was glorified by the Russian Orthodox Church. Memorial Day: March 4 (17).

And soon Russia showed another feat of martyrdom. In 1246, Prince Mikhail Vsevolodovich of Chernigov, father-in-law of Prince Vasilko of Rostov, came to the Golden Horde, apparently in order to receive a label for the Chernigov principality. However, this visit ended tragically - Prince Mikhail and his boyar Theodore were killed by the khan's order.

After a short time, church veneration of the innocently murdered was established, and in the same years (at least until 1271) a short "Tale" about Mikhail and his boyar Theodore was compiled. Later, already on the basis of this "Tale", other narratives arose, including the Life of Mikhail Chernigov. The plot connected with the death of Mikhail Vsevolodovich became extremely popular in Ancient Russia, because Mikhail Chernigov and his boyar Theodore began to be regarded as one of the first new martyrs for the Orthodox faith.

In the text of the "Tale" the moment is very important that Michael himself takes the initiative to perform a feat for the glory of Christ and not be deceived by "the glory of this world." Having learned about the custom of Batu Khan to force Christians to worship pagan idols, he, inspired by God's grace and the gift of the Holy Spirit, volunteers to go to the Horde to expose Batu's "temptation" and prove to him and the whole world that the Christian faith lives in the hearts of Russian people. Having received the blessing of the confessor, Michael says: "According to your prayer, father, as God wills, so be it. I would like to shed my blood for Christ and for the Christian faith." In this desire, the prince was supported by his boyar Theodore.

Once in the Horde, Mikhail and Theodore do not succumb to either the persuasion of the king or the requests of the boyars. They steadfastly await their fate, chosen by themselves. And when the messenger of the Tatar tsar says to the prince: “Michael, know that you are dead!”, Mikhail firmly answers: “That is what I want, that I suffer for my Christ and shed my blood for the Orthodox faith.” And to his boyars, he threw his princely cloak under his feet, as a symbol of renunciation of earthly life: "Take the glory of this world, to which you aspire!"

The death of Prince Mikhail and the boyar Theodore was terrible: at first they were beaten for a long time and severely, and then their heads were cut off. “And so, while praising God, the saints suffered and gave their souls into the hands of God, both of the newly-holy martyrs,” the author of the “Tale” concludes his story.

Thus, if the chronicle in the plot about Prince Vasilko Konstantinovich outlined, then the "Tale" fully formulated the new ideal for the Russian religious and philosophical consciousness - a martyr for faith, consciously choosing death in the name of Christ. Concerned about the death of Russia and seeking its salvation, the ancient Russian scribes saw the way of salvation through martyrdom in the name of faith. The heroic death of Mikhail Chernigov is a kind of sacrifice made by the Russian people to atone for their sins. The idea of ​​sacrifice becomes extremely important in the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries. After all, voluntary and martyrdom is not only an imitation of the martyrdom of Christ, but also an expression of Russia's readiness to go through any trials, endure any hardships in the name of God. And, in the end, deserve salvation. Interestingly, later, in the 16th century, the martyrdom of Mikhail of Chernigov was interpreted from a religious and mystical standpoint. So, editions of the Life appear, in which the severed head of the prince miraculously remains alive after death. The head, likened to the head of John the Baptist, becomes speaking and pronounces the words: "I am a Christian." Days of church memory of Mikhail Chernigov - February 14 (27) and September 20 (October 3).

In the same years of her righteous life, the daughter of Prince Mikhail of Chernigov, the Monk Euphrosyne of Suzdal, became famous. The Monk Euphrosinia of Suzdal (in the world - Theodulia Mikhailovna) (1212-1250) was born in Chernigov and was the eldest daughter of Prince Mikhail Vsevolodovich and Princess Theophania. From childhood, Theodulia was versed in books, read Aristotle, Plato, Virgil and Homer. She was especially interested in the “medical philosophy” of the ancient physicians Galen and Aesculapius. At the age of 15, she was betrothed to one of the sons of the Vladimir-Suzdal prince, but on the eve of the wedding, her fiancé died unexpectedly. After that, Theodulia took the vows as a nun of the Suzdal Rizopolozhensky monastery under the name of Euphrosyne. In February 1237, when the hordes of Batu fell upon Suzdal, Euphrosyne remained in the monastery. Soon she took up medicine in the monastery hospital, saved many seriously ill people from bodily and mental ailments. In 1246, having learned about her father's trip to the Horde, she decided to support him and in a message urged him not to succumb to any persuasion, not to change the true faith and not to worship idols. After the death of her father, she supported the intention of her sister Maria to compile a “Tale” about the martyrdom of Mikhail Chernigov. After her death, the Monk Euphrosyne was buried in Suzdal in the Rizopolozhensky Monastery, and church veneration of the nun immediately began. In 1570, the ancient Life of Euphrosyne of Suzdal was found. In 1571 the saint was officially canonized, and in 1699 her incorruptible relics were found. Memorial Day: September 25 (October 8).

So, the XIII century showed the world an amazing miracle of Russian holiness - three saints were connected by ties of kinship: Mikhail Chernigov, his son-in-law Vasilko of Rostov and his daughter Euphrosyne of Suzdal.

But Russian holiness in the thirteenth century was not limited to images of new martyrs for the faith. At the same time, images of savior princes appear in the minds of the people and the church, capable of liberating and saving Russia from foreign "captivity" with their wisdom and strength. And already in the first years of the Mongol-Tatar conquest, among other Russian princes, there was a prince who became a visible symbol of the future revival of Russia. This is the son of Grand Duke Yaroslav Vsevolodovich and the grandson of Grand Duke Vsevolod the Big Nest - Alexander Yaroslavich Nevsky (c. 1220–1263), who received his nickname for the victory over the Swedes on the Neva River. Alexander Nevsky was not only an outstanding military commander, but also a wise political leader, who more than once managed through diplomatic negotiations to save the Russian state from devastating Tatar raids and extortions. Already during his lifetime, he enjoyed great respect from his subjects, and soon after his death, the first Life of the Grand Duke was written, emphasizing the true holiness of Alexander Nevsky and becoming the initial link in his further canonization as a Russian saint.

The earliest version of the Life of Alexander Nevsky does not have a stable name and is referred to in various manuscripts as "life", "word" or "tale of life". The compilation of the Life is attributed to the 80s of the XIII century, and the initiators of its compilation are considered to be Prince Dmitry Alexandrovich, son of Alexander Nevsky, and Metropolitan Kirill. The first center of veneration of Alexander Nevsky as a saint in the same years was the monastery of the Nativity of the Virgin in Vladimir, where the prince was buried and where, apparently, the first edition of the Life appeared. The author of this edition is unknown, but, apparently, he was a scribe from the entourage of Metropolitan Kirill and a contemporary of the last years of the life of the Grand Duke. In total, with the spread of the veneration of Alexander Nevsky, there were more than fifteen editions of his Life.

In this Life there is no detailed presentation of the biography of Alexander Nevsky, which, apparently, was not part of the task of the unknown author. On the other hand, he focuses on the main episodes from the life of the prince, which make it possible to recreate, on the one hand, his image of the heroic warrior prince, and, on the other hand, the image of the Christian prince.

The solution of the first task is served by stories about the military exploits of Alexander Nevsky, of which the victories over the Swedes and German knights on Lake Peipsi stand out in particular.

To solve the second problem, the author resorts to more expressive means. First of all, describing the Grand Duke, he makes extensive use of biblical images, comparing the qualities of Alexander Nevsky with the beauty of Joseph, the strength of Samson, the wisdom of Solomon. The Grand Duke himself appears before the readers as a true believer. He shows complete resistance to the temptation to accept Catholicism in exchange for the military-political assistance of Rome: "But we will not accept teachings from you," the prince proudly replies to the papal envoys. Faithful to Orthodox dogma, Alexander Nevsky illuminates his every step with prayer and hope in God's help. And the Lord does not leave him without His grace.

The Life contains a story about several miracles revealed by the Lord to help the Grand Duke. So, before the battle with the Swedes, the holy brothers Boris and Gleb appeared to the elder of the land of Izhora, a certain Pelugius, who said: "Let us help our kinsman, Prince Alexander." And during the Battle of Peipus, the “army of God”, which was seen in the air, came to the aid of the Grand Duke. And it was not for nothing that Alexander Nevsky himself, who more than once showed exceptional determination, said: "God is not in power, but in truth." After all, if the Lord visibly showed his help, then this meant that the truth was on the side of the Russian Grand Duke and the power led by him.

The image of the holy prince-warrior Alexander Nevsky became very popular in Ancient Russia, and the saint himself was glorified as one of the intercessors for the Russian Land. Later, at different times and in different monuments, numerous testimonies of the miracles revealed by St. Alexander Nevsky will be recorded. He performed miracles during the most difficult and decisive periods in the history of Russia - during the Battle of Kulikovo, during the capture of Kazan. Sometimes he performed miracles alone, sometimes with his "relatives" Saints Boris and Gleb and other princes who were recognized as saints. People turned to Alexander Nevsky with prayers for healing from illnesses. In 1547, an all-Russian holiday was established in honor of St. Alexander Nevsky - November 23, and in 1724 a new holiday was established - August 30, in honor of the transfer of the relics of the right-believing prince from Vladimir to St. Petersburg. The relics of the holy prince-warrior, intercessor for the Russian Land, are still kept in St. Petersburg, in the Alexander Nevsky Lavra.

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© All rights reserved Culture of Russia during the Tatar-Mongol invasion

Problem question:
How did it happen that Russia was subjugated by the Golden Horde for almost three centuries?
Epics and chronicles, oral art and written literature continued
sing of heroes, daring princes and their fearless squads, but more and more
the theme of anxiety for the future of Russia, torn apart by
princely feuds.
What caused the strife between the vain and proud princes, so
obediently bowed their heads before the Mongols?
By answering this question, we will better understand the features of Russian culture in
period under review.

Reasons for the fragmentation of the Russian principalities:
1) The problem of power in Russia was resolved for a long time
based on patriarchal traditions. Yaroslav the Wise
at the end of the 10th - beginning of the 11th century, he established the law
inheritance: after the death of the Grand Duke of Kyiv
his throne is not inherited by the eldest son, but by the next
the prince himself brother. If there are no brothers left, he inherits
eldest son of elder brother, then eldest son
next brother, etc., power passed from one
prince to another in seniority, while taking into account
not only direct, but also cousins ​​and more distant
relatives.
This order of succession of power is called
"ladder law". The sons of the prince, even being in
childhood, received from him any area
under your authority. The princes paid tribute to the Grand Duke.
Such a “common” possession of Russia - with permanent
changes and relocations of princes - prevented and
final formation of private property.
“Ladder right” order
succession
to
eldest in kind.

2) The Kyiv prince distributed possessions, judged, sorted out disputes, but the main
He did not resolve issues individually, but at the general council of the princes.
Regarding this order, which neither East nor West knew, the historian G.V.
Vernadsky noted that “... the political life of the Russian Federation of Kyiv
period was built on freedom. Three elements of power - monarchical,
aristocratic and democratic - balanced each other, and the people
had a voice in government throughout the country.”

3) with the multiplication of the number of contenders for power and the isolation of the principalities
Russia was gradually fragmented.
The political connection between principalities and zemstvos (lands grouped around
significant cities) weakens with Kyiv, specific princes stop paying
tribute to the prince of Kyiv, do not submit to his court and do not participate in general decisions.
The areas that emerged around the trading cities, such as Kyiv,
Chernihiv and later - Volyn, Vladimir-Suzdal and others,
become independent, but even in them the relationship between the princes and the people
fraught with another turmoil.
Thus, the fragmentation of Russia reached its limit. As soon as in
the grand-ducal family collapsed the concept of seniority, each prince became
seek to strengthen their own power and enrich themselves at the expense of others
principalities. The selfish aspirations of the princes increased weakness from within
Russian lands, and the rest was done by decisiveness, cruelty and
purposefulness of the Mongols.

Main development trends
culture
Three centuries (XIII-XV) passed under the sign of struggle
against the Golden Horde. During this time culture
Russia went through two periods:
1) from 1240 to the middle of the 14th century, which
characterized by a marked decline in all
areas of culture. This is due to the Mongol-Tatar invasion and the simultaneous
expansion of German, Swedish, Lithuanian,
Polish and Hungarian feudal lords.
2) the second period - the rise of the national
self-consciousness and the revival of Russian
culture. As a result of foreign invasion
center of socio-political and cultural
life has shifted to the northeast, where
gradually established the hegemony of Moscow,
around which the Russian lands united and
start
arise
Great Russian
nationality.

Battle on the Kalka River
On May 31, 1223, the Mongols defeated the allied forces of the Polovtsian and Russian princes in
Azov steppes on the Kalka River. It was the last major joint
military performance of the Russian princes on the eve of the invasion of Batu. However, in
the powerful Russian prince Yuri Vsevolodovich did not participate in the campaign
Vladimir-Suzdal, son of Vsevolod the Big Nest.
Princely feuds also affected
the time of the battle on the Kalka. Kyiv
prince
Mstislav
Romanovich,
fortified with his army on
hill, did not take part in the battle.
Regiments of Russian soldiers and Polovtsy,
crossing the Kalka, struck a blow on
advance detachments of the Mongol-Tatars,
which
retreated.
Russians
and
Polovtsian
shelves
got carried away
persecution.
Approached
same
main
Mongolian
strength
have taken
persecuting Russian and Polovtsian
warriors in pincers and destroyed.

The Mongols laid siege to the hill, where the prince of Kyiv fortified. On the third day of the siege
Mstislav Romanovich believed the enemy's promise to honorably release the Russians into
case of voluntary surrender and laid down his arms. He and his warriors were brutally killed
Mongols. The Mongols reached the Dnieper, but did not dare to enter the borders of Russia.
Russia has not yet known a defeat equal to the battle on the Kalka River. From the Azov steppes
only a tenth of the troops returned to Russia. In honor of their victory, the Mongols
arranged a "feast on the bones." The captured princes were crushed with boards, on which
the victors sat and feasted.

Preparation of a campaign to Russia
Returning to the steppes, the Mongols
have taken
unsuccessful
try
seize
Volga
Bulgaria.
Reconnaissance in force showed what to lead
aggressive wars with Russia and its
neighbors
can
only
through
organizations
pan-Mongolian
hike.
At the head of this campaign was the grandson
Genghis Khan - Batu (1227-1255),
received from his grandfather
inheritance all territories in the west,
"where the foot of the Mongolian horse will set foot."
His chief military adviser was
Subedei, who knew the theater well
future military operations.

In 1235, at the Khural in the capital of Mongolia, Karakorum, a decision was made to
general Mongol campaign to the West.
In 1236, the Mongols took possession of the Volga Bulgaria, and in 1237 they subdued the nomadic
the peoples of the Steppe.
In the autumn of 1237, the main forces of the Mongols, having crossed the Volga, concentrated on the river
Voronezh, aiming at Russian lands.
In Russia they knew about the impending formidable danger, but
princely feuds prevented the sips from uniting to fight back
strong and cunning enemy.
There was no unified command.
City fortifications were built to defend against neighboring
Russian principalities, and not from the steppe nomads.
Princely cavalry squads for armament and combat
qualities were not inferior to the Mongolian ones. But the bulk
The Russian army was made up of a militia - urban and
rural warriors, inferior to the Mongols in arms and
combat skills.
Hence, a defensive tactic designed to
depletion of enemy forces.

Defense of Ryazan
In 1237 Ryazan was the first of the Russian
land was attacked by the invaders.
Princes of Vladimir and Chernigov
Ryazan refused to help.
Batu at the walls of Ryazan (1237)
The Mongols laid siege to Ryazan and sent
ambassadors,
which
demanded
obedience and one tenth of "in
everyone." A courageous answer followed.
Ryazantsev: "If we are all gone, then all
yours will be."
On the sixth day of the siege, the city was taken,
princely family and survivors
the inhabitants are massacred.
In the old place Ryazan is no longer
revived (modern Ryazan is
new city, located 60 km from
old Ryazan, it used to be called
Pereyaslavl Ryazansky).

Defense of Ryazan

Conquest of North-Eastern Russia
In January 1238, along the Oka River, the Mongols moved to Vladimir-Suzdal
earth. The battle with the Vladimir-Suzdal army took place near the city of Kolomna, on
border of the Ryazan and Vladimir-Suzdal lands. Died in this battle
Vladimir army, which actually predetermined the fate of the North-Eastern
Russia.
Strong resistance to the enemy for 5 days was provided by the population of Moscow,
led by governor Philip Nyanka. After the capture by the Mongols, Moscow was
burnt down and its inhabitants slaughtered.

February 4, 1238 Batu besieged Vladimir.
The distance from Kolomna to Vladimir (300 km) was covered by his troops in a month. On the
the fourth day of the siege, the invaders through the gaps in the fortress wall next to
Golden gates broke into the city. The princely family and the remnants of the troops
closed in the Assumption Cathedral. The Mongols surrounded the cathedral with trees and set it on fire.
After the capture of Vladimir, the Mongols broke into separate detachments and subjected
the defeat of the city of North-Eastern Russia. Prince Yuri Vsevolodovich before
approach of the invaders to Vladimir went to the north of his land to collect
military forces. Hastily assembled regiments in 1238 were defeated on the river Sit
(the right tributary of the Mologa River), Prince Yuri Vsevolodovich himself died in the battle.

Battle of the River Sit
Battle of the River Sit 4 March 1238
years between the troops of the Great
Prince Vladimirovsky Yuri
Vsevolodovich and hordes
Mongol-Tatars
under
leadership of Burundai.
As a result of the defeat of the Russian
troops resistance princes
North-Eastern Russia was
broken.
The Mongol hordes moved on
northwest Russia. Everywhere they
met with stubborn resistance
Russians. For example, two weeks
defended a distant suburb
Novgorod - Torzhok.
Northwestern
Russia
was
saved from destruction, though
paid tribute.

Having reached the stone Ignach cross - an ancient sign-pointer in the Valdai
watershed (one hundred kilometers from Novgorod), the Mongols retreated to the south, in the steppe,
to recover losses and give rest to tired troops. The departure was
"raids". Divided into separate detachments, the invaders "combed" the Russians
cities. Smolensk managed to fight back, other centers were defeated.
Kozelsk offered the greatest resistance to the Mongols during the "raid",
lasted seven weeks. The Mongols called Kozelsk an "evil city".
Siege of Kozelsk 1238
G.

Capture of Kyiv
In the spring of 1239, Batu defeated South Russia (Pereyaslavl South), in the autumn the Chernigov Principality.
In the autumn of the next 1240, the Mongol troops crossed the Dnieper and laid siege to Kyiv.
After a long defense, which was headed by the voivode Dmitr, the Tatars defeated
Kyiv.
In the next 1241, the Galicia-Volyn principality was attacked.

Batu's campaign in Europe
After
defeat
Russia
Mongol hordes moved on
Europe. Poland was ravaged
Hungary,
Czech Republic,
Balkan
countries. The Mongols went to
borders of the German Empire
reached the Adriatic Sea.
However, at the end of 1242 they
suffered a series of failures in the Czech Republic and
Hungary.
From distant Karakorum came
news of the death of the great khan
Ogedei - the son of Genghis Khan.
It was a convenient excuse to
stop the difficult journey. Batu
turned his troops back on
East.

decisive world-historical role in saving European civilization from
Mongol hordes played a heroic struggle against them Russian and other peoples
our country, who took upon themselves the first blow of the invaders. In fierce battles
in Russia, the best part of the Mongolian army perished. The Mongols have lost
offensive power. They could not but reckon with the liberation struggle,
deployed in the rear of their troops.
A.S. Pushkin rightly wrote: "Russia was determined to be a great
purpose: its boundless plains absorbed the power of the Mongols and
stopped their invasion at the very edge of Europe ... the emerging enlightenment
was saved by torn apart Russia.

Russian lands under the rule of the Golden Horde
The grandson of Genghis Khan - Batu - founded the state of the Golden Horde.
The Golden Horde covered a vast territory from the Danube to the Irtysh (Crimea,
North Caucasus, part of the lands of Russia located in the steppe, former lands
Volga Bulgaria and nomadic peoples, Western Siberia and part of Central Asia).
The capital of the Golden Horde was the city of Saray, located in the lower reaches of the Volga (a barn in
translated into Russian means the palace).
It was a state consisting of semi-independent uluses united
under the control of the khan. They were ruled by the Batu brothers and the local aristocracy.

Capital of the Golden Horde "Saray-Batu"
The capital was the city of Saray (in translation - the palace), it was located not far from
the current city of Astrakhan.

The role of a kind of aristocratic council was played by the "Divan", where
military and financial matters. Being surrounded by a Turkic-speaking
population, the Mongols adopted the Turkic language. Local Turkic-speaking ethnic group
assimilated the newcomers-Mongols. A new people was formed - the Tatars. For the first time
For decades of the existence of the Golden Horde, its religion was paganism.
The Golden Horde was one of the largest states of its time. At the beginning
XIV century, she could put up a 300,000th army. Rise of the Golden Horde
falls on the reign of Khan Uzbek (1312-1342).
In this era (1312), Islam became the state religion of the Golden Horde.
Then, just like other medieval states, the Horde experienced a period
fragmentation. Already in the XIV century. separated the Central Asian possessions of the Golden
Horde, and in the XV century. Kazan (1438), Crimean (1443), Astrakhan
(mid-15th century) and Siberian (end of the 15th century) khanates.
The steppe-Mongols were not going to live among the Russian forests. So
they preferred to rule through the local nobility, completely
dependent on them.

Russian lands were not included, but they fell into vassalage
from the Horde. In 1242, ambassadors were sent to the northeastern principalities, with
demand to come to Batu.
The yarlyk is a khan's letter, which gave the right to the Russian princes to rule in
their lands. The most attractive was the label on the principality of Vladimir, because.
now not the prince of Kyiv, but Vladimir had the right to seniority. trips
Russian princes to the Horde were accompanied by humiliation and often ended in their
death.
Jarls
to

Paiza was also a sign of the Khan's power.
(in Russia it was called basma) -
Khan's credentials.
Paizi were issued to Horde officials,
received special powers from the khan. AT
depending on the authority of the owner
paizi were made of gold, silver, copper or
wood and differed in pattern (lion, dragon and
etc.). Russian princes depended on the will of the Khan so
the same as the Horde nobles. By the will of the khan
they could be both enthroned and
executed.
Paiza of the 13th century.
On it is the inscription: “By the power of the eternal Heaven
the name of Möngke Khan be holy.”

Russian princes adopted the Mongol order, according to which the will
khana was the law, and unquestioning obedience to him was unconditional
duty of the subjects. Being slaves of the khans themselves, they could not endure the past
rights for his subjects. In addition, the princes were now surrounded by people from
the lower strata of the population, accustomed to obedience.
So submission to the Horde sharply increased the despotism of princely power.

The Russian lands devastated by the Mongols were forced
recognize vassal dependence on the Golden Horde. Not
the ceased struggle waged by the Russian people against
invaders, forced the Mongol-Tatars to abandon
creation in Russia of its administrative bodies
authorities.
Russia retained its statehood. This
contributed to the presence in Russia of its own
administration and church organization. Besides,
the lands of Russia were unsuitable for nomadic cattle breeding, in
difference, for example, from Central Asia, the Caspian Sea,
Black Sea region.
To control the Russian lands, the institute of Basque governors was created.
- leaders of military detachments of the Mongol-Tatars who followed the activities
Russian princes.
The denunciation of the Baskaks to the Horde inevitably ended either by summoning the prince to Sarai
(often he lost his label, and even his life), or a punitive campaign in
unruly land.
Suffice it to say that only in the last quarter of the XIII century. organized 14
similar trips to Russian lands.

Some Russian princes, striving to
get rid of vassal dependence on the Horde,
embarked on the path of open armed
resistance. However, the forces to overthrow the government
there were still not enough invaders.
So, for example, in 1252 the regiments were broken
Vladimir and Galician-Volyn princes.
Alexander Nevsky understood this well,
1252 to 1263 Grand Duke of Vladimir.
He set a course for recovery and recovery
economy of Russian lands.
The policy of Alexander Nevsky was supported and
Russian church, which saw a large
the danger lies in Catholic expansion, not in
tolerant rulers of the Golden Horde.
Collection of tribute from the end of the thirteenth century. was handed over
Russian princes.

Consequences of the Mongol conquest and
Golden Horde yoke for Russia
Different points of view
1) The Mongol invasion did not affect Russia
no impact that her culture that
formed before the time of the invasion, retained its
national image, European in its own way
orientation.
Pushkin was right in many ways when he remarked that
“The Tatars were not like the Moors. They, having conquered
Russia, they gave her neither algebra nor
Aristotle". The Mongol invasion did not bring
neither enlightenment nor cultural values,
more important than those that were destroyed.
Historians have taken the same view.
Sergey
Solovyov
(1820-1879)
Sergei Solovyov and Vasily Klyuchevsky.
Vasiliy
Klyuchevsky

2) Opposite views were expressed by the writer and author of the “History of the State
Russian” N.M. Karamzin (1766-1825) and historian N.I. Kostomarov
(1817-1885).
Karamzin owns the phrase: “Moscow owes its greatness to the khans,” in
which also has its share of truth. Proponents of this view point to the influence
Mongols on the legal and political aspects of Russian reality.
N. M. Karamzin
N.I. Kostomarov

The Mongol yoke led to the loss of democratic control in Russia.
Ceased to exist city assemblies, people's councils (with the exception of
Novgorod and Pskov). But when the Russian vassals received from the Khan the right to
to collect taxes for him, the competence of the Grand Duke of Russia expanded. More
she grew more under Dmitry Donskoy, who became virtually unified and
autonomous ruler.
During the Mongol period, the great Russian prince became a stronger ruler,
than his predecessors.
Thus, the Mongol-Tatar yoke was one of the factors
formation of autocracy in Russia.

The Mongol-Tatars strengthened the idea of ​​supreme power in Russia. Wherein
the power of the Mongol Khan was not limited in any way, was absolute,
despotic character. And this principle of autocracy began to take root deeper and deeper.
into the political culture of the Russian people. The power that stands at the center of everything is itself
gives rise to law, is outside and above law.
The king became not a legal concept, but a doctrinal one (power from God).
The title "king" was adopted from 1547 to 1721.
Diploma of Constantinople
patriarch on approval for
Ivan IV of the royal title

The Russian people, who have been living in conditions of continuous wars for almost two centuries, are tired
from the precariousness and unpredictability of its existence and desired a reliable
protector. In the picture of the world, as a savior, arose - having, in addition,
time, already deep Christian Orthodox and Horde roots - an image
authoritarian ruler.
N.S. Trubetskoy believes that the Muscovite state arose thanks to
Tatar yoke. They say that the Mongol yoke brought the Russian people out of being small
scattered tribal and urban principalities on a wide road
statehood. The Mongols, in his opinion, gave the conquered Russian lands
foundations of political culture, centralism, autocracy, serfdom. This is
led to the creation of a new ethnotype, the psychology of the Russian people.

G. V. Vernadsky believes that it was the Mongols that led to the disappearance
democratic elements in the life of cities: the power of the prince in urban
region, then Moscow was able to expand its influence at the expense of other, neighboring
cities and lands.
When Moscow swallowed up all the specific principalities, they were in power
Moscow prince. The boyars, who owned large land plots, lost
the right to transfer to another prince in case of dissatisfaction with their ruler.
The Mongols, who had extensive experience in single-handed rule and cruel
unconditional obedience to the Supreme Khan, clearly demonstrated the strength
this device. For their part, the population felt that
liberation is possible only by uniting around a strong ruler.
G. V. Vernadsky notes that under the influence of the Mongolian orders in
Moscow principality introduced the death penalty and corporal punishment, and
and subsequently military service.

A new psychological state of the people arose, which could be
call it a "national depression".
The impossibility of an open fight with a stronger opponent, hardships and horror
servitude was well justified by the Orthodox Church - suffering
on earth, you secure paradise for yourself in the afterlife.
Extremely cruel to all who resisted them, the Mongols demanded only
one - complete, unquestioning and servile worship. However, the Great
The Mongol state was not at all a religious system, but only a cultural and political one. Therefore, she imposed only laws on the conquered peoples.
civil-political ("Chinggis Yas"), not religious.

The Horde was characterized by wide religious tolerance, moreover -
patronage of all religions. Demanding obedience and tribute, believing completely
natural to live at the expense of the conquered peoples, the Mongols were not going to
encroach neither on their faith, nor on their culture. They not only allowed everyone
non-Christians free practice of religious rites, but also treated with
certain respect for all religions in general.
This is why the Orthodox Church in Russia has retained complete freedom
activities and received full support from the khan's authorities, which was
confirmed by special labels (commended letters) of the khans.

The monasteries also found themselves in a favorable position - they were protected from extortions and
ruin. Their number began to increase, but especially rapid growth began from the middle of the XIV
century, when a strong desire for monastic life arose in Russia. The hermits fled
to wild places, others joined them and thus a monastery arose. mastered and
more and more lands were settled up to the North Sea.

The consequences of the Mongol-Tatar yoke
1. The Mongol yoke suspended the cultural development of the country: they were torn
traditional links with Byzantium and Western Europe.
2. Russia in many ways lagged behind the countries of Western Europe: there has not yet been formed
domestic market, there was no guild association of artisans, as in the West.
Feudal fragmentation did not contribute to the creation of unions of feudal lords,
more than the formation of their own political institutions, such as parliament,
which could influence the policy of the state.
3. A large number of the population was destroyed and taken prisoner
4. Destroyed cities.
5. Russian architecture suffered from the invasion. Due to lack of funds and
master builders completely stopped stone construction for half a century.
And even renewed at the end of the 13th century, it lost many of its former techniques.
construction equipment. So, for example, in the XIV-XV centuries, Moscow masters again
returned to masonry walls made of hewn stone, although already in the first half of the 13th century
Vladimir-Suzdal architects knew how to build from stone and brick, dense
limestone and calcareous tufa. Original art has completely disappeared
white stone carvings that adorned the buildings of the 12th-13th centuries.

6. During numerous raids, a huge number of monuments perished
writing.
7. Chronicle writing fell into decay. According to D.S. Likhachev, it “narrows,
turns pale, becomes laconic, loses those prominent political
ideas and that broad all-Russian horizon that the Russians possessed
chronicles in the 11th and 12th centuries.
8. Education and literacy was preserved only by a thin layer of the Orthodox
clergy, spared by the "amazing sharpness of the Tatars" (A. Pushkin). It
one "for two dark centuries nourished the pale sparks of the Byzantine
education. In the silence of the monasteries, the monks led their uninterrupted
chronicle". “The Mongols,” wrote Pushkin, “did not look like the Moors. They, having conquered
Russia, they gave her neither algebra nor Aristotle.
9. Desolated and fell into decay the old agricultural centers and once
developed territories. The border of agriculture moved to the north, the southern
fertile soils were called "Wild Field".
10. Simplified, and sometimes disappeared, many crafts, which hindered the creation
small-scale production and ultimately delayed the economic
development.
11. The pace of cultural development of the Russian lands slowed down.