The syntactic structure of publicistic speech strives for the transparency of syntactic constructions, the simplicity of structures. For expressive purposes, inversion, various types of actualization, repetitions, question-answer and invocative forms, etc. are often used.

Generalized-personal and indefinitely-personal, impersonal sentences are characteristic, with the help of which one can "disengage" from a particular figure (we are told, passed on; the note says).

Journalism actively uses expressive syntax: nominative, connecting and parcel constructions, question-answer constructions. Syntactic fragmentation in the presentation of material creates the illusion of free, unconstrained speech, which contributes to the manifestation of the contact-establishing function of speech.

Syntax as a whole is characterized, on the one hand, by traditional journalistic (highly pathetic) constructions (syntactic parallelism, periods, repetitions), on the other hand, "uninhibited", close to colloquial constructions (dissected, incomplete, fragmented constructions). Such complexity of the syntactic system of style is dictated by the genre diversity of publications, the difference in their specific target, content and functional settings. The syntactic structure is affected by the multidimensionality of the general tone of the style: from agitational appeal to the tone of a confidential conversation.

In journalism, figurative means (tropes, figures) are widely represented, phraseological turns, proverbs, popular expressions are used, which are often transformed, rethought in the way necessary for a journalist. Techniques of contamination, clash of meanings, updating of stable phrases, habitual speech formulas have a genre-compositional conditionality and make speech expressive, actively influencing the reader. All this is connected with the general expressive orientation of the style.

The syntax of the newspaper-journalistic style of speech also has its own characteristics associated with the active use of emotionally - and expressive - colored constructions: exclamatory and interrogative sentences, sentences with appeal, rhetorical questions, repetitions, dissected constructions, etc. The desire for expression determines the use of constructions with colloquial coloring: particles, interjections, inversions, non-union sentences, omission of one or another member of the sentence, etc.

Language means of expressiveness expression

Expressive means serve to create political and social sharpness, topicality, figurative means here are not only means of visualization, but also means of social evaluation of what is depicted.

The question of whether artistic speech is a functional style is still controversial. Some researchers put the style of fiction on a par with functional styles, others consider it a phenomenon of a different, more complex order. It seems that the cause of the dispute is the combination of the concepts of "artistic style" and "language of fiction" (deeply - style and text).

The newspaper-journalistic style functions in the socio-political sphere and is used in oratory speeches, in various newspaper genres (leading article, reportage), in journalistic articles in the periodical press. It is implemented both in writing and orally. A characteristic feature of the newspaper-journalistic style is the combination of two trends - the tendency towards expressiveness and the tendency towards the standard. This is due to the functions that journalism performs: the information-content function and the function of persuasion, emotional impact. They have a special character in a journalistic style. Information in this area of ​​social activity is addressed to all native speakers and members of this society (and not just specialists, as in the scientific field).

For the relevance of information, the time factor is very significant: information must be transmitted and become generally known as soon as possible, which is not at all important, for example, in an official business style. In the newspaper-journalistic style, persuasion is carried out through an emotional impact on the reader or listener. The author not only expresses his attitude to the reported information, but expresses the opinion of a certain social group of people - parties, movements, and so on. So, with the function of influencing the mass reader or listener, such a feature of the newspaper-journalistic style as its emotionally expressive character is associated, and the standard of this style is associated with the speed of transmission of socially significant information.

The newspaper-journalistic style has both conservatism and mobility. On the one hand, publicistic speech contains a sufficient number of clichés, socio-political and other terms. On the other hand, the desire to convince readers requires ever new language means to influence them. It is this purpose that all the riches of artistic and colloquial speech serve.

The vocabulary of the newspaper-journalistic style has a pronounced emotional and expressive coloring, includes colloquial, colloquial and even slang elements, uses such phrases that combine functional and expressive-evaluative colors: fooling, yellow press, accomplice, etc., which show belonging to the newspaper-journalistic style of speech and contain a negative assessment. Many words acquire a newspaper and journalistic coloring if they are used in a figurative sense.

Newspaper and journalistic speech actively uses foreign words and elements of words, in particular the prefixes a-, anti-, pro-, neo-. ultra- (anti-constitutional, ultra-right, etc.). It is thanks to the media that the active vocabulary of foreign words that make up the Russian language has recently been significantly replenished - privatization, electorate, denomination, etc.

The style under consideration attracts the entire stock of emotionally expressive and evaluative words, including even proper names, titles of literary works (Plyushkin, Derzhimorda, Man in a Case) in the sphere of evaluativeness. The desire for expressiveness, imagery and, at the same time, brevity is also realized with the help of precedent texts (texts familiar to anyone), which is an integral part of journalistic speech.

Expressiveness as the ability of units to act in a communicative act as a means of subjective expression of the speaker's attitude to the content or addressee of speech, to improve the form of statements is a dynamic concept. This is a gradable property, which depends on the motivation for the use of structures, the nature of their compatibility. With insufficiently motivated, concentrated use of stamps of the same model, the frequency of use and repetition of stamps on a "small area" without changing the semantics and external form of units, their expressive properties are de-actualized. But clichés become more expressive when motivated inclusion in the text. The expressive properties of speech stamps in a journalistic text are enhanced by updating the syntagmatic links of units; changes in the semantics and external form of word combinations and the construction of textual paradigms.

The use of clichés in journalistic texts is characterized by the syncretism of the expressive function itself (expressing evaluation and emotions, stylistic differentiation) and aesthetic (the use as a characterological means, when individualizing the speech of characters, determining their social status, etc.). The scientific novelty of the work lies in the fact that for the first time it has undertaken a comprehensive study of speech stamps as structures with gradable expressive properties. The study is based on examples from dictionaries, fiction and journalism of modern Russian writers, the language of whose works has been little studied. A typology of speech stamps has been developed according to the method of nomination, the structure of meaning, and the degree of expressiveness.

Speech stamps have the following categorical features:

1) stereotyped reduced expressiveness (uniformity of semantics and structure, serial constructions, despite the fact that they are intended for an expressive function);

2) separate formatting, the presence of at least two lexical components;

3) stability of combinations, desemantization of word components, which manifests itself in the reduction of denotative and/or connotative semes;

4) the use of stylistically colored structures for other purposes; their stylistic and semantic disagreement with other elements of the text;

5) excessive use of units in a small text; texts of the same style of speech. When using stamps, emotionality, informativeness of statements, the external form of speech suffer, its impact on the addressee is reduced.

The expressiveness of stamps is a dynamic phenomenon. The positively assessed dynamics of stamp expressivity can be defined terminologically by differentiating expressive function 1 and expressive function 2. Expressive function 1 is associated with the traditional use of units, it leads to a decrease in the expressiveness of structures. Expressive function 2 is a combination of the function of expressing emotions and evaluation with an aesthetic function (using a unit to improve the external form of speech).

The author's phonetic means, which increase the expressiveness of speech and its emotional and aesthetic impact, are associated with the sound matter of speech through the choice of words and their arrangement and repetitions. In their totality, these means are considered by the doctrine of euphony, or euphony. Euphony, or instrumentation, is also called the very object of this study, i.e. the phonetic organization of the utterance corresponding to the mood of the message.

creation of a psychological portrait of the image of the characters ("descriptive - characterological function");

Private text functions of emotive vocabulary include:

creation of a psychological portrait of the characters' image ("descriptive-characterological function");

emotional interpretation of the world depicted in the text and its assessment ("interpretative and emotional-evaluative functions"); discovery of the inner emotional world of the author's image ("intentional function");

impact on the reader ("emotional-regulatory function").

We consider expressiveness as one of the leading conceptual categories that determine its pragmatic and communicative existence. Expressiveness in our work is presented as an essential characteristic of the text, as an act of pragmatic text formation.

The possibilities of expressiveness as an essential characteristic lie primarily in its denotative plan. It is on the denotative reference of the object that the expected perlocutionary effect ultimately depends. The denotation of the text (product, service, image, universal values, political parties, movements) can have one or another personal significance for the recipient of the advertisement, regardless of whether or not there are expressive units in the text. It is the denotative plan that creates the ground for the emergence of connotative meanings, the deep intentions of the author's super-idea.

The use of expressive language means in the process of generating a text depends on the author. The sender, as a more informed participant in communication, fills in possible gaps in the conceptual picture of the world of the addressee. Moreover, he does this not intrusively, but very tactfully and friendly, revealing new opportunities to the interlocutor, emphasizing their advantages and offering to use them. The pragmatics of the text is manifested not only in the fact that it affects the recipient, but also in the fact that the text contains implicit information about its author and the sphere of communication. Through his message, the author actualizes a complex of verbalized and non-verbalized knowledge about the world around him, including a certain system of values, to which he refers the consumer directly or indirectly.

Special language means (figurative, emotive, evaluative) used in the text do not in themselves create the overall expressiveness of the text. Expressiveness arises under the condition that these means, firstly, display a certain content (characterize the object of description), and secondly, are addressed to a real reader, for whom they will be personally significant. Any text, including journalistic, is designed for perception, understanding and evaluation. Consequently, the expressive efforts of the author reach their goal when they are consistent with the apperceptive possibilities of the recipient.

The use of systemic expressive means and techniques enhances the overall expressive tone of the text, since every technique is an active and serious "play" with meanings and meanings, which has a communicative purpose and a pragmatic purpose - emotional infection of the addressee.

The expressive function of the text is realized only when the text is included in the process of communication, i.e. in the presence of a recipient capable of perceiving the text. Therefore, it is necessary to take into account the connection of the text with external phenomena, psychological and social reality, with the functioning of the text in this reality.

The desire for maximum expressiveness becomes one of the main and obligatory motives of language creation when creating literary texts, and expressiveness itself is their obligatory and essential characteristic.

It follows that the expressiveness of a journalistic text is a special kind of expressiveness. In the text, expressiveness becomes a symbol of artistic expressiveness. In the structure of the text, a figurative plan is put forward in the first place. The artistic image becomes the core of expressiveness, and linguistic units, qualitatively transforming, connecting in a certain way, give artistic originality to this text, determine its artistic merits.

The study of ways of expressing evaluation and expressiveness in the media is especially important because expressiveness enhances the emotional impact on the public consciousness of the addressee and is directly involved in the formation of a particular public opinion.

Iralieva Asel, Kiseleva Yulia.

How, with the help of the syntactic structure of the sentence, the author reflects the feelings of the characters, expresses his attitude towards them - this is the goal of our work.

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MOU "Secondary school with. Preobrazhenka

Pugachevsky district

Saratov region"

research project

The syntactic structure of the sentence

As a means of expression

(Based on the novel by N.M. Karamzin "Poor Liza")

Completed by 9th grade students

Iralieva Asel, Kiseleva Yulia.

Supervisor

teacher of Russian language and literature

Kurkutova E.A.

2011 – 2012 academic year

1. Introduction. Page 2
2. Main part. Page 3 – 8
3. Conclusion. Page 9
4. Bibliography. Page 10

Introduction.

The purpose of our research project was to get acquainted with the expressiveness of syntax, analyze these tools, search for examples in N.M. Karamzin's story "Poor Liza". We wanted to analyze the syntactic structure of this work and determine what syntactic means the writer used when creating it. The fundamental question was: does the syntactic structure of the sentence have expressive means? After studying the theoretical material and working on N.M. Karamzin’s story, we came to the conclusion that the syntactic structure of a sentence is a vivid means of expression with which the writer describes events, conveys the experiences of the heroine, expresses his own attitude to what is happening, evaluates the actions of the characters.

Research results. We studied the theory of expressiveness of syntax, analyzed N.M. Karamzin's story "Poor Liza" and came to the conclusion that tosyntactic means of expressioninclude various stylistic figures, turns, techniques.

Slides captions:

Research project The syntactic structure of a sentence as a means of expression (based on the novel by N.M. Karamzin “Poor Liza”) Completed by 9th grade students Iralieva Asel, Kiseleva Yulia Supervisor: Kurkutova E.A.

Purpose: acquaintance with the means of expressiveness of syntax, analysis of these means, search for examples in N.M. Karamzin's story "Poor Liza".

Fundamental question: Does the syntactic structure of the sentence have expressive means?

We studied the theory of the means of expressiveness of syntax, analyzed N.M. Karamzin's story "Poor Lisa" and came to the conclusion that various stylistic figures, turns, and devices belong to the syntactic means of expressiveness.

Antithesis is a turn in which opposing concepts are sharply opposed. N.M. Karamzin uses it to depict the constancy of time when he recalls the main character. Inversion is a stylistic figure that consists in a deliberate change in the order of words. This technique helps to focus the reader's attention on the main point in the sentence.

Gradation is a figure that consists in stringing syntactic units of the same type (for example, homogeneous members, phrases, parts of a sentence, subordinate clauses), in which their semantic or emotional significance increases (ascending gradation) or decreases (descending gradation). Repetition is the general name for a series of techniques in which the repetition of an element serves as a means of enhancing expressiveness.

Anaphora (unity) is the repetition of elements (from sounds to sentences) at the beginning of each new phrase. Anaphora enhances the dynamics of sentences, the emotional impact of the phrase on the reader. Polyunion (polysyndeton) is a repetition of the union, which serves for intonational and logical underlining. Coordinating conjunctions are usually repeated.

The union (asindeton) gives the statement swiftness, creates the effect of increasing the tempo. Asyndeton is very often found in the story, which is probably why it has a very clearly defined dynamics. Syntactic parallelism is the same syntactic construction of adjacent sentences or segments of speech. This technique is used by N.M. Karamzin when describing the feelings of the characters.

Conclusion. Having studied the theory, we came to the following conclusions: syntactic means of expression include antithesis, inversion, gradation, repetition, anaphora, polyunion, non-union, syntactic parallelism.

Conclusion: We believe that knowledge of the syntactic means of expression will help us not only in the study of literary works, their analysis, but also in the final exams in both basic and secondary schools in the Russian language.

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“The syntactic structure of the collection of poems by B. Pasternak “When it clears up”: enumerative constructions”

Introduction

Chapter 1. On the issue of enumerations in poetic syntax

Chapter 2

2.2 Characteristics of rows by the number of components and frequency of use of words of various parts of speech

2.3 Analysis of substantive series

2.4 Analysis of verb series

2.5 Analysis of adjectival series

2.6 Analysis of predicative units

2.7 Expressive role of enumerations

2.8 Analysis of enumerative constructions in the poem "Bacchanalia"

Conclusion

Bibliography

Appendix

Introduction

In the science of language, there is a growing interest in the linguistic analysis of a poetic text. Poetic speech was studied by many researchers in different aspects (B.V. Tomashevsky, JI.I. Timofeev, Yu.N. Tynyanov, Yu.M. Lotman, M.L. Gasparov, V.V. Vinogradov, G.O. Vinokur , M. M. Bakhtin and others). Poetic speech is a kind of artistic speech, characterized by a special rhythm, it is characterized by increased expressiveness, created not only by the wide possibilities of rhythm, but also by means of all levels of the language.

The originality of poetic speech, its difference from prose, is found at all levels, and especially clearly at the syntactic level. The study of the syntactic structure of poetic works allows us to see the individual features of the use of linguistic means by different poets. A striking feature of the syntactic structure of many poetic texts is the frequent use of enumeration constructions. Enumerative constructions run through the majority of poetic texts, they are found in works of various kinds, genres and metrical structures. In lyrical works, enumerations can occupy a large space of a poetic text. In addition, enumerations are expressively rich elements and are a stylistic device. Enumerative constructions are common in poetic speech and can be considered as one of its syntactic features. And the poetry of B. Pasternak, whose work continues to be the focus of attention of philologists, is no exception in this regard. All this determines the relevance of the final qualifying work.

The study of B. Pasternak's work, in particular, the collection "When it clears up" is mainly carried out from the standpoint of a biographical or literary method, while the author's poetry requires a comprehensive analysis of poetic texts, which involves the involvement of data from related fields of knowledge, such as linguistics and literary criticism.

The novelty of this work lies in the fact that for the first time the construction of enumeration in a specific poetic collection of B. Pasternak is subjected to a comprehensive analysis aimed at identifying the artistic originality of the collection and the individual style of the author.

The purpose of the study is to study the structure and functioning of enumerative constructions in the syntactic structure of B. Pasternak's collection “When it clears up”.

Realization of the set goal required the solution of a number of particular tasks:

study the structural features of enumerative constructions

determine the expressive-semantic properties of enumerations

· make a linguistic analysis of enumerative constructions in the collection of poems by B. Pasternak "When it clears up"

· develop lesson plans to update the knowledge gained by high school students and increase interest in modern poetry and linguistic analysis.

The main research methods in the thesis work are:

observation;

comparison;

· linguistic analysis and synthesis;

generalization;

The theoretical basis is the work "Poetic Syntax" by I.I. Kovtunova, abstract of the dissertation “Enumerative constructions in the poetic syntax of A.S. Pushkin" E.A. Panova, textbook for students of philological faculties of higher educational institutions "Philological analysis of a lyrical work" by D.M. Magomedova, the article "Again clouds over me ...": Methods of analysis" by M.L. Gasparov.

The set goal and the planned tasks determined the structure of the work, which consists of an introduction, two chapters, a conclusion, a bibliography and appendices.

The first chapter analyzes theoretical approaches to determining the status of enumerations as a syntactic-semantic phenomenon, discusses the expressive-stylistic qualities of enumerations.

The second chapter is devoted to the analysis of the syntactic structure of B. Pasternak's collection “When it clears up”. The paper analyzes enumeration constructions of different syntactic levels: enumeration constructions consisting of word forms within a simple sentence, enumeration constructions of predicative units. The series of enumerations are characterized by the number of components and the frequency of the use of words of various parts of speech, the semantic relationships within the series, the thematic orientation of the enumerations, the morphological nature of the series (substantive, adjective, verbal series). In the process of linguistic analysis, enumeration constructions are considered from the point of view of the interaction of multi-level linguistic (phonetic, lexical, morphological, syntactic) ones in them. This approach to the study of the material allows us to comprehensively describe the structural and functional characteristics of enumerations.

In conclusion, the results of the study are summarized, conclusions are drawn and prospects for further research are outlined.

The appendix offers abstracts of the combined lesson "Nominative sentences" and classes to prepare students for the Literature Olympiad on the topic "Linguistic analysis of the poem", the example of which shows the possibility of practical application of the results of the final qualifying work.

Chapter 1. On the issue of enumerations in poetic syntax

Many different works are devoted to the study of the work and life of Boris Pasternak. In linguistic studies, the features of the structure of artistic, primarily poetic texts were considered: sound organization, rhyme, syntactic and grammatical structure; system of images, organization of artistic time [Arutyunova B. 1989, Gasparov 1990; Dal E. 1978, Kovtunova 1995, Zholkovsky 2001, Jensen 1995, 2000; Taranovsky 2000; Gasparov and Podgaetskaya 2000, Bjorling 1976, Feinberg 1973; Plank 1966; Jensen 1987].

A number of works were devoted to comparing the early and late lyrics of the poet: I.N. Bushman "On the early lyrics of Pasternak", G.N. Girzheva "Some features of the late lyrics of Boris Pasternak", A. Yakobson "Lectures on Pasternak: Early Pasternak. Late Pasternak", "Bacchanalia" in the context of the late Pasternak", K. Taranovsky "On the poetics of Boris Pasternak", etc.

A.A. Yakobson singles out a certain chronological boundary of periods of creativity - the beginning of 40. Pasternak's poetics before 1940 differs from the artistic style that the poet developed in the second half of the 40s. The poems of the period from 1912 to 1940 constitute, as it were, a single quality in comparison with the later poetry of Pasternak. At the same time, A.A. Yakobson emphasizes that the commonality is much deeper and more significant than the differences, which allows us to speak of the integrity of Pasternak's poetic world.

In "Lectures on Pasternak" A.A. Jacobson speaks of various kinds of complexity in poetry. The first kind of complexity, the only true complexity, is the depth of comprehension and revelation in poetry. The second kind of complexity is the complexity of poetic explanation, that is, the verbal material of verses: phraseology, syntax, rhythm, strophic, tropes and other elements of the language can themselves be complex. Such complexity is neither an advantage nor a disadvantage, it is the originality of the style, artistic manner of the poet. Early Pasternak was difficult from the point of view of the external perception of poetry, his style was distinguished by complex metaphor, condensation of images. In the late poetry of Pasternak, both imagery and syntax become simpler and clearer, but the complexity of poetry in terms of semantic depth and semantic richness remains. The poems of the late Pasternak are, as before, a rapid dynamic recording, but devoid of metaphorical density, a large concentration of metaphors. There are no those breaks, shifts and shifts that distinguished the manner of the early Pasternak. The dynamics of images, their self-development are carried out easily, without any tension.

An integral part of poetic syntax in the late period of Pasternak's work are enumerative constructions, the frequent use of which is a characteristic feature of the poet's new style. Enumeration constructions can be one of the ways to create narrative dynamics in poetic texts. They allow to realize the semantic capacity, richness, expressiveness in a small area of ​​the text. In the works of the poet, there are different types of enumeration constructions: rows of word forms, parts of compound sentences, chains of complete sentences. G.N. Girzheva in her research notes the frequent occurrence of substantive series in Pasternak's poetry, which also includes nominative constructions. Chains of nominative sentences are regularly found in the later lyrical works of the poet. For example, in the poem "Fairy Tale" (1953): "Closed eyelids. Height. Clouds. Water. Brody. Rivers. Years and centuries.

The structural characteristics of enumeration constructions are non-union and multi-union, which are also characteristic stylistic devices in Pasternak's late lyrics.

1.1 Structural features of enumeration structures

enumerative parsnip compilation syntactical

Poetic syntax has a number of features due to the functional purpose of poetic speech. The syntactic units of the language are included in poetic speech into such connections and relationships that enhance the ability of the linguistic sign to semantic changes and transformations. In addition to their primary meaning, syntactic units can acquire secondary, figurative, transposed meanings and functions that arise in the specific conditions of poetic speech.

I.I. Kovtunova identifies the following features of the organization of poetic texts:

The increased closeness of semantic and structural connections inherent in the text as a whole - as a textual analogue of the "unity and tightness" of the line of verse (Tynyanov 1965, Silman 1977);

The continuity of the poetic structure (Stepanov 1980), which is based on rhythm as “an attempt to impose a continuum component on discrete speech carriers” (Nalimov 1978);

Informative completeness of the poetic text, in which nothing can be added or subtracted, in which the word is able to increase the semantic depth;

The ambiguity of the poetic structure, poetic message, poetic image, the presence in it of a direct, literal and hidden, deep meaning (Potebnya 1976, Vinokur 1959);

A high degree of organization of the poetic text at all levels of its structure (Wiener 1958).

I.I. Kovtunova notes that for poetic speech, a characteristic feature is the desire for continuous predicativity, for ultimate saturation with features, which is realized in the internal structure of lyrical poems - in compositional techniques, in the syntactic content of verse rows, in the semantics of syntactic constructions.

In poetic texts, there is a tendency to concentrate on small sections of the text designations of objects, phenomena, their signs, which makes the fragment of the poem information-rich. This functional property of poetic speech is clearly manifested at the level of enumerative constructions.

D.V. Belyaev considers enumeration as “a universal syntactic-semantic device for organizing three or more homogeneous elements of any level (from a word to large structural and compositional units) in a micro- and macrotext through their contact (rarely distant) mutual arrangement, compositional connection, specific enumerative intonation." All elements of the enumeration series belong to the same logical-conceptual class (objects, signs, actions, etc.) and are equally correlated with a certain concept of a higher level of abstraction. This concept is a generalizing word that opens and sometimes closes the enumeration series. The generalizing component may or may not be lexically expressed, but it is a mandatory, linking attribute of the enumeration series. ON THE. Kozhevnikova, considering the characteristics of a generalizing word, writes that a generalizing word can act in its direct meaning, or it can be a metaphor or a metaphorical paraphrase. It can appear before and after enumerations, and also be contained in the title.

E.A. Panova emphasizes that enumeration is an important part of compositional constructions. Enumeration constructions are one of the ways of syntactic organization of poetic texts, they are widespread in poetic speech, and can be considered as one of its syntactic features. Enumerative constructions can refer to different syntactic levels: composing series of word forms in a simple sentence, compound sentences, chains of complete sentences.

She identifies the following features characteristic of the enumerative series of word forms:

1. The main structural feature of the enumerative series is the feature of the openness of the coordinative connection, which combines an indefinite number of components. An open coordinative connection always reveals the syntactic-semantic relations of enumeration.

Separately, cases of union-free series with one connecting union closing the series are stipulated. The use of closing conjunctions in enumeration constructions does not negate the openness of the coordinative connection, since it does not contradict the property of enumerations to consist of an indefinite number of components, while a closed coordinative connection always forms only binary structures. The closing union serves as a special speech signal that the enumeration series is completed. The enumeration in this case turns out to be closed from the logical-semantic point of view, while the structure remains open. Structural closure takes place when the last member is added, for example, by an adversative or coordinative union with a resultative-investigative meaning. In such constructions, the component introduced by the union is opposed to all the previous members of the series at the same time, it is an indicator of other semantic relationships.

2. Functional equality of word forms that make up a series. Word forms play the same role in creating a syntactic construction as a whole and relative to each other. If a coordinating connection unites heterogeneous members of a sentence, the equality of forms is preserved relative to each other (there are no main and dependent relations between them) and their identical role in creating an enumerative construction as a whole (a sign of functional equality).

3. Row of the components of the list, their contact arrangement, stringing in the form of a chain.

4. Combining the elements of the enumeration with a common meaning. An enumeration is always associated with a generalization, which is not always expressed verbally. The elements of an enumeration can always be summed up under some general concept or relation. Association can occur not only on a logical basis, but also on the basis of situational relationships. Thus, when enumerating, there is always some “general idea” of enumeration (explained by verbal means or implicit), which semantically unites all the components of the series, and in relation to which these components act as concretizers.

5. Semantic equality of components. The role of the members of the enumeration series in the disclosure, concretization of the unifying meaning is the same: the enumeration elements informatively complement each other.

The general essence of enumeration is the same at all syntactic levels. These features are also inherent in complex sentences with enumerative relations. The main difference between enumerative complex sentences and enumerative series of word forms is the presence of predicativity in the former. Enumerative compound sentences in their structural and semantic organization are close to sequences of complete sentences in the text. It is difficult to draw a clear line between them. The difference should be sought in the communicative significance of each member of the enumeration as a separate link in the general chain or in the communicative significance of the enumeration as a whole.

Thus, enumerative constructions can be considered in several aspects. D.V. Belyaev proposes to distinguish enumeration constructions according to formal, morphological and semantic features.

On a formal basis, the enumeration series may differ:

The presence or absence of generalizing words

Number of components

The nature of the connection: unionless (asyndeton), with an alliance in front of one component (monosyndeton), polyunion (polysyndeton)

Verbal and phrasal enumeration series.

By morphological features, nominal and verbal enumerations are distinguished.

According to the semantic feature, rows with logical compatibility and incompatibility relationships within the row are distinguished. Relationships can be combined according to the principle of semantic proximity or contrast.

1.2 Tools for creating enum expressivity

1.2.1 Lexical-semantic content of rows

Enumeration series are syntactic constructions that combine homogeneous components in their composition (or components that are thought of as homogeneous depending on the specific communicative intention of the speaker or writer), since the combination of members in the enumeration series is always motivated by their unification in the semantic plan by some common beginning (“ the idea of ​​enumeration, "point of view", "situation"). At the same time, the lexico-semantic one-dimensionality/non-one-dimensionality of the components of the enumeration series turns out to be significant only in the stylistic aspect. If the combination of components occurs on a situational basis, various kinds of expressive and stylistic effects arise. The use of enumeration as a stylistic device is also based on this.

E.A. Panova in her dissertation focuses on the expressive and stylistic possibilities of enumerations. Enumeration is the basis or an integral part of stylistic devices or syntactic figures (such as gradation, polyunion, non-union, period, etc.), but such types of enumerative constructions are relatively rare in texts. In addition, numerous enumeration is associated in consciousness with grammatical and semantic uniformity, with syntactic and semantic monotony, inevitable with repeated and prolonged repetition of the same device. Thus, the range of semantic relations expressed by enumerative constructions is very limited: two types of relations are usually distinguished - connecting and separating enumeration. The question arises: why syntactic constructions, which are not distinguished by variety and are capable of expressing a small circle of semantic relations, causing an idea of ​​the monotony of speech, are able to occupy a significant place in poetic syntax. Answer to the question of E.A. Panova reveals on the example of the analysis of Pushkin's poetry.

She identifies the following structural-semantic and expressive-stylistic properties of the enumeration series:

1. In poetic texts, additional semantic possibilities of enumerations are realized. Separate varieties of enumerative constructions expand the narrow circle of meanings that is "fixed" to them in the language. The non-union rows, to which only one meaning is attributed in grammatical literature - a connecting enumeration, are capable, with a certain lexico-semantic content, of expressing the relations of a divisive, as well as a comparative enumeration.

The general meaning of the enumeration can be complicated by additional semantic links that arise between the individual components of the series (target, concession, cause-and-effect). These relationships are derived on the basis of the lexical and grammatical content and ideas about the connections of the phenomena of reality (for example, Forgive the sad world, where the dark path over the abyss lay for me - Where quiet faith did not console me, Where I loved, where I cannot love - the selected components are connected concessive-opposite relationship). Such relationships are not imposed on the reader, who himself is given the opportunity to establish semantic dependencies. Such ambiguity, non-differentiation of additional semantic connections between the components of the series corresponds to the general attitude of poetic speech towards the realization of the semantic diversity of language units. Thanks to the lexico-semantic content, being enriched with additional semantic shades, enumerative series acquire semantic capacity, compensating for the limitedness of the small set of meanings that express enumerative constructions.

2. In enumerative constructions, there are enumerations with a violation of logical homogeneity and thematic commonality of components (Moscow is a sweet old woman. Diverse and lively, She captivates with variegation, Ancient luxury, feasts, Brides, bells, Funny, light vanity, Innocent prose and poems - A.S. Pushkin). Equalization of the unequal, elevating the heterogeneous to the rank of homogeneity creates the impression of understatement, forces the reader to think out for himself what is not explicated at the level of the syntactic structure. All this creates a broad subtext and involves the reader's imagination.

3. Of particular importance in poetic speech are enumerative series, which are a sequence of names of the same object. Often such rows are combined with the technique of antonomasia, which was created to create all sorts of encryption (Under them, this sovereign sleeps, This idol of the northern squads, The venerable guardian of the sovereign country, The suppressor of all its enemies, This rest of the flock of the glorious Catherine's eagles - A.S. Pushkin) . This technique is also found in B. Pasternak's poem "July". The collision of different ways of verbal designation of the same fact, the concentration of verbal means of expressing the same meaning within the same syntactic construction inevitably leads to expressive saturation of the enumerative series.

4. When analyzing the lexical-semantic content of enumerations, one can see the comparison or opposition of components according to the principle of similarity or dissimilarity. In some cases, one of the components may be opposed to the rest of the components. All this creates an intra-row grouping of members, complicates the general meaning of the enumeration with additional speech meanings, which is a decisive factor for overcoming the external uniformity of the series.

5. Strengthening the overall expressiveness of the enumeration contributes to the semantic and expressive effect associated with the selection of individual components of the series. Most often, the last link of the enumeration is accentuated (Blessed is he who, in the noise of the city, Dreams of solitude, Who sees only in the distance the Desert, a garden, a rural house, Hills with silent forests, A valley with a frisky stream And even ... a herd with a shepherd! - And .S. Pushkin).

The alternation of punctuation marks in the design of the enumeration series makes it possible to show the degree of independence of the enumeration links, emphasize the greater cohesion of certain components in the general content, and group the members within the series. The resulting semantic and stylistic nuances also make it possible to overcome the monotony of the enumerative construction9.

Thus, the expressive-semantic capacity of enumerations arises as a result of the interaction of the semantics of the combined components, which is due to the introduction of a diverse and heterogeneous lexico-semantic material into a uniform syntactic structure and its grouping within a series. A special intra-row ratio of elements leads to the layering of various additional meanings on the general meaning of the enumeration, makes it possible to overcome the uniformity, monotony of a multicomponent enumeration, creates diversity in monotony.

1.2.2 Means of communication in enumeration rows

Enumeration relations are expressed by means of non-union and allied coordinating connection. An open coordinative link is one of the hallmarks of enumeration constructs. In poetic speech, enumerative series are often found, in front of one of the components of which a compositional union is used. As mentioned above, the presence of a connecting union before the last component of the series does not make the connection closed, the union in this case is "pseudo-closing".

In poetic speech, the relations of enumeration, attachment and gradation can be realized with the help of polyunion (polysyndeton).

From the point of view of grammar, polysyndeton is a means of designing syntactic constructions with homogeneous members; it acts as an element that connects multicomponent sentences as part of a complex sentence, stanza or text as a whole.

Polysyndeton is a rhetorical figure formed by the repetition of an alliance (or a combination of several alliances). In vertical rows, the structure of the polysyndeton expands, particles can be involved in the functions of unions, prepositions, which also acquire the functions of unions, in this figure. The multifunctionality of service words acts as a way of organizing the harmonic unity of a poetic text, which is embodied in measure, proportionality and symmetry.

F.I. Dzhubaeva considers two types of polysyntheton: allied and non-allied. The allied is divided into proper allied and combined allied.

Enumeration relations are realized at different syntactic levels: from coordinating series of word forms to complete sentences connected by the “idea of ​​enumeration”, therefore, different types of polysyndeton can occur in these constructions.

Actually, the allied polysyndeton is such a figure in which only the union and functions. The contact repetition of the union forms a “pure” type of polysyndeton, that is, the union is repeated anaphorically throughout the entire text space without interruption. The distant repetition of the union means that the repetition and can be interrupted and resumed, forming "anaphoric" islands.

An example of an allied polysyndeton with a union and we can observe in B. Pasternak's poem "Footprints in the Snow", 1957:

Everything is in the snow: the yard and every chip,

And on the tree every shoot.

River ice, crossing and platform,

Forest, and rails, and embankment, and moat

Molded into flawless shapes

No bumps and no corners.

Combined allied polysyndeton includes the use of other conjunctions and allied words. This determines the dominance of coordinating, subordinating conjunctions, the repetition of the adversative conjunction but, the participation of allied words in the structure of polysyndeton (variants are possible when listing predicative constructions - parts of a complex sentence or enumerative complete sentences). In the poem "Golden Autumn" (1957), each stanza begins with the allied word "where", while the stanzas themselves, subject to the general idea of ​​enumerating the characteristics of the described external space, constitute a kind of enumerative construction, and the pronominal adverb "where" is an external sign of this construction.

Autumn. Fairy-tale palace, open to everyone for review ...

Where are the trees in September... Where you can't step into the ravine...

Where it sounds at the end of the alleys ...

In non-union polysyndeton, dominance of particles or prepositions occurs. An example from the poem "Wind. Four passages about Blok, 1957:

In the forest, on the road, in the ravine,

In the village or countryside

On the clouds such zigzags

They promise bad weather to the earth.

The union and most often functions in the structure of polysyndeton, in poetic speech it is enriched with an attaching meaning. V.V. Vinogradov in his work "Pushkin's Language", writes: "As for the compositional unions, they very often receive a connecting meaning in poetic speech." At the same time, a repeating union can associatively bring together outwardly distant images ”(And poetry, and stage, And Paris, and Ronsard (“Bacchanalia”, 1957)).

Speaking of connecting unions, neither ... nor, yes F.I. Dzhubaeva notes not only their role in creating enumerative relations, but also their importance in creating the unity of semantic groups, despite the semantic diversity of the components of the enumerative series.

Thus, the repetition of the union creates an intonation-rhythmic unity, which emphasizes the connection of the polysyndeton with the metric-rhythmic structure of the text. Polysyndeton is also associated with the sound organization of the text, in which one can trace not only the presence of sound repetitions, but also their dominance along the text vertical.

1.2.3 "Tropogenic" syntactic constructions

Nominative constructions

Above, we wrote that the desire for continuous predicativity, for the ultimate saturation of features is a characteristic feature of poetic speech. A high degree of predicativity in poetic speech is also achieved through the use of series of one-part sentences consisting only of a predicate. Among one-part sentences, nominative and infinitive sentences are especially indicative as special equivalents of two-part sentences containing only a predicate.

Nominative and infinitive series as semantic-syntactic units formed by two or more nominative and infinitive sentences are characteristic of Russian poetry of the 19th - 20th centuries. In the division of the world by poets at the turn of the 19th - 20th centuries and the 20th century, there is an "explosion" of the discreteness of the syntactic statement, which is balanced by simultaneous linearity - a tendency to chains, composing and non-union rows of syntactically distinguished constructions. In the works of the 70s. Vyach. Sun. Ivanova, M.L. Gasparova, M.Yu. Lotman, the distribution of nominative sentences is considered as a manifestation of a special "nominal" style in Russian lyric poetry, characteristic of Fet, Blok, Pasternak and other poets.

T.V. Gamaley writes about the blurring of the boundaries of nominative sentences, because, in addition to the formal indicator - the nominative case, for a number of linguists, the very idea of ​​existentiality, the contextual prescription of the construction, associated purely with the intonation of beingness, a certain "serenity", ascertaining the nature of the reflection of the world, are decisive.

Based primarily on the idea of ​​“non-verbalness”, the researcher identifies the following nominative constructions:

1) "pure" nominative chains, paused by dots (Good between underwater stems. Pale light. Silence. Depth (K. Balmont);

2) verbless sentences with “here”, “this”, “oh” (This is morning, this joy, This power and day and light, This blue vault, These flocks, these birds, This cry and strings, This dialect of waters, These willows and birches, These drops - these tears (A. Fet) Oh, clay life!

3) single note nominatives (Noon hour. The heat oppresses? T breathing ... A terrible hour. Everywhere is numb (K. Sluchevsky)

4) exclamatory sentences (My misfortune! My wealth! My holy craft! (K. Pavlova);

5) “mastering” the text of the appeal (The sky of Italy, the sky of Torquat, The poetic dust of ancient Rome, The homeland of bliss, rich in glory, Will you ever be visible to me? (E. Baratynsky);

6) poetic inverses with a post-positive definition, formally transforming nominative constructions into the status of two-part nominal constructions (Crazy nights, sleepless nights, incoherent speeches, tired eyes ... (A. Apukhtin);

7) enumeration rows (Golden fields, Smoothness and shine of lakes, Bright bays, Endless space, Stars over the fields, Wilderness and reeds ... (I. Nikitin);

8) incomplete sentences with an elliptical verbal predicate (Black raven in the snowy dusk, Black velvet on swarthy shoulders (A. Blok).

Nominative sentences, as the above examples prove, often act as part of enumerative constructions.

The nominative sentence is usually perceived in terms of the present tense, close to inner speech, acts as a way of expressing inner speech. Predicativity and the presence of the observer's position in the semantics are the most essential features of nominative sentences. T.S. Monina writes about the modus meaning of nominative sentences, emphasizing their typical grammatical meaning of beingness. She notes that with the help of the chain organization of the text, a situation of perception of reality is created, thanks to which the text becomes cinematic. A sentence can be compared to a film frame, and a person speaking to a director interprets episodes of reality in their own way, since the plan for showing reality is chosen in the sentence. A chain series of nominative sentences allows us to imagine a change of personnel.

In nominative sentences, constructive connections between words are weakened, while associative connections are awakened and strengthened.

Thus, there is a visualization of images, which contains the subjective impressions of the reader. Each reader develops his own picture of the images of the poem.

IS HE. Panchenko, in her work on nominative and infinitive series, determined the lexical composition of nominative series based on the regularity of their lexical content. In the nominative series, these are nouns denoting: time of day, spontaneous manifestations of nature, processes and results of perception processes (visual, auditory, olfactory), physical and psychological states of a person. Nominative sentences have not only an existential meaning, they not only introduce into the field of perception the phenomena of the surrounding world or the inner world of the lyrical hero, but often designate events or act in a characterizing function.

The phrases that make up the nominative sentences in these cases have a propositive semantics. These include phrases based on nouns formed from verbs and adjectives that have the meaning of action and quality. The subject of action or quality, if it is not eliminated, occupies a peripheral, syntactically subordinate position. The key word is the name or quality (And deadlier than buckshot These lines of the mouth, These hands are heartless, These lips are kindness. - B. Pasternak "Bacchanalia").

Nominative sentences serve as equivalents to the corresponding two-part sentences, but, unlike them, they represent an indivisible predicate and, therefore, increase the level of predicativity. They include the observer and his point of view in the text, give an image of perception, enhance the associative possibilities of the word.

Constructions with nominative representation

Poetic speech is also characterized by “nominative representations”, expressing not just a pure representation, but acting simultaneously as a carrier of indicative semantics containing a characterization, a message. These meanings are often combined with an emotional assessment (City. Winter sky. Darkness. Gate spans. - B. Pasternak "Bacchanalia"). As I.I. Kovtunov, such constructions combine the meanings of nomination (representation of the subject), predication (existence, characterization, reporting of events) and emotional evaluation.

Structures with elements of parcelling and segmentation

A sentence member coinciding with a rhythmic unit is isolated into a semantically independent unit denoting a feature. I.I. Kovtunova writes that the separating action of verse rhythm functionally equates the members of a sentence (nominal groups - subjects, objects) to independent nominative sentences. IS HE. Panchenko, considering the nominative series, also speaks of constructions with elements of parcelling and segmentation that are functionally close to the nominative series.

Homogeneous members, rendered in an independent poetic stanza, separated by a dot from a two-part sentence - the basic part of a parcelled construction, syntactically and rhythmically approach the rows of proper nominative sentences and do not actually differ from them in their functions. When dismembering a statement, words or various syntagmas are singled out, on which the author wants to focus attention for various purposes. In poetic speech, such a distinction is more significant than in prose, since the word in poetry is a constructive element of meaning, in contrast to prose, where such a unit is a phrase.

In many cases, the dismemberment of an utterance extends not to one poetic line, but to a whole stanza or several stanzas, as a result of which series of nominative sentences are formed in poetic speech, as well as syntactic constructions close to them.

Punctuation marks may alternate within a row. The components of the enumeration series can be separated by commas and dots. The alternation of punctuation marks in the design of the enumeration series makes it possible to show the degree of independence of the enumeration links, emphasize the greater cohesion of certain components in the general content, and group the members within the series. The resulting semantic and stylistic nuances also make it possible to overcome the monotony of the enumerative construction.

Infinitive series

Nominative series, having established themselves in the poetry of the Symbolists, become an active device of poetic syntax. Perhaps not without their influence, but mainly because of the increased need in poetic speech for a similar construction, concise and just as expressive (capable of directly conveying the state of the lyrical hero and at the same time syntactically capacious), infinitive series begin to be used.

The specificity of infinitive texts in Russian poetry was first noticed by A.K. Zholkovsky, who introduced the term "infinitive writing" into scientific circulation. Under the infinitive letter, he proposed to understand:

Absolute infinitives that form independent sentences (such as Sin shamelessly, unawakened), not subject to any control words (such as to; can; I want) or connectives and are not grammatically tied to specific persons and more special modalities;

Homogeneous infinitive series, depending on one control word and, due to their length, developing powerful inertia (What low deceit / Amuse the half-dead, / Correct his pillows ..- A.S. Pushkin, “Eugene Onegin”), (Who will be in front of the army , blazing, / Ride a nag, eat crackers ... - A.G. Derzhavin, "Bullfinch").

Structural variations are also diverse - from stingy homogeneous enumerations of infinitives in the same position to branched constructions with many gerunds, clauses and circumstances.

Infinitive series became the subject of scientific description in the works of O.N. Panchenko. She defines the infinitive series as "a semantic-syntactic unity formed by two or more members, syntactically completely autonomous or, to varying degrees, retaining dependence on the context, which are located in contact and are interconnected by a non-union or coordinative allied connection."

IS HE. Panchenko singled out groups of verbs that are regularly used in infinitive rows: the processes of biological existence and the transition from non-existence to existence, from existence to non-existence, human sensual activity, psychological processes of memory, the physical state of sleep.

A.K. Zholkovsky singled out the theme of infinitive series, analyzed from the point of view of their origin from genre sources:

The topic “meditation” appears in the form of the verbs of thinking, looking, listening, imagining, foreboding, remembering, dreaming, and also in the form of a whole subtopic “creativity, writing, singing”. The genre source of this topos is the traditional landscape and philosophical lyrics.

The theme of “other”, often directly called (One wave to rise into another life / ... / Suddenly get drunk on the unknown, dear / ... / Feel someone else in an instant as your own (Fet)). The source is the tradition of the moralistic depiction of “characters” in satires and epic genres. “Transition to another” entails an interest in real and symbolic “means of transportation” - boats, cabs, cars, trains, steamships (which are also overdetermined by the theme of “life path”).

The theme of “life” (this word itself is one of the most frequent in infinitive writing) unfolds into pictures of the “life cycle” or “typical day” of a character or lyrical subject, into the motives of the passage of time, death, falling asleep / awakening and remembering / forgetting (additionally motivated “meditation”), falling into childhood, returning home. Genre source - similar cyclic plots of meditative and narrative poetry.

Consider the functional meaning of infinitive series. Such series combine the semantic and grammatical features of a noun and a verb. In the infinitive series, infinitives are able not so much to designate the process of action as to name the very actions, states, thereby approaching nominative constructions. I.I. Kovtunova emphasizes the special role of infinitive sentences in creating a subjective associative image in the reader. The name of an action without a subject, without a doer, free from constructive connections and from all concretizing grammatical indicators that the conjugated form of the verb has, expands the circle of associative connections and representations.

The lyrical subject is one of the categories in the analysis of a poetic text. IS HE. Panchenko notes that the infinitive series is more closely connected with the expression of the lyrical state of the hero, while the nominative series only indirectly highlights the state of the lyrical subject.

Nominative and infinitive constructions are similar in their expressive and aesthetic function. They are extremely concise and at the same time expressively express a certain state. The closeness of the expressive-aesthetic function is due to the actualization of the nominative meaning of the noun in the nominative case and the verb in the infinitive form. The different grammatical nature of the parts of speech (noun and verb) determines certain signs of difference between them:

In infinitive series, a more dynamic nature of the reflection of reality is displayed;

Within the nominative series there is a more diverse nature of the semantic connection;

In the nominative series, the use of repetitions can be observed. IS HE. Panchenko analyzed the relationship of infinitive enumerative constructions with certain genres. The main use of infinitive series as an expressive and at the same time economical means is observed in a lyric poem. Their use in the plot poem is rare. Infinitive series are used in certain genre forms of the poem - philosophical, landscape, love lyrics, which directly reflect the inner state of the hero. Nominative rows are used in all genres of lyrics.

Thus, infinitive and nominative series, despite the differences due to the morphological nature of the noun and verb, have certain similarities in syntactic construction, lexical-semantic composition and compositional functions in a poetic text. Enumeration constructions of this type are a syntactic phenomenon specific to poetic speech, since they can express an associative plan in an extremely concise form.

Chapter 2. Linguistic analysis of enumeration structures in the collection of B. Pasternak "When it clears up"

2.1 Thematic analysis of the collection "When it clears up"

An example of a new style was the last collection of poems by B. Pasternak "When it clears up." The collection includes 44 lyrical works written between 1956 and 1959. This period was not easy in the poet's life. Shortly before this, Pasternak had finished work on the novel Doctor Zhivago. Having received a refusal from the editors of the Novy Mir magazine, where the novel was given, Pasternak handed over the manuscript to an Italian publishing house. The release of the novel abroad, the awarding of the Nobel Prize caused a sharp condemnation of Pasternak's work by political and literary figures.

After a long break in work on poetry, the first poems of the collection “When it clears up” were written. Some poems were published in magazines, but the book was published in full after the death of the poet.

In Pasternak's lyrics, everything is intertwined, everything is interconnected: the themes of time and the meaning of life, the value of life and faith in God, the nature and state of man, nature and the city, the poet's creativity and fate, love and loneliness, dreams and historical past.

Consider the main theme of the poems of the collection. The collection begins with the poem "In everything I want to reach ...". J.A. Dozorets emphasizes the special significance of this work, noting that it contains all the topics of the book in one nerve knot, it is connected figuratively, lexically with each of the poems of the book. The poem defines the leitmotif of the book. The theme of the search for the meaning of life, the feeling of the fullness of life through love, nature. “In everything I want to get to the very essence. In work, in search of a way, In heart trouble. To the essence of the past days, To their cause, To the foundation, to the roots, To the core ”- such lines can be the life principle of a person. The theme of the meaning of life is also reflected in other works: "Bread", "Night", "Road", "Around the bend".

With the theme of the meaning of life in Pasternak, the theme of the value of life, the joy of existence is interconnected. We note the poems: “When it clears up”, “Autumn forest”, “Silence”. I.N. Sukhikh wrote the following about the poet: "Pasternak, despite all the dramas of his own life, remained the purest example of an eternal child, an artist happily playing with eternity, a poetic philosopher, stubbornly proving to people that life is beautiful." The theme of the value of life is connected with the theme of faith in God as the creator of "nature, the world, the secret of the universe." The theme is reflected in the poems: "In the hospital", "God's world".

Separately, one can single out the theme of nature in Pasternak's poetry, landscape lyrics. Pasternak's artistic perception of the world is such that nature does not exist by itself, it reflects the state of mind of a person, characterizes historical reality. In his autobiographical Letter of Safe Conduct, Pasternak writes: “We depict people in order to throw the weather on them. The weather, or, what is the same thing, nature - in order to throw our passion on it. We drag everyday life into prose for the sake of poetry, we drag prose into poetry for the sake of music. A.A. Yakobson, in his lectures on B. Pasternak, also notes: “... Pasternak’s nature is spiritualized, just as a person is spiritualized. She lives a complex spiritual life. The breath of nature is a subtle breath. ... If Mayakovsky and Tsvetaeva want to speak for the whole world on their own behalf, then Pasternak prefers the world to speak for him and instead of him: “I’m not talking about spring, but spring is about me”, “I’m not talking about a garden, but a garden about me". Nature in Pasternak speaks and acts on behalf of the author.

In Pasternak's poetry, the lyrical subject in the poem is often dissolved in the surrounding nature and speaks through the images of nature.

In the arrangement of poems about nature in the collection, one can trace the cyclical nature of the seasons. The first poem of lyrics about nature begins with a poem about spring (“Spring in the Forest”), then comes a cycle of poems about summer (“July”, “Silence”, “Hacks”, “Linden Alley”), a cycle about autumn (“Autumn Forest ”,“ Frosts ”,“ Golden Autumn ”,“ Bad weather ”,“ Picking mushrooms ”, a cycle about winter (“After the break”, “First snow), “It is snowing”, “Traces in the snow”, “After a blizzard”, and the natural lyrics ends again with poems about spring ("Around the bend", "Everything came true", "Ploughing"). It is logical to assume that the cycle of the seasons also symbolizes the cycle of life, in which there is hope for its renewal.

The theme of love is reflected in the poems “Eve”, “Untitled (Touchless, quiet in everyday life ...), “Women in childhood”. The woman remains a mystery to the poet.

In Pasternak's poems, one of the central themes is reflections on the purpose of the poet, on the nature of creativity. This theme is clearly heard in the novel "Doctor Zhivago" and in the last book of poems. "Being famous is ugly ..." - the first poem of the poet, written for this collection. Talent is given to a person as a gift of nature, the world, divine essence, but this gift does not make the poet's life easy. It is difficult to see, feel and write without betraying yourself. But creativity raises a person above everyday life, above everyday life. This is evidenced by the lines from the poem "Music": And the city in whistle, noise, din, Like under water at the bottom of legends, Left underfoot below. The theme of creativity, the fate of the writer is reflected in the cycle “Wind. Who should be alive ... (Four passages about Blok)", in the poems "Night", "Music", "After the break", "Nobel Prize".

The title of the collection of poems “When it clears up” is expressed by the adjective of time, which makes a semantic emphasis on the theme of time and sets a certain philosophical direction for the book. On the one hand, as E. Pasternak notes in his book, the spring of 1956, after Khrushchev's speech at the 20th Party Congress with a report exposing the "cult of Stalin", was a special time in the history of Russia. Hopes for liberalization stirred up a frozen literary community. Perhaps the title reflects the poet's expectations for change, "the ability to negotiate everything to the end."

On the other hand, as D. Malevannaya writes in the article “B. Pasternak’s book of poems“ When it clears up ”: the result of a creative path”, the poet has always been distinguished by a heightened sense of time. It emphasizes the close connection of the poet's consciousness with the epochal, which explains his heightened sensitivity to historical reality. The researcher also notes the indivisibility of the historical and natural worlds that exist in Pasternak's view in a single impulse and constant development. According to D. Malevannaya, it is precisely this view of history that is realized in the book “When it clears up”: historical events are compared throughout the book with natural phenomena (the course of historical time is wind, revolution is a storm, liberation from the “guardianship of half a century "- clearing after a thunderstorm, a change in the weather for the better). Views on time, on the course of historical, social changes are reflected in the poems: "The Only Days", "Trip", "Road", "After the Thunderstorm", "It's snowing", "Around the bend", "Grass and stones". The theme of the future clearly sounds in the theme of time.

The collection of poems “When it roams” was studied from the standpoint of literary analysis (for example, D. Malevannaya, the article “The book of poems by B. Pasternak “When it roams”: the result of a life path”), in our work, the study of the collection was carried out in the aspect of the analysis of enumerative constructions as the dominant of the syntactic building books.

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Plan

SYNTAX. GENERAL ISSUES

INTRODUCTORY LECTURE #3-4

1. A variety of scientific approaches to syntax. The ambiguity of the term syntax. The syntactic structure of the language. Brief history of syntactic science.

2. The system of syntactic units.

3. Syntactic connections and relations.

4. Means of syntactic communication and construction of syntactic units.

5. Grammatical meaning of syntactic units.

Modern theoretical linguistics is characterized by the lack of a unified syntax in terms of the conceptual base(hereinafter - C): scientists describe its subject, object of study, problems, aspects in different ways. Analysts of science (http://www.univer.omsk.su/trudy/fil_ezh/n2/odincova.html/) reduce this set to two fundamentally different C . - narrow and wide.

Narrow, chronologically the first, - classic S., from antiquity to the present day, is defined as part of grammar (give or take morphology). The subject of narrow S.– grammatical structure of connected speech . central unit- sentence (construction) - with its grammatical meaning, components (members of the sentence). As part of this S. as special objects minimal structural schemes of phrases and simple sentences are considered. The history of the formation of the ideas of traditional grammatical grammar in Russian studies is described in detail in the following fundamental works: V.V. Vinogradov. From the history of the study of Russian syntax (From Lomonosov to Potebnya and Fortunatov). 1958, Questions of the syntax of the modern Russian language / Ed. V.V. Vinogradov. 1950, Grammatical Concepts in 19th Century Linguistics. 1985). The main ideas of grammatical grammar are reflected in academic grammars (hereinafter: ARG-54 (editor-in-chief V.V. Vinogradov), ARG-70, ARG-80 (editor-in-chief N.Yu. Shvedova), as well as in monographs I.P. Raspopova (The structure of a simple sentence in the modern Russian language. 1970), N. N. Prokopovich (The phrase in the modern Russian literary language. 1966), L.D. Chesnokova (Connections of words in the modern Russian language. 1980), . .S. Skoblikova (Coordination and management in Russian. 1971), P.A. Lekant (Syntax of a simple sentence in modern Russian. 1974).

In the depths of traditional S., with its dominant attention to linguistic forms that were studied outside of their connections with various aspects of the existence of language, the newest S. was born, focused on the study of language in direct connection with the speaker. Studies of the language began to be carried out taking into account the anthropological principle. Its essence lies in the fact that “scientific objects are studied primarily by their role for a person, by their purpose in his life, by their functions for the development of the human personality and its improvement. A person becomes a starting point in the analysis of certain phenomena, he is involved in this analysis, determining its perspective and ultimate goals” [Kubryakova E.S. Evolution of linguistic ideas in the second half of the 20th century (the experience of paradigm analysis) // Language and science of the late 20th century. M., 1995. S. 212].

Thus, the second one appeared - wide, non-classical C. It began to take shape in the 60s and 70s. 20th century, this time in linguistics is called "the assault on the semantics of the sentence." The approximate age of wide S. is 40 years; it is not limited to the grammar and linguistic characteristics of coherent speech. His thing – fundamental linguistic and extralinguistic laws, rules of coherent speech in their functional unity . They realize the main purpose of speech - its ability to provide communication: to form, express, transmit a message as a variety of information (thoughts, feelings, states). The subject of wide S. consists of three blocks. 1. Z the laws of logical thinking. 2. Laws of communicative behavior. 3. Laws of language, providing the formation, expression and communication of information. central unit wide C . – minimal fragment of coherent speech – statement ( act of communicative behavior). The main characteristics of the statement: 1. C wholesome content; 2. Holistic - intonation-sound (or graphic), lexical, grammatical form. 3. Paralinguistic means: elements of body language (facial expressions, gestures, voice).

Let us turn to a pseudo-sentence (i.e., a sentence outside the situation) (V.A. Zvegintsev’s term). He swam a hundred meters freestyle in 45 seconds.(example of Yu.D. Apresyan). Any native speaker of the Russian language, only thanks to his linguistic knowledge (LZ of words, syntactic constructions, intonation) will understand that “swimming crawl, but covered a distance of 100 meters and spent 45 seconds on it.”

If this is an STD to consider as a statement, i.e. as part of a situation, then, against the background of the world swimming table, it can be understood as a message about a world record. In another context: when discussing applicants for inclusion in the national team, for a swimmer whose personal results are worse than those announced, it may mean that he has no place in the national team, etc.

The main ideas of broad S. are reflected in the works of N.D. Arutyunova (Proposal and its meaning. 1976; Types of language meanings. Evaluation. Event. Fact. 1988), I.I. Kovtunova (Modern Russian language. Word order and actual sentence division. 1976); E.V. Paducheva. (Statement and its correlation with reality. 1985; Semantic research. 1996), V.G. Gaka (Statement and situation // Problems of structural linguistics. 1973), Yu.S. Stepanova (Names. Predicates. Suggestions. 1981) and others.

Wide C. in terms of its problems, aspects, it is figuratively associated with the expanding Universe, because speech communication, even individual communicative acts, is difficult to know and describe exhaustively. For more details see: Zhinkin N.I. Speech as a conductor of information. (M., 1982). Perhaps the subject of this S. will be under the jurisdiction of another science called, for example, speech science (the term was proposed by A.P. Skovorodnikov, T.V. Shmeleva, and others).

Today it has been established that, from a linguo-creative point of view, the roles of communication participants are different. The speaker is an active participant, the listener is a passive one. Choosing a field of study, the modern syntaxist accepts the positions of either narrow or wide S. In the first case, he repels from the form of speech, engaged in S. listener - passive C. The listener is the recipient of information, the interpreter, who perceives and analyzes the linguistic form of the message addressed to him. So he extracts content from it. Rising to the position of a wide S., the syntacticist proceeds from the content (meanings), engaged active C., that is, the product and purpose of the initiative communicative influence of the speaker, the creator of the utterance.

Passive S. is otherwise called structural-semantic, active - functional, onomasiological. These Cs are in principle mutually reversible, just as the rules for encoding and decoding are reversible in any information systems. True, so far no one has succeeded in confirming this proposition by convincingly illustrating it with observations on natural languages. Modern linguistics strives (drifts) into speech infinity, because language- according to their basic functions are nothing but a means of expressing thoughts (will, feelings) and, most importantly, the reality of human communication. For more details, see: Kolshansky G.V. (Communicative function and structure of language. 1984); Kamenskaya O.L. (Text and communication. M., 1990).

The relationship between the briefly characterized narrow(grammatical, structural-semantic, passive) S. and broad(communicative-logical, functional, active) S. in the linguistics of our days is realized in different ways.

1. How integrative: the first is included in the second as one of its mechanisms - in terms of form. See monographs by T.P. Lomteva (Sentence structure in modern Russian. 1979), O.I. Moskalskaya (Problems of System Description of Syntax, 1974) and others.

2. How consciously oppositional, critical, mainly from representatives of the traditional S. See the works of I.P. Raspopov (Controversial issues of syntax. 1981), Yu.V. Fomenko (Difficult and controversial issues of the syntax of the modern Russian language. 1997).

3. How neutral: supporters of certain versions of S., as it were, do not notice each other, do not attach importance to the absence of a conceptually unified S. in modern linguistics. See: Syntax // A Brief Guide to the Modern Russian Language / Ed. P.A. Lekanta. 1995.

In other words, objectively in today's linguistics there is an atmosphere syntactic pluralism(for science this is the norm). We set our educational task to the best of our ability to highlight the main provisions of each approach.

Syntactic pluralism is manifested in reference linguistic publications, in monographic studies, in university textbooks (on Russian, etc.). Let us illustrate this by referring to two definitions of the same term.

1) Syntax is called a) the whole area of ​​the grammatical structure of the language, which covers a variety of constructions formed according to certain rules for connecting words; b) the whole area of ​​grammatical science, which studies the constructions named in item a [ARG-80. S.5].

2) The subject of syntax is the word in its relation and connection with other words in speech, rules for the formation of larger units from words that provide verbal communication [Modern Russian literary language. Textbook, ed. P.A. Lekanta. 1982. S. 246. Further - Lekant].

Let's compare both definitions. The first one focuses on result actions of syntactic rules, in the second - on process their actions. In addition, ARG-80 does not mention that syntactic constructions do not exist outside of connected speech, they are the arsenal of the Language, and in the textbook syntax is immersed in Speech: syntax studies how language units are obtained from words that can be used in connected speech .

Both of these approaches do not in the least contradict each other: they only consider the same area of ​​scientific knowledge from different points of view. The first approach is narrow, structural. The second is broad, communicative.

The term S. is used to designate both the object of study and the branch of the science of language.

Language syntax- this is its syntactic structure (object of study), a set of laws operating in the language that regulate the construction of syntactic units. In a general language system, the syntactic level is a phenomenon of a higher order, because for successful communication, for expressing thoughts, it is not enough just to select lexemes, it is necessary to establish a grammatically correct connection between words. No matter how rich the vocabulary of the language is, it still lends itself to inventory, but “the language is inexhaustible in combining words” (A.S. Pushkin). These word combinations are countless! However, it is precisely in grammar (and, first of all, in syntax) that the national, mental specificity of each language lies. All words of the language must obey the rules of word compatibility. The syntactic structure of the Russian language is very diverse, it is constantly developing and improving.

Syntax as a science- This is a section of grammar that illuminates the syntactic structure of the language, the structure and meaning of syntactic units, which has a glorious history.

To study syntax as a science of the syntactic structure of a language means to master its two main parts: the syntax of a phrase and the syntax of a sentence, that is, the system of syntactic units in their connections and relations.

University Syntax Course- a way of mastering this object. No syntactic theory can be perfect and complete, but it should not be frozen and monolithic. The path of knowledge is long and endless, each researcher finds something new and misses something. We set as our educational goal to teach students to understand different approaches to the object, to understand how these approaches complement, enrich each other, how they conflict with each other, and sometimes within themselves, what issues remain unresolved. Syntax forms thoughts, and teaching it is aimed at developing the thinking of students, their ability to independently evaluate and successfully apply the acquired knowledge in their professional activities.

Basic concepts of syntax- syntactic units, syntactic relations, syntactic links and syntactic semantics.

§ 1. The subject of syntax. The term "syntax" is used to denote both the object of study and the section of the science of language. The syntax of a language is its syntactic structure, a set of laws operating in the language that regulate the construction of syntactic units. Syntax as a science is a section of grammar that illuminates the syntactic structure of the language, the structure and meaning of syntactic units. "Syntax" - the Greek word (syn1akh1z), literally means "drawing up", "construction", "build". Indeed, syntax as a science of the syntactic structure of a language allows one to show the system of syntactic units, the connections and relationships between them, from what and how they are composed, how, by what means the components (elements) are connected into syntactic units.

The fundamental concepts of syntax are the concepts of a system of syntactic units, syntactic relations, syntactic links (and means of communication), and grammatical (syntactic) semantics.

§ 2. The system of syntactic units. Syntactic units are constructions in which their elements (components) are united by syntactic links and relations. As part of syntactic units, modified words are used in one of their forms (word forms), which together form the morphological paradigm of the word. Yes, in the proposal By morning, frost will stick on_ pine branches_(Kedrin) 7 words, but 5 word forms, since the preposition is an element of the word form and is part of the members of the sentence. In this sentence, the number of word forms and members of the sentence coincides, but such a ratio is not always observed. In a sentence Strong evening dew must have fallen on the grass(L. Tolstoy) 7 word forms, but 5 members of the sentence.

Word forms are studied both in morphology and in syntax. In syntax, word forms are considered as building elements of syntactic units.

Phrases are built from word forms: warm rain, half of the night, start to drizzle etc.

Simple sentences are built from word forms and phrases: Warm rain began to drizzle from midnight(Paustovsky).

Complex sentences are built from simple sentences, differing in the degree of semantic and grammatical cohesion. Yes, from the suggestions The wind blew from land and The water was calm on the shore you can form a complex non-union, compound and complex sentences: The wind blew from land - near the shore the water was calm; The wind blew from the land, and the water was calm near the shore; If the wind was blowing from land, the water was calm near the shore.(Other complex sentences are possible.)

A complex syntactic whole is built from simple and complex sentences" For example: Our people have always loved, known and appreciated the forest. No wonder so many fairy tales and songs are written about our dense forests. In the forests is our future, the fate of our crops, our full-flowing rivers, our health and, to a certain extent, our culture. Therefore, the forest must be protected, as we protect human life, how we protect our culture and all the achievements of our extraordinary era.(Paustovsky). In this complex syntactic whole, simple and complex sentences are united by a common micro-theme. The means of expressing interphrase connections and relationships are intonation (in oral speech), word order, pronominal adverb, and therefore the repetition of word forms forest and ours. So, the main syntactic units are a phrase, a sentence (simple and complex), a complex syntactic whole. Such a hierarchy of syntactic units reflects a view of them "from below". Syntactic units can also be considered in a different sequence (“from above”): divide a complex syntactic whole into simple and complex sentences, complex sentences into simple (predicative parts), predicative parts into combinations of words (including phrases), and in combinations of words and sentences to highlight word forms (members of the sentence).

These two approaches to the allocation of syntactic units reflect different levels of the syntax system, in which units of a lower level are included in units of a higher level and, conversely, units of a higher level are divided into units of a lower level. Syntactic units of a lower level in constructions of a higher level act as elements (components!) that enter into syntactic links and relations with each other. For linguistic and methodological purposes, the first approach is more legitimate (from less complex structures to more complex ones), although the second approach is more “syntactic”, since it allows you to show how syntactic units function in speech, how they change, combining with each other, entering into those or other connections and relationships. So, simple sentences as part of complex ones lose their semantic and intonational independence, the order of the components may change in speech, such combinations of words may appear that cannot be built outside the sentence, etc. These include predicative combinations (combinations of subject and predicate) , rows of homogeneous members of the sentence, etc. For example, in the sentence And, trees sounded, rang, air and meadows (Yashin) there is not a single phrase in a strict terminological meaning, but there is only a predicative combination and composed rows of word forms in the position of the subject and predicate.

The difference between the approaches "from below" and "from above" is especially evident when comparing word forms and sentence members. Word forms are the minimum elements of syntactic units, from which phrases and sentences are formed. The members of the sentence are the structural and semantic components of the sentence. They exist only as part of the sentence and are isolated from it. As part of a sentence, word forms act as members of a sentence or are part of them.

Looking “from below” and “from above” at the same syntactic phenomenon makes it possible to see its different sides, therefore, when describing individual syntactic units, both approaches will be taken into account or the one that will allow showing more significant features of syntactic units.

Methodological note. At school, students practically get acquainted with all the indicated syntactic units, only, instead of a complex syntactic whole, a “text” is introduced, which is defined as “several sentences related in meaning and grammatically”

§ 3. Syntactic connections and relations. Syntactic links and relationships between elements (components) of syntactic units are the main feature of syntactic constructions2 Syntactic link is an expression of the relationship of elements in syntactic units.

The main types of syntactic communication are composition and subordination. When composing, syntactically equal components are combined, while subordinating - syntactically unequal: one acts as the main one, the other as a dependent one. A coordinative link connects homogeneous members and parts of compound sentences, a subordinating link connects word forms in the composition of phrases and sentences, as well as parts of complex sentences.

The syntactic links of the elements of syntactic units express syntactic (semantic) relations, which reflect the relations between objects and phenomena of reality. Reality is reflected in the language through generalization in logical and psychological categories: judgments, concepts and ideas. Language performs the function of communication only because thought is formed and expressed in it.

Syntax in the language system begins where there are syntactic relations between elements.

Syntactic relations are divided into predicative and non-predicative. Predicative relations are characteristic of the grammatical basis of the sentence: subject and predicate. Non-predicative relations, in turn, are divided into coordinating and subordinating (attributive (defining), objective and adverbial). They can occur between the components of all syntactic units.

Under the influence of syntactic relations, elements can change some of their properties. Thus, a word form in space has the lexical and grammatical meaning of a place. In the phrase flights in space (cf .: space flights) between word forms flights and in space there are attributive relations that complicate the lexical and grammatical meaning of the word form in space.

§ 4. Means of syntactic connection and construction of syntactic units. To build syntactic units, word forms, auxiliary words, typed lexical elements, intonation, word order, etc. are used. They also serve to formalize syntactic links and relations.

Word forms as minimal elements of syntactic constructions with their lexico-grammatical properties serve the semantic side of syntactic constructions, and endings and prepositions are elements of word forms that have syntactic meaning.

The main function of the ending is to express syntactic links and relationships between word forms in the composition of phrases and sentences. Therefore, the ending is called a service morpheme. The role of endings in the design of a subordinating connection is especially important: in coordination and management.

Note. Of the other morphemes for syntax, prefixes (prefixes) are important in some cases, especially those that are part of verb forms. Often they determine the associative (valent) properties of verb forms and correlate in their role with prepositions: enter a room, walk to a forest, take a break from work, drive off a mountain, etc. The composition of word forms includes prepositions that complement and enhance the service role of endings. In a sentence On the cold gray marble the yellow leaves lie(Kedrin) 6 word forms (the preposition na is part of the word form on marble, despite the fact that it is separated from the noun by adjectives). Connections and relationships between word forms in this sentence (and the phrases that this sentence has) are formed using endings and the preposition on.

The role of derivative prepositions in the expression of syntactic connections and relations is especially clearly manifested, since they, while maintaining live word-formation connections with significant words, concretize and clarify the semantics of those word forms that they are part of. Wed: near the house - near the house, in front of the house, behind the house, past the house, around the house, along the house, etc.

Important means of constructing syntactic units are other auxiliary words - conjunctions and particles. Conjunctions, connecting homogeneous members of a sentence, parts of complex sentences and components of a complex syntactic whole, express their grammatical meanings. For example, subordinating conjunctions when, before, after, etc. express the meaning of time, because, since, for and others - the meaning of the cause, so- the meaning of the consequence.

Less bright signaling of grammatical meanings are composing conjunctions, but they also express the semantic relationships between the composed components. These shades are perceived with varying degrees of clarity by speakers for whom Russian is their native language.

The category of unions is constantly replenished. Their functions are assumed by some significant parts of speech, modal words, particles. Unions are often accompanied by semantic concretizers, clarifying, differentiating the expressed meanings: and yet, and yet, and therefore, etc. Cf .: Not only people, but also ideas can cause tides of hatred(Paustovsky) - Both people and ideas can evoke... The increase in the range of allied means is due to the desire to clarify the shades of the semantics of statements. Particles and their combinations can form inseparable sentences (Yes. No. But how! So what! Of course! Etc.), formulate the syntactic meanings of sentences, sentence members, act as semantic concretizers, independently perform the functions of means of communication of syntactic units, highlight the semantic center of statements, etc.

Particles are not included in the members of the sentence if they form the grammatical meaning of the entire sentence. For example: Is it possible that room conditions will remain in the cabin at thousand-degree temperatures?(Stepanov). In other cases, particles, like prepositions, are part of the members of the sentence: Curly bushes of lilac in some places seemed to have been sprinkled on top with something white and purple.(L. Tolstoy). An important role in the construction of syntactic constructions is played by the lexical means of the language, which are called typed. These include pronominal words: interrogative and relative (who, what, which, where, where, etc.), demonstrative (this, that, such, etc. in various forms; there, there, therefore, and below); lexico-semantic groupings of words of other significant parts of speech (they can be combined thematically, as well as by synonymous or antonymic connections, etc.).

Typed lexical means also take part in the formation (construction) of simple sentences. So, interrogative pronominal words are one of the means of forming interrogative sentences, the lexical and grammatical group of impersonal verbs ( shine, frost etc.) forms the structural center of one-part impersonal sentences; thematic group of verbs with the meaning of speech ( speak, say etc.) - a component of sentences with direct speech, etc.

For the structure of syntactic units, the order of their components is very important, which is determined by semantic and structural factors. In Russian, the order of the components of syntactic units has two types: direct (fixed) and inverted (free). With a direct order, each component of syntactic constructions occupies a certain place, with a free order, the components can change their place.

One of the means of expressing syntactic meanings and emotionally expressive coloring of syntactic units is n-to nats and I, the constituent elements of which are the melody of speech (raising and lowering the voice when pronouncing sentences), rhythm, tempo and timbre of speech, as well as logical stress that highlights the informative center in the sentence.

Intonation is included in the number of essential features of the sentence, since it is one of the indicators of completeness, the integrity of the sentence in oral speech; intonation forms the types of simple sentences distinguished by the purpose of the statement, gives them an emotional coloring, expresses syntactic connections and relations between the members of the sentence, etc. Intonation is also very important when expressing the verbal meaning of the sentence: it can turn a positive assessment into a negative one, etc. The intonational characteristic of syntactic units in written speech (in the language of fiction) is often given with the help of lexical-semantic groups of words that perform the functions of circumstances of the mode of action, with verbs of speech: reproachfully, reproachfully... angrily, joyfully... quickly, slowly...; quietly, loudly ... with an emphasis on ... etc.

Several means are usually involved in the construction of syntactic constructions.

§ 5. Grammatical meanings of syntactic units. In the morphology of the "parts of speech", lexical and grammatical (categorical, general grammatical) meanings are distinguished. The same is true in syntax. All syntactic units and their components have lexical (speech, individual) and grammatical (linguistic, syntactic, categorical, etc.) values.

Let us consider in the most general form the difference between lexical and grammatical semantics on the example of some phrases and sentences.

Let's take two sets of phrases: a warm day, a magnificent palace, an ironic smile; sing songs, shed tears, take tests. Each of these phrases has its own lexical meaning, determined by the lexical meanings of the words included in these phrases. In addition, the first group of phrases differs from the second in grammatical meaning, due to the different structure of these phrases. So, the first row has a common grammatical meaning - “an object and its sign” (defining relations), the general grammatical meaning of the second row is “action and the object to which the action passes” (object relations) These common meanings are called the grammatical meanings of phrases. The question of the semantics of sentences is currently the subject of heated debate, however, some provisions have already entered the practice of university and school teaching, since syntactic units cannot be studied without attention to semantics.

In offers Students listen to lectures; Pupils learn lessons; Collective farmers harvest- grammatical meaning - a message about the subject and its action (predicative sign)

In offers Do students listen to lectures? Are students learning? Do collective farmers harvest crops?- grammatical meaning - a question about the subject and its action.

In offers Students, listen to lectures! Students, learn your lessons! Collective farmers, harvest!- grammatical meaning - motivation to action.

These general meanings of sentences can be supplemented with the grammatical meaning of phrases: listen to lectures, learn lessons, harvest("action passing to the object")

Compare the following series of proposals: Students listen to lectures; Students work with a book; Our best students work hard; Students work in the evenings; Students work in the library etc. All these sentences have a common grammatical meaning - "a message about the subject and its action." The difference is determined not only by different speech, but also by different typical meanings of phrases: object, attributive, adverbial.

Thus, grammatical (linguistic, syntactic) semantics is the general meaning of syntactic units of the same structure. Lexical semantics is a speech, concrete, individual meaning of a particular syntactic unit associated with the lexical meanings of words and word forms.

Note. In school and university practice of teaching the Russian language, the concepts of "language" and "speech" are not clearly opposed, but they are not identified either. They are considered as two sides of one phenomenon, interconnected and complementary. In accordance with this, the term "linguistic semantics" is often used as a generic name for the meanings of all units of the language, and specific designations are used for various levels of the language system. For units of morphology and syntax (sections of grammar), the general term is the term "grammatical semantics", which can be differentiated: "morphological semantics" for parts of speech (categorical meaning), "syntactic semantics" for units of syntax.

The term “lexical meaning” (“lexical semantics”) is used as a generic name for the individual meanings of units of speech in syntax, although it is not entirely accurate, since the “speech meaning” (“speech semantics”) of syntactic units does not arise from a simple sum of lexical meanings. combining components, but is complicated by additional semantic shades that are introduced into the semantics of syntactic units by connections and relationships between components, the entire text as a whole, etc.

The syntactic and lexical semantics of syntactic units and their components differ from each other by varying degrees of abstraction: syntactic semantics is the highest level of generalization of lexical semantics. Syntactic and lexical semantics can be represented as different poles, between which lies a zone of transitional phenomena, reflecting different levels of abstraction. In this zone of grammatical and lexical interaction, structural-semantic types of sentences, phrases, etc. are formed. The syntactic semantics of the varieties of these sentences, phrases, etc. is called typical semantics. Thus, the general grammatical meaning of an impersonal sentence It's cold in the room is a message, and its typical value is the state of the environment; the general grammatical meaning of the subject is the meaning of the subject of speech (thought), and its typical meanings are the doer (producer of the action) and the carrier of the sign. Wed: The wind is howling and the wind was strong. The general meaning of the circumstances is specified by the typical values ​​of the circumstances of the place, time, cause, purpose, etc. Methodological note. The school textbook considers the grammatical meanings of both phrases (p. 22-23) and sentences (p. 31) (2 Hereinafter, with reference to the school textbook, see: Barkhudarov S. G., Kryuchkov S. E. Maksimov L Yu., Cheshko L.A. Russian language: Textbook for grades 7-8. - 12th ed., revised - M., 1985.) The grammatical meanings of phrases are associated with their structure, and sentences - with the meanings of the moods of the verb-predicate.

§ 6. Syntax in the language system. In modern studies, language is considered as a system of systems in which subsystems (tiers, levels) are distinguished. Phonology is considered the lowest tier (level), syntax is considered the highest. The multi-level nature of the “language building” can be called multi-storey: syntactic units are located on the upper floor, sounds (phonemes) are located on the lower floor, the middle floors are occupied by the remaining units in accordance with their functions in language and speech.

Completing the "building of the language", syntactic units cannot exist without support on other floors: without the lower floors, the building will crumble. From above, from the floor of the syntactic level, the relationship and interdependence of individual tiers is better seen, so the syntax allows you to show the organic connections between vocabulary, morphology, syntax, etc.

See for more details: Babaitseva V.V. Semantics of a simple sentence: A sentence as a multidimensional unit of language. - M. 1983.