Make schematic drawings of different types of rural areas. Rural settlements, their classifications

Making your home memorable and beautiful is the dream of any owner. If the house is no longer new, it is not so easy. One of the possibilities is carved platbands. They even turn an ordinary “box” into a masterpiece.

Trim material

Carved platbands are made mainly from coniferous wood. The best option is pine, it is normally cut, inexpensive, and durable due to the high resin content. In principle, you can use any other coniferous board, but it is better not to try with a spruce board: it is too fibrous, it cannot be cut even with the sharpest tool.

You can also make carved architraves from hardwoods - linden (the softest), poplar, maple, oak, cherry, etc. But with each breed you need to be able to work, fill your hand and there is no guarantee that something digestible will turn out, and hardwood is expensive. Therefore, platbands are made on windows more often all the same from pine. You just need to pay attention to the quality characteristics.

Carved platbands on the windows - a way to make your home unique

If there is wood or a board that has lain for 3 years or more, you can use it: it is already dry for sure, only processing and calibration will be required. If there is no woodworking equipment at home (thickness gauge and circular saw), a cutting board will be needed. Under carved platbands, wood of the first or highest grade is suitable. This means that there should be no knots, chips, resin pockets on the board. Take wood chamber drying, with a moisture content of not more than 8-12%. This is not for sale in the markets; you need to look for it at sawmills and hardware stores.

Why chamber drying? Because it is dried in a special chamber, quickly removing moisture. At the same time, part of the boards cracks, bends - these go to rejection, the rest are sold. If you make carved architraves from chamber-dried wood, they will definitely not be warped and they will not crack.

Instruments

To make carved platbands with your own hands, you will need the following minimum set:

drill with a set of drills;
electric jigsaw with a soft start and a bunch of different saws for wood;
chisels;
sandpaper with grains of different sizes;
petal disk from sandpaper for wood on a drill.

To reduce the time it takes to create carved patterns and polishing, it is better to have a router and grinder.

One by one or in bulk?

Carved platbands usually consist of repeating elements. At least two vertical slats on each window are made the same. And since several windows are usually designed, a lot of identical elements are required. If you are going to make platbands slotted, naturally there is a desire to cut several pieces at the same time, folding the boards in a pile and somehow fixing them.

The desire is understandable, but difficult to implement, and the benefits over time are not as great as it seems. The first difficulty is that home craftsmen usually have jigsaws of not too much power. To cut through several boards, you have to move the file more slowly along the intended pattern. On straight lines, the speed is still tolerable, on curves - low. And, the smaller the bending radius, the slower you have to move the file. If you work with one board, there are no such problems. So in terms of time, the gain, if any, is quite small.

One more moment. Even thick, good, expensive files are rejected with a large thickness of the workpiece. So, when cutting several boards at the same time, the quality of the cut on the bottom (or two) remains a big question.

The procedure for manufacturing a platband with a slotted thread

We transfer the desired drawing using a template to the board (where to get it, how to enlarge it, how to make a template, read below). If necessary, we correct, draw the details well. Next, we describe the procedure step by step.

We remove wood in the slots of the pattern

Since the carving will be looked at from afar, some inaccuracies are not fatal, but it is still worth striving for the ideal.

Making a curved edge

Some platbands have a smooth edge. Then we skip this step. If the edge is curly, you will still have to work with a jigsaw.

If the cut is difficult, not very attractive places may remain. It's not scary, then we will process them where necessary - with chisels, the same jigsaw, emery. When you are satisfied with the result, you can move on.

Finalization

Owners of wooden houses probably know everything about how to process wood. But, just in case, we repeat once again the general rules.

The choice of paints and varnishes is very wide. Suitable for any outdoor use. But keep in mind that opaque paints will have to be updated periodically - once a year for sure. And that means - to remove the old paint, primer, paint again. The situation is simpler with oils for wood - they do not leave a film on the surface of the wood, but are absorbed into the fibers. It is also necessary to update the coating, but just clean it of dust and cover with a new layer. And the processing frequency is less. Cons of oil for wood - higher price, fewer colors.

How to enlarge a template

Simple carved platbands can be made without templates. A few examples will be in the video - it shows how to draw, how to cut. But not everyone can draw more or less complex patterns on their own. It takes skill and talent. The easiest way is to find a diagram, print it in the right size, transfer it to cardboard and cut it out. You will get a template that you can circle.

The second way: draw from a photograph. Not all schemes can be found. Some, especially antique window frames, you will not find anywhere else. If there is at least some drawing ability, they can be copied.

Even such an ornament can be copied ... if you have the skill

You may have questions about how to increase the size of the found scheme or template. There are three options:

With the help of any graphic editor. The simplest - Paint - is available on any computer running Windows (the "Image" tab, the "Resize image" line, select "centimeters" and put the desired length (height) in the box. The resulting file can be printed. If the printer is small, it may be necessary to split into several pages.They should then be glued together and, according to the resulting drawing, make a template.
With a photocopy. Copiers have a zoom function.
Taking graph paper, transfer the drawing to the desired scale. To do this, we divide the original image into squares with a side of 0.5 or 1 cm (you can print it on a sheet in a cage). Then we transfer the lines to graph paper, increasing them in the desired proportion.

The first two methods are faster. But when scaling, the picture may turn out to be fuzzy and blurry. It can be corrected by hand, it can be drawn in some editor, for example, CorelDRAW. See the video for how to do this. Just an example of drawing a diagram for a thread.

Schemes, patterns, patterns

The style is completely different...

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by discipline

Territorial organization of the population

Typology of settlements: urban and rural settlements, their types

Blagoveshchensk 2011

Introduction

Typology of settlements: urban and rural settlements

2. Classification of urban settlements

3. Classification of rural settlements

Conclusion

Bibliographic list

INTRODUCTION

The term "settlement" characterizes the historical process of the settlement of the territory, the distribution of the population in the territory and its spatial organization. Settlement follows a more dynamically changing geography of production, which is one of its main patterns, but at the same time, the orientation of production towards the established systems of settlement, which is also associated with the location of the main production force - workers, is also increasing.

1.TYPOLOGY OF SETTLEMENTS: URBAN AND RURAL SETTLEMENTS

The development of the social division of labor led to the emergence in the history of society of two main types of settlements - urban and rural.

Cities, while remaining the main places of concentration of industrial production, centers of various economic ties, play a leading and organizing role.

These are the nodal points in the entire network of settlement.

This understanding of the city is the basis for our legislative practice of classifying settlements as urban or rural. Certain quantitative criteria (qualifications) have also been introduced. Thus, the category of cities can include places with a population of at least 12 thousand people.

residents in the presence of 85% of workers, employees and members of their families. At the same time, the administrative significance of this item, the prospects for its development, improvement, development of public utilities and a network of social and cultural institutions should also be taken into account.

Workers' settlements or urban-type settlements must number 3,000 people.

residents if they include up to 85% of workers, employees and members of their families (in some cases, they may also be points with less than 3 thousand inhabitants, for example, at especially important construction sites, in the regions of the Far North and the Far East).

Rural include (in our country and abroad) all settlements that do not meet the qualifications of urban settlements. The main and predominant part of them are villages, villages, settlements of agricultural enterprises.

This group also includes small industrial, transport, forestry settlements that are not related to agriculture, which, however, cannot be classified as urban, since they have few inhabitants. Finally, there are many rural settlements of a mixed type, which, in terms of their functions and economic significance, occupy an intermediate position between urban and rural settlements. Some of them are gradually turning into cities due to the development of industry or transport services in them (for example, settlements at railway stations).

Agro-industrial settlements that produce and process agricultural products are becoming widespread.

In a number of regions, seasonal inhabited settlements are being created - field camps in the distant fields of arable land and hayfields, used during periods of the most intense agricultural work, "summer camps" and "winter roads" in areas of distant pasture animal husbandry, single buildings for fishermen - hunters and fishermen, small timber industry settlements.

During the development of minerals in areas with extreme conditions, shift camps are built, to which shift personnel are delivered by air or all-terrain ground transport.

With the development of industrial and transport construction in sparsely populated areas, mobile settlements appeared to temporarily accommodate builders, drilling crews and geological exploration expeditions.

2. CLASSIFICATION OF URBAN SETTLEMENTS

Despite the great diversity of urban settlements in Russia, numerous groups stand out among them, united by a number of common features, which makes it possible to develop uniform principles for solving scientific and practical problems for cities of a certain type.

The economic and geographical classification of cities is carried out both on individual grounds and on their totality.

Classification by population widely used not only in economic geography. For the latter, it is of no small importance, despite the fact that it gives only a statistical characteristic.

The size of the city determines the rate of its growth, some elements of the demographic and functional structure, planning. When developing a typology of cities, the population is taken into account as an integral feature of them.

In statistical sources and urban planning practice, the following groups of cities are distinguished: small - up to 50 thousand people, medium - 50-100 thousand, large - 100-250 thousand, large - 250-500 thousand, the largest - from 500 thousand to 1 million people

Classification by economic and geographical location allows you to determine the general features of the economic structure and directions for further development based on the potential opportunities that are inherent in the area or some of its focal points.

Depending on the geographical location, cities can be identified, located, for example: at the intersections of transport routes - Novosibirsk, Krasnoyarsk, Nizhny Novgorod; in large mining areas - Novokuznetsk, Kemerovo, Magnitogorsk, Mines; in areas of large manufacturing industry - Yaroslavl, Ivanovo, Serpukhov; in areas of intensive agriculture - Krasnodar, Stavropol, etc.

Classification according to national economic functions, which reveals their most important features, is essentially synthetic. Based functional classification of the city(Fig. 1) are divided into:

Polyfunctional - combining administrative-political, cultural and economic activities (industry and transport).

Such cities include capitals, all regional and regional centers, as well as many large cities of the country, in which each of the listed functions has a city-forming significance;

With a pronounced predominance of industrial and transport functions of inter-district significance. All cities can be conditionally divided into industrial, transport and industrial transport.

The industrial ones are very diverse, among them there are cities with a narrow industrial specialization, for example, centers of metallurgy, mechanical engineering, chemical industry, forestry and wood processing industries. There are a lot of types of specialized cities;

Performing administrative and organizational functions of "local centers" in the lower regions, national districts, along with industrial and transport, these are mainly small urban-type settlements;

Resort cities constitute a special group.

In recent years, scientific and scientific-production centers have been rapidly developing.

Figure 1 - Functional typology of cities

Classification according to the degree of their participation in the territorial division of social labor, which depends on the size of the city, functions, connections they support - local or inter-district.

Some serve small territories, being local centers, others - a large area through the inter-district division of labor, the value of the third goes beyond the country, as they participate in international economic and cultural relations.

Classification by genetic traits. The objective patterns of development and qualitative transformations of economic functions have a great influence on the type of modern city.

A mining settlement, founded in a large iron ore basin, in the process of development turns into a metallurgical city, the latter can also become a center of mechanical engineering. The oilfield settlement has a reason to turn into a city with oil refining and non-essential types of energy, labor, water, a sales market, etc.

e. All this should be taken into account when selecting genetic traits.

The genetic type of a city is a concept that includes a set of features that form its specific qualities. The selection of such features is subject to the task for which the classification is carried out.

When forecasting the economic development of a city, it is important to know the genesis of its economic functions and their qualitative transformations. To solve planning problems, it is necessary to take into account the evolution of their planning structure.

Classification by types of prospective development is developed in district plans based on an analysis of the main factors of urban growth.

It allows for a comprehensive and interconnected assessment of the conditions and prospects for their development over a vast territory, taking into account the design value, changes in the functional structure, and the creation of new cities. A promising typology of cities contributes to the purposeful development and transformation of settlement systems.

3. CLASSIFICATION OF RURAL SETTLEMENTS

This indicator objectively reflects the total effect of a number of factors on the development of the settlement, but does not reveal these factors by itself. At the same time, the size of the settlements creates certain conditions for their life, for the organization of cultural and community services for their inhabitants, therefore, the identification of a number of characteristic types of rural settlements on this basis is of scientific and practical importance. "Typology of the population of settlements" can be considered as one of the types of typology, but it can be most effectively used in conjunction with other typological lines - functional, morphological, genetic.

Types of rural settlements

Compact settlements, villages differ greatly in their planning from each other; so, for example, they distinguish between "nuclear", cumulus, linear and other types of villages.

In the first type, the “core” of a settlement is a square with a church, market, etc., located on it, from which streets and alleys diverge in a radial direction.

In a street village, the layout is most often based on several streets intersecting with each other at different angles. Houses in such a village are located on both sides of the street and face each other.

In a linear village, the houses are arranged in a single line - along a road, a river, or some fold in the terrain - and often only on one side of the road; sometimes there could be several such streets in a village: for example, in mountainous areas, courtyards often consisted of two rows, one of which runs at the foot of the slope, the other parallel to it, but somewhat higher.

In the cumulus village, the houses are randomly scattered and connected with each other by lanes and driveways.

n. Even individual buildings require their own classification: after all, large, several-storey farms of the plains are incomparable with the small huts of mountain dwellers.

A diverse picture of the settlements of the medieval era has survived to this day: the vast majority of the settlements of the continent, it is believed, arose even before the 15th century.

At the same time, certain regularities can be observed in their occurrence. Thus, the system of open fields was most often combined with compact settlements.

The Mediterranean economic system allowed the existence of different types of settlements, but starting from the 15th century. in places of greatest development of agrarian relations (Central Italy, Lombardy), individual farm houses became dominant. Geographical factors also influenced the distribution of one or another type of settlements: as a rule, large villages predominated in the flat areas, and small farms dominated in the mountainous areas.

Finally, the decisive role in many cases was played by the historical features of the development of each area and, first of all, the nature of its settlement.

For example, military colonization explains the predominance of large settlements in East Germany and in the central regions of the Iberian Peninsula. The development of the former forest, swamps, low-lying coastal territories led to the spread of small forms of settlements - farms, settlements, zaimok with separate buildings.

The nature of the settlements was also influenced by the orders characteristic of the former population of this area (Celts, Slavs, etc.).

However, all these regularities did not always manifest themselves; for example, in Frioul, whose relief represents the whole gamut of landscapes from the Alpine mountains to the lagoon lowlands, the distribution of settlement types was the opposite of that indicated above: in the mountains - compact multi-yard villages, on the plain - isolated houses.

It should also be taken into account that the character of the dominant type of settlement could change several times during the Middle Ages. So, in England in the Celtic era, small settlements prevailed, but already the first wave of the Anglo-Saxon invasion led to an increase in the proportion of large villages, since the conquerors preferred to settle in large tribal groups.

In general, during the early Middle Ages, compact villa-communities in Central, Southern and East Anglia were predominant. Further resettlement of the population proceeded by branching off small settlements from large settlements; their number increased even more during the period of internal colonization. As a result, in many rural areas of the country by the 15th century. small scattered settlements became the dominant type of settlements. Later, as a result of fencing, many villages were abandoned and the number of small farms and individual farms increased even more.

In Germany, the border between different types of settlements was the Elbe.

To the west of it dominated cumulus villages, small settlements of irregular shape, farmsteads and separate buildings, sometimes having some kind of common center or, conversely, located around an arable massif. Small villages and farms were also common in the eastern lands (Lausitz, Brandenburg, Silesia, Czech territories); here their presence is often explained by the form of the previous Slavic settlements.

In the main, East Germany is an area dominated by large villages of a street or linear type, as well as smaller settlements that have grown up on forest clearings or in mountainous areas, but are of the same orderly character.

In the north and northeast of France, large villages were the dominant type; here the line between a small town and such a village was small.

In the rest of the country (Massif Central, Maine, Poitou, Brittany, the eastern part of Ile-de-France), small settlements and farms dominated. In Aquitaine, the Toulouse region, Languedoc, since the time of developed feudalism, the picture has become somewhat different: centuries-old wars have brought to life a different type of settlements - bastides, fortified centers built according to a certain plan; the inhabitants of the former settlements began to flock to them.

The pattern of Spanish settlements also changed as the Reconquista progressed.

From time immemorial, the north and north-west of the peninsula was a territory occupied by small farms and buildings scattered one by one, however, by the beginning of the Reconquista, in the lands of Leon and Old Castile, which bordered on the Arabs, there was a process of enlargement of settlements.

On the conquered lands of New Castile, rare but large villages or, in the north of the region, small farms grouped around a fortified castle became the dominant type of settlements. Similar large villages dominated Portugal south of the Tagus; however, to the north of it, hamlets remained the most common type of settlement.

The picture of Italian settlements is no less diverse.

Most of the south of the peninsula was occupied by large villages, sometimes mixed with small settlements and farms; only in Apulia and Calabria did scattered small farms dominate.

Development of a viable model of rural settlements of the XXI century

Large villages and semi-agricultural towns also dominated south-central Italy. In the northern part of Lazio, Marche, Tuscany, Emilia, a significant part of Lombardy, Veneto and Piedmont, the most common type of settlements were small villages, farms and individual farms - podere.

The presence of a dominant type of settlements in each of the regions of the continent did not at all deny the existence of settlements of a different type in it. As a rule, in almost every locality there were large rural settlements, and small settlements, and even separate houses - farms.

We are talking only about the predominant type of settlement, which determines the face of this territory.

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V. OTHER CONCEPTS AND TERMS OF SDA. (8 points pp. 15-16/ 20 min)

№	DEFINITIONS and TERMS of traffic rules	CONTENT	Time
5.1.	"Daytime running lights" - external lighting devices designed to improve the visibility of a moving vehicle in front during daylight hours.	“These are LED lamps of the vehicle, which are installed in its front part, not lower than 25 centimeters above the ground and not higher than 1.5 meters. The distance between them must be at least 60 centimeters, and the distance from them to the extreme point of the vehicle must not exceed 40 centimeters. They are directed strictly forward, turn on simultaneously with the ignition on and turn off when the headlights are switched to dipped beam. If the design of DRLs is not provided, the dipped beam or fog lights should be constantly on - at any time of the year during daylight hours (clause 19.5 of the SDA)	19:10-19:30
5.2.	When conditions of insufficient visibility occur, at night, as well as in tunnels, drivers must turn on the NEAR or HIGH beam headlights, and, if necessary, fog lights and rear lights.
5.3.	"Settlement" - a built-up area, the entrances to which and the exits from which are marked and 5.25-5.26. "Beginning and end of the settlement", Note: for us. n-in, marked with signs 5.23.1-5.23.2, 5.24.1-5.24.2, there are traffic rules that establish the order of movement in populated n-x. - for us. n-in, marked with signs 5.24.1-5.24.2 (blue background) on this road there are NO traffic rules that establish the order of movement in populated n-x. For example, a parking stop on the left side of the road, the speed limit is 60 km/h (if speed limit signs are not installed), the priority of the route is Route. vehicle when leaving stops)

The main differences between traffic rules in force in populated areas and outside populated areas.

SDA	For "Inhabited Peninsula" Signs: 5.23.1-5.24.2 - with a WHITE background, establishing the order of movement for the "Inhabited Peninsula"	For "Outside populated peninsula" Signs 5.25-5.26- with blue background , establishing the order of movement for "Outside populated peninsula" ON THE ROAD marked with this sign
Location of the vehicle on the carriageway p.9.4.,9.5.	Clause 9.4. Vehicle location drive the vehicle as close to the right edge of the carriageway as possible. (And also in the zone of action of signs 5.1., "Motorway" and 5.3. "Road for cars")
In other places of the populated area You can use the most convenient lane for them. But with heavy traffic- when all lanes are occupied, you can change only for turning, turning, avoiding obstacles.	Drive the vehicle as close to the right edge of the road as possible. (can be changed only for turning, turning around, avoiding obstacles and in heavy traffic - when other lanes are occupied). A Gr. Vehicles with GVW>2.5 tons. and slow-moving(on roads with three or more lanes in one direction) - only for turning left, turning around, avoiding obstacles) (clause 9.4)
Speed mode p.10.	clause 10.2 before 60 km/h., unless another mode is set by signs 3.24. Make schematic drawings of different types of rural settlements… "Maximum speed limit") or signs of signs 5.1., "Motorway" and 5.3. "Road for cars"),	clause 10.3 St. 60 km/h(for various categories of vehicles, unless a different regime is established by signs 3.24. "Maximum speed limit", 5.1., "Motorway", or by decision of the owners or owners)
Parking Stop Rules ON THE LEFT SIDE roads p.12.1.	ALLOWED - on the roads with one lane for each direction without trams. paths in the middle - And on the roads one-way(sign 5.5.), except for vehicles with GVW>3.5 tons (only for loading and unloading)	NOT ALLOWED Clause 12.3. Parking for the purpose of a long rest, overnight stay, etc. outside the village is allowed only on the sites provided for this or outside the road (roadside). Parking is NOT ALLOWED on Ave. the part marked with the symbol 2.1. Main road (only possible on the side of the road (see clause 12.5)
Use of sound signals. Use of external lighting devices at night.	in areas with lighting - only dipped headlights sound signals– (only to prevent accidents).	low/high beam headlights ( switch 150 m or closer when blinded)Sound signal - to prevent accidents, to attract the attention of other drivers when overtaking, etc.).
Application of an emergency stop sign, clause 7.2.	At a distance that provides timely warning to others in a specific situation. drivers about the danger, BUT not less than 15 m.	At a distance that provides timely warning of other drivers about the danger in a specific situation, but not less than 30 m
Installation of warning signs (Appendix 1, clause 1) 1.1., 1.2.	50 -100 m to the dangerous area if no table 8.1.1. Distance to object	100 -150 m to the dangerous area if no table 8.1.1. Distance to object
Rules for the movement of pedestrians and foot columns clause 4.1.	When driving along roadsides or the edge of the carriageway at night or in conditions of insufficient visibility, pedestrians are advised to carry objects with retroreflective elements and ensure the visibility of these objects by vehicle drivers.	When driving along roadsides or the edge of the carriageway at night or in conditions of insufficient visibility, pedestrians MUST carry objects with retroreflective elements and ensure the visibility of these objects by vehicle drivers.

5.4.	"Insufficient visibility" - visibility of the road less than 300 m fog, rain, snow, etc., and also at dusk.	See 19.1. (Use of external lights)
5.5.	"Dark time of the day" - the period of time from the end of evening twilight to the beginning of morning twilight.	Bl is turned on. Or high beam headlights “The use of lighting devices” - headlights of near and far colors, switching at least 150 m or less when blinded). See item 19.1
5.5.	"Limited visibility" - the driver's visibility of the road in the direction of travel, limited by the terrain, the geometric parameters of the road, vegetation, buildings, structures or other objects, including vehicles.	NOT TO BE CONFUSED with Lack of Visibility! (tickets use a distance of at least 100 m in at least one direction - U-turn and MOVEMENT in reverse are prohibited in clause 8.11)
5.6.	"Dangerous goods" - substances, products made from them, waste from production and other economic activities, which, due to their inherent properties, may endanger human life and health during transportation, harm the environment, damage or destroy material values.	It is indicated by special signs installed in front and behind, and, if necessary, on the side of the vehicle ( for m / public transport- orange with black trim under other- the right side is orange, the left side is white with a black border (see photo). p.8 "Basic provisions for the admission of the vehicle")
5.7.	"Permitted maximum weight" - the curb weight of the vehicle with 1) cargo, 2) driver 3) and passengers installed by the manufacturer as the maximum allowed. For the permitted maximum weight composition of vehicles, that is, linked and moving as one, accepted sum of permitted maximum masses vehicles included in the composition.	NOTE: 1. The movement of vehicles with different RMM is regulated by signs: 3.4. The movement of trucks is prohibited” (as well as tractors and self-propelled vehicles). Except with RMM<3,5 тн, если на знаке не указана масса и грузовиков перевозящих людей).3.12. Weight limit per axle TSsign 3.12.3.22. Overtaking by a cargo vehicle is prohibited (except with PMM<3,5, если на знаке не указана масса). ЗАПРЕЩАЕТСЯ · !!! clause 9.4. cargo vehicle RMM >2.5 tn. n and on roads with three and > lanes in one direction, occupy the leftmost lane (only for a left turn or U-turn). Clause 12.1. Vehicles with GVW >3.5 t. STOP on the left lane (stopping is allowed only for loading and unloading) · PARKING with a drive to the edge of the sidewalk and in the parking zone, marked with the Parking sign from the table. 8.6.2-8.6.9.. · On the motorway - the movement of vehicles with GVW > 3.5 tons. beyond the second lane 1. Maximum SPEED Outside populated areas for Trucks with GVW >3.5 tn. no more than 70 km/h (no more than 90 km/h. on HIGHWAYS) for Trucks with RMM<3.5 тн.не более 90 км/час (не более 110 км/час. на АВТОМАГИСТРАЛЯХ)
5.8.	KNOW P.2 General duties of drivers P.4 Duties of pedestrians. P.5 Obligations of passengers. A.7 Application of alarm A.8. The beginning of the maneuver. P.10 Movement speed. P.14. Pedestrian crossings and stops of route vehicles. P.17. Movement in residential areas p.19.1. Use of external lighting devices) item 24. BICYCLE AND MOped TRAFFIC	Tasks for fixing topics: 1.1-1.27, 2.1.-2.13, 7.1.-7.9., 8.1-8.56, 8.72, 8.74-8.78 10.1-10.16, 14.1-14.4 17.1-17.6 19.1-19.24 24.1

Home > Wiki-textbook > Social studies > 6 grade > City and countryside: two main human habitats and their distinctive features

The city as a habitat

A city is a large settlement whose inhabitants are involved in various activities, excluding agriculture.

The city forms qualitatively new ties between the people living in it.

If in the countryside relationships between people are built primarily on the basis of family ties, then in the city people draw closer together on the basis of common labor.

Living in the city is fraught with a significant disadvantage: remoteness from nature.

Geography lesson on the topic "Settlements", Grade 7

A person is forced to live in conditions that are biologically alien to him.

That is why today the government is developing special programs for greening cities, which will create the most comfortable living conditions for citizens.

Distinctive features of the urban environment

The city as a human habitat has the following special characteristics:

- the presence of different types of transport, which gives rise to the intensity of traffic;

- the totality of a group of manufacturing enterprises;

- concentration on a small area of a large number of communications - telephone lines, gas pipelines, electricity networks;

- a large number of people permanently residing on a unit area;

- Housing shortage.

The village as a habitat

The village is a small settlement, the majority of whose inhabitants are engaged in agricultural production.

The biggest advantage of living in a village is environmental safety.

The absence of industrial centers and proximity to nature have a positive effect on the environment.

The main disadvantage is that in some villages communications are not well developed: there are no gas pipelines, sewerage, water pipes, which significantly complicates the life of the villagers.

The good standard of living of the villagers is directly related to the level of development of agriculture.

The decline in agricultural production breeds unemployment, which in turn leads to problems such as drunkenness and increased crime.

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Each natural zone is characterized by its own types of rural settlements and their location on the territory. In addition, dwellings in different natural conditions differ. Highly urbanized rural settlements are formed near the cities.

Rice. 2. Hut in the zone of mixed forests ()

The natural zones of steppes, forest-steppes, deciduous forests and subtropics have the best conditions for farming. It is within these natural zones that most of the rural inhabitants of Russia live.

There are 150 thousand rural settlements in Russia. But over time, the number of rural settlements and rural residents in Russia is decreasing. This is due to the development of industry, the restructuring of the economy, the lack of schools, hospitals, and other socially important institutions in rural areas, and often poor and difficult living conditions.

The main types of rural settlements in Russia:

Village (Fig. 3)
village
Village
Farm
Nomadic settlements, etc.

Rice. 3. Village in the Kaluga region ()

Types of rural settlements by population:

Small (up to 100 people)
Medium (from 100 to 1000 people)
Large (more than 1000 people)

Residents of rural settlements are employed in agriculture, forestry, and industry. Rural settlements are used for recreation by both rural residents and tired city dwellers (Fig. 4).

Rice. 4. Rest in the village ()

Buranovo

Buranovo is a village in Udmurtia. It was from this village that the Buranovskiye Babushki collective took the honorable 2nd place at Eurovision in 2012 (Fig. 5).

Rice. 5. "Buranovskiye grandmothers" at Eurovision ()

John Kopiski

John Kopisky is a successful entrepreneur who came to Russia and became a farmer.

moose farm

Moose farms - farms for breeding moose at home (in rural areas).

Lykovs

The Lykovs are a family that lived without urban and modern amenities in the taiga.

Bibliography

Main

Geography of Russia: Proc. for 8-9 cells. general education institutions / Ed. A.I. Alekseeva: In 2 books. Book. 1: Nature and population. 8 cells - 4th ed., stereotype. - M.: Bustard, 2009. - 320 p.
Geography of Russia. Nature. Grade 8: textbook. for general education institutions / I.I. Barinov. - M.: Bustard; Moscow textbooks, 2011. - 303 p.
Geography. Grade 8: atlas. - 4th ed., stereotype. - M.: Bustard, DIK, 2013. - 48 p.
Geography. Russia. nature and population. Grade 8: Atlas - 7th ed., Revised. - M.: Bustard; Publishing house DIK, 2010 - 56 p.

Encyclopedias, dictionaries, reference books and statistical collections

Geography. Modern illustrated encyclopedia / A.P. Gorkin - M.: Rosmen-Press, 2006. - 624 p.

Literature for preparing for the GIA and the Unified State Examination

Thematic control. Geography. Nature of Russia. Grade 8: study guide. - Moscow: Intellect-Centre, 2010. - 144 p.
Tests in Russian geography: grades 8-9: textbooks, ed. V.P. Dronova Geography of Russia. Grades 8-9: textbook. for general education institutions”/ V.I. Evdokimov. - M.: Publishing house "Exam", 2009. - 109 p.
Getting ready for GIA. Geography. 8th grade. Final testing in the format of the exam. / ed. T.V. Abramov. - Yaroslavl: LLC "Academy of Development", 2011. - 64 p.
Tests. Geography. Grades 6-10: Teaching aid / A.A. Letyagin. - M .: LLC "Agency" KRPA "Olimp": "Astrel", "AST", 2001. - 284 p.

Federal Institute of Pedagogical Measurements ().
Russian Geographical Society ().
Geografia.ru ().
Federal State Statistics Service ().

Homework

Section 57.

Name the main types of rural settlements.

There are dozens of options for classifying the rural settlements of medieval Western Europe. From all their diversity, two main types of settlements can be distinguished - these are large compact (villages, villages, semi-agricultural towns) and small scattered ones (farms, settlements, separately located farm houses). Compact settlements, villages differ greatly in their planning from each other; so, for example, they distinguish between "nuclear", cumulus, linear and other types of villages. In the first type, the “core” of a settlement is a square with a church, a market, etc. located on it, from which streets and alleys branch off in a radial direction. In a street village, the layout is most often based on several streets intersecting with each other at different angles. Houses in such a village are located on both sides of the street and face each other. In a linear village, the houses are arranged in a single line - along a road, a river, or some fold in the terrain - and often only on one side of the road; sometimes there could be several such streets in a village: for example, in mountainous areas, courtyards often consisted of two rows, one of which runs at the foot of the slope, the other parallel to it, but somewhat higher. In the cumulus village, the houses are randomly scattered and connected with each other by lanes and driveways.

No less diverse options for small settlements. Usually, settlements are considered to be farms, in which there are 10-15 households (in Scandinavia - up to 4-6 households). However, these yards can either be concentrated around some center (square, street), or lie quite far from each other, being connected only by a common pasture, plowing, management, etc. Even individual buildings require their own classification: after all, large, several-storey farms of the plains are incomparable with the small huts of mountain dwellers.

A diverse picture of the settlements of the medieval era has survived to this day: the vast majority of the settlements of the continent, it is believed, arose even before the 15th century. At the same time, certain regularities can be observed in their occurrence. Thus, the system of open fields was most often combined with compact settlements. The Mediterranean economic system allowed the existence of different types of settlements, but starting from the 15th century. in places of greatest development of agrarian relations (Central Italy, Lombardy), individual farm houses became dominant. Geographical factors also influenced the distribution of one or another type of settlements: as a rule, large villages predominated in the flat areas, and small farms dominated in the mountainous areas. Finally, the decisive role in many cases was played by the historical features of the development of each area and, first of all, the nature of its settlement. For example, military colonization explains the predominance of large settlements in East Germany and in the central regions of the Iberian Peninsula. The development of the former forest, swamps, low-lying coastal territories led to the spread of small forms of settlements - farms, settlements, zaimok with separate buildings. The nature of the settlements was also influenced by the orders characteristic of the former population of this area (Celts, Slavs, etc.). However, all these regularities did not always manifest themselves; for example, in Frioul, whose relief represents the whole gamut of landscapes from the Alpine mountains to the lagoon lowlands, the distribution of settlement types was the opposite of that indicated above: in the mountains - compact multi-yard villages, on the plain - isolated houses. It should also be taken into account that the character of the dominant type of settlement could change several times during the Middle Ages. So, in England in the Celtic era, small settlements prevailed, but already the first wave of the Anglo-Saxon invasion led to an increase in the proportion of large villages, since the conquerors preferred to settle in large tribal groups. In general, during the early Middle Ages, compact villa-communities in Central, Southern and East Anglia were predominant. Further resettlement of the population proceeded by branching off small settlements from large settlements; their number increased even more during the period of internal colonization. As a result, in many rural areas of the country by the 15th century. small scattered settlements became the dominant type of settlements. Later, as a result of fencing, many villages were abandoned and the number of small farms and individual farms increased even more.

In Germany, the border between different types of settlements was the Elbe. To the west of it dominated cumulus villages, small settlements of irregular shape, hamlets and separate buildings, sometimes with some kind of

Rural settlements of Central Europe:
1 - cumulus and nuclear villages; 2 - farms and small villages; 3 - individual farms; 4 - small cumulus and nuclear villages of a more ordered type (colonization areas); 5 - large street and nuclear villages; 6 - farmsteads; 7 - later forms of settlements

a common center or, conversely, located around an arable array. Small villages and farms were also common in the eastern lands (Lausitz, Brandenburg, Silesia, Czech territories); here their presence is often explained by the form of the previous Slavic settlements. In the main, East Germany is an area dominated by large villages of a street or linear type, as well as smaller settlements that have grown up on forest clearings or in mountainous areas, but are of the same orderly character.

Types of rural settlements in Italy:
1 - large villages and agricultural towns; 2 - farms and mountain villages; 3 - separate houses and households; 4- mixed forms of settlements

In the north and northeast of France, large villages were the dominant type; here the line between a small town and such a village was small. In the rest of the country (Massif Central, Maine, Poitou, Brittany, the eastern part of Ile-de-France), small settlements and farms dominated. In Aquitaine, the Toulouse region, Languedoc, since the time of developed feudalism, the picture has become somewhat different: centuries-old wars have brought to life a different type of settlements - bastides, fortified centers built according to a certain plan; the inhabitants of the former settlements began to flock to them.

The pattern of Spanish settlements also changed as the Reconquista progressed. From time immemorial, the north and north-west of the peninsula was a territory occupied by small farms and buildings scattered one by one, however, by the beginning of the Reconquista, in the lands of Leon and Old Castile, which bordered on the Arabs, there was a process of enlargement of settlements. On the conquered lands of New Castile, rare but large villages or, in the north of the region, small farms grouped around a fortified castle became the dominant type of settlements. Similar large villages dominated Portugal south of the Tagus; however, to the north of it, hamlets remained the most common type of settlement.

The picture of Italian settlements is no less diverse. Most of the south of the peninsula was occupied by large villages, sometimes mixed with small settlements and farms; only in Apulia and Calabria did scattered small farms dominate. Large villages and semi-agricultural towns also dominated south-central Italy. In the northern part of Lazio, Marche, Tuscany, Emilia, a significant part of Lombardy, Veneto and Piedmont, the most common type of settlements were small villages, farms and individual farms - podere.

The population density of settlements (i.e., their size in terms of the number of inhabitants) is associated with the production functions of the settlement, with the form of settlement, with the history of the given settlement. When classifying settlements according to their population in statistical accounting, they are all distributed into a larger or smaller number of groups, from the smallest (1-5 inhabitants) to the largest (10 thousand inhabitants or more), following the general principles of statistical groupings. From a typological point of view, it is important to single out such values of population that are associated with significant qualitative features of settlements.

So, a special type - odnodvorki, single detached housing - represents most of the places with a population of less than 10 people. Small settlements with up to 100 inhabitants, as well as isolated residential areas, are most dependent on the nearest larger settlements in terms of servicing their population. Only selectively (in one small village for a whole territorial group of them) can certain elements of public services be created (elementary school, medical center, red corner, reading room or club, village shop - all of the smallest sizes).

With a size of 200-500 inhabitants, each settlement can have a similar minimum set of service institutions, but just as small in size, providing the population with relatively limited opportunities for cultural and community services. An agricultural settlement of this size can be organizationally the base of a certain production unit (a team of a collective farm, a branch or a large farm of a state farm).

With the size of a rural settlement of 3-5 thousand inhabitants, the most favorable opportunities are created for providing urban 1st level of improvement and cultural and community services with the construction of large standard schools, houses of culture, medical institutions, a specialized trading network, etc. In terms of production, such settlements are recognized as optimal as centers of large farms in conditions that allow a significant concentration of labor and production facilities.

Functional types of rural settlements. People are engaged in various activities, and settlements play a different role in the territorial organization of social production. These differences are taken into account primarily in the functional typology.

In the population of settlements, several groups can be distinguished: 1) those employed in agriculture; 2) employed in forestry; 3) employed in external transport; 4) employed in industry; 5) combining occupations in agriculture and industry in the same locality (during different seasons of the year); 6) employed in institutions (economic, administrative, cultural, medical, trade), to a large extent serving other villages of the district; 7) employed in various institutions, mainly serving the "temporary" population arriving in a given place for recreation, treatment.

Consider the most common functional types of rural settlements.

Among the agricultural settlements, the two main functional types are the central settlements of collective farms and state farms.

As a rule, this is the largest settlement on a collective farm or state farm, accommodating a significant part of its population (sometimes the entire population) and the main production buildings, as well as the largest public buildings on a collective farm or state farm - a club, a school, etc. The central settlement is usually built and developed at a faster pace than the rest of the settlements of the collective farm or the settlements of branches in the state farm.

Other types of settlements common on collective farms are brigade settlements of field-growing and complex brigades, "branches" of brigade settlements, undifferentiated "ordinary" settlements, and various kinds of specialized settlements.

Brigade settlements are the most numerous in modern collective-farm settlement. Collective farm members living in such a settlement form a production brigade (sometimes several brigades in large settlements). The brigade is assigned a certain economic territory adjacent to the given village, it has its own production facilities (the brigade's household yard), and all this makes up the site, the organizational unit of the collective farm.

The brigade settlements of complex brigades are distinguished by the fact that they have a wider “set” of production functions and economic independence, serving, in addition to field lands, also farms, sometimes gardens, auxiliary enterprises, etc., located on the territory of a given production site of the collective farm. Often these are the former central settlements of small collective farms, which later merged in the order of enlargement, retaining a number of production facilities and public buildings.

Along with this, there are several types of highly specialized settlements of collective farms, which, as a rule, are small in size. Of these, near-farm settlements are most common at those livestock farms that are located according to local conditions (mainly due to the need to bring them closer to natural fodder lands and fields that require manure fertilizer) remotely from existing settlements. Their sizes are limited by the size of farms admissible for economic reasons and also depend on the degree of mechanization of labor operations in animal husbandry.

The main types of settlements of state farms, in addition to the central settlements (the central estate), are the settlements of departments and farms. In terms of their position in the economy, they are similar to the brigade and near-farm settlements of collective farms. A significant part of the state farm settlements was built anew, according to the plan, in full accordance with the projects for the organization of the economy, therefore such settlements have a very clearly defined functional type, a homogeneous composition of the population, consisting of workers and employees of this enterprise. In those state farms that were created on the basis of some lagging collective farms and have not yet had time to carry out the necessary restructuring of settlement on their territory, one can meet state farm settlements - analogues of settlements and branch settlements found on collective farms that are not differentiated in terms of their position in the economy (constituting only a part of farm departments).

A special functional type is made up of permanent specialized settlements of workers and employees at separately located procurement points (especially for the procurement of livestock, which is kept and fattened at such a point until the batches are completed for shipment to meat processing plants). They are usually very small.

Seasonally inhabited areas - "second dwellings", used by part of the workers in collective farms and state farms for temporary stay in places of the economic territory remote from the main settlements, represent a wide variety in their functional types. They always have one or another industrial buildings and a place to sleep, sometimes devices for domestic and cultural services, functioning temporarily, during the period of use of this point.

The most common are agricultural field camps and livestock breeding centers on seasonal pastures, which differ in seasons and duration of use. Along with them, in different regions there are haymaking, horticultural mills, points for receiving and delivering agricultural products, etc.

Field camps of collective farms and state farms with a short period of use (sowing, harvesting, sometimes caring for crops and preparing land for sowing) accommodate a fairly large population (a field-growing brigade or a significant part of it, up to 60--100 people) and in its modern form represent a group of houses - hostels with a dining room, a shower room, a red corner, a first-aid post, a trading stall, etc., with sheds for storing inventory and fertilizers; in their most primitive form, they represent a group of light buildings adapted for temporary lodging for the night, eating and storing the necessary property. They are common in areas where agriculture is carried out on vast tracts of arable land with a rare network of permanent settlements.

Seasonal livestock settlements are especially common in areas of desert-pasture and mountain animal husbandry, where their number is many times greater than the number of permanent settlements. Their types and variants are extremely diverse, most often they consist of 1-2 residential buildings near wells, livestock buildings or pens. There are also more complex forms, up to entire seasonal villages with schools, medical centers, shops, playing the role of temporary centers for livestock workers in remote intensively used pasture areas.

Non-agricultural settlements in rural areas are represented by very different types associated with the performance of various economic functions. Among the non-agricultural rural settlements, the following functional types, or groups of types, are distinguished.

1. Settlements of industrial enterprises, in terms of their size, do not meet the "qualification" established for urban settlements. According to the degree of their ties with agriculture of various kinds, small workers' settlements in rural areas constitute a certain "typological range" - from completely "autonomous" (for example, mining enterprises, individual textile and other factories with their settlements) to closely associated with it (settlements at starch, vegetable-drying, wine-making, dairy and other factories; settlements of local enterprises for the production of building materials).

2. Settlements on communication routes. Most of them are connected with railway transport - from one-yard "residential points" of trackmen scattered along the line, to sidings and small stations. A smaller number of them are served by waterways (estates of buoy-makers, carriers, settlements on locks, piers, etc.), small airports, and highways (settlements on road sections, gas stations, etc.). In recent years, settlements have appeared that serve gas and product pipelines, their pumping stations, as well as long-distance power lines.

3. Settlements of builders at new buildings. Most of them, for a limited period of their existence, belong to "rural" settlements, constituting a special, specific type of inhabited places (more precisely, a group of types, since along with crowded workers' settlements there are also single "barracks" - hostels on lines under construction, gatehouses and hostels at warehouses and bases, etc.). After fulfilling their functions, they either disappear or are absorbed by the urban settlement that arises at the new industrial point, and sometimes turn into a rural non-agricultural settlement of a different type (industrial, transport settlement - see above).

4. Timber industry and forest protection villages. Timber settlements are located, as a rule, on timber transportation routes and very often on rafting tracks, at the exit points of logging roads to rafting tracks6. Their main types are: a) settlements of forest plots where brigades of lumberjacks live; b) settlements of logging stations, uniting several sites; c) the center of the timber industry - the central village for a certain local system of forest settlements; d) intermediate settlements on timber export routes (rafting, transshipment); e) settlements at the exit of the forest to the main roads (usually these are settlements of a mixed type, combined with a pristansky or station settlement); f) settlements on the main routes - roadsteads, near the floodwaters, etc. Settlements of type "a" (often others) usually have a limited lifespan (until the forest resources in a given place are exhausted); when designing logging, it is determined at 10-15 years. But similar settlements quickly spring up elsewhere. Settlements of forestries and forest protection services (cordons, forest lodges) are smaller in size, but more durable.

5. Fishing and hunting settlements. A large state-owned fishing industry creates, as a rule, large urban-type settlements with ports, fish factories, refrigerators, etc. But there are many fishing collective farms and fishing brigades in agricultural collective farms with their settlements on the coasts of moraines and lakes, on rivers and river channels, in deltas, etc. There are also small specialized settlements - "rear bases" for commercial hunting in the northern collective farms , settlements - supply bases for reindeer herding brigades, etc.

6. Settlements of scientific stations, permanent (at observatories, meteorological stations, etc.) or temporary (bases of exploration parties, expeditions).

7. Villages of health and education institutions are of various types: a) staff camps at rural schools and hospitals located at some distance from the villages; b) out-of-town hospitals, nursing homes, sanatoriums, forming entire villages with their own facilities; c) orphanages, forest boarding schools located among nature, in rural areas; d) settlements of rest houses, out-of-town sports and tourist bases. Most of these functional types are characterized by the predominance (or a significant proportion) of the temporary, "variable" population.

Along with the permanent ones, there are also seasonally inhabited settlements of this kind - at tourist bases for winter or summer use, climbing camps, and summer pioneer camps.

8. Dacha settlements - the second housing of the urban population in the summer. In fact, this is a special type of seasonally inhabited settlements, which differ from the previous group (tourist bases, rest houses, etc.) in that they, like most modern agricultural settlements, consist of individual cells - single-family houses, estates. Collective-farm settlements used simultaneously as dachas (renting rooms for the summer) or resorts do not belong to this type, as do “bedroom settlements”, the population of which works in the city.

9. Out-of-town residential settlements of workers and employees (villages - "bedrooms" in the countryside). This specific type of settlements is widespread in the near suburban area of large cities, forming a kind of "residential branches" of the city. They historically arose in the process of urbanization in all countries of the world with large cities, with convenient and fast transport links with the city as a place of work for their inhabitants. They are often large in size, constituting a special kind of satellite of a large city and greatly increasing the daily passenger traffic between it and its suburban area. This type of settlements is distinguished by the fact that the function of “housing place” common to all settlements is the only one here.

Agro-industrial settlements in rural areas should be divided into two fundamentally different groups: in some cases, work in industry and work in agriculture are carried out by different persons living in a given settlement, in other cases, the labor of the same persons is used at different times (mainly way seasonally) in various industries. The existing types of agro-industrial settlements belong to the first group. The second form of combining various branches of production in rural settlements is just beginning to develop (being very progressive and promising) and still exists in the initial stages in the settlements of individual large collective farms and state farms that have their own production enterprises.

Among the agro-industrial settlements of the first group, representing a combination of an agricultural settlement and an industrial settlement, several types are distinguished depending on the nature of industrial production and its links with agriculture.

One of the types is characterized by the development in the agricultural settlement of industrial processing of local agricultural products (sugar, oil mills, butter, vegetable canning, starch and other plants). Another type is formed when agricultural and timber enterprises are combined (and the former often turn into an auxiliary "food shop" of a timber industry enterprise). The third type is created with the development in the agricultural settlement of industries serving local needs, working wholly or partially on local raw materials. The fourth type is made up of settlements where, along with agriculture, small non-local enterprises have emerged using local subsoil resources. The fifth type includes the occurring combination of an agricultural settlement and the settlement of a small industrial enterprise that is not associated with the use of local raw materials and the local market (such, for example, are many metalworking and textile industries that historically developed in rural settlements that were previously centers of the corresponding handicrafts).