Syntax in Literature. Syntax of poetic speech

Artistic speech requires attention to its shades and nuances. “In poetry, any speech element turns into a figure of poetic speech”158.

The figurativeness of artistic speech depends not only on the choice of words, but also on how these words are combined in a sentence and other syntactic constructions, with what intonation they are pronounced and how they sound.

The figurative expressiveness of speech is facilitated by special techniques for constructing phrases and sentences, which are called syntactic figures.

Figure (from Latin figura - outline, image, appearance) (rhetorical figure, stylistic figure, figure of speech) - a generalized name for stylistic devices in which the word, unlike tropes, does not necessarily appear in a figurative sense. Their selection and classification were started by ancient rhetoric. The figures are built on special combinations of words that go beyond the usual "practical" use and are intended to enhance the expressiveness and descriptiveness of the text. Since the figures are formed by a combination of words, they use certain stylistic possibilities of syntax, but in all cases the meanings of the words forming the figure are very important.

Syntactic figures individualize speech, give it an emotional coloring. We can talk about the organizational role of syntactic figures in a particular fragment of a work of art and even in the whole text. There are various classifications of syntactic figures. Nevertheless, with all the variety of approaches to their selection, two groups can be defined: 1)

figures of addition (decrease), which are associated with an increase (decrease) in the volume of the text and carry a certain semantic load; 2)

amplification figures that are associated with an increase in emotionality and expansion of semantic content. Within this group, one can distinguish such subgroups as "pure" figures of amplification (gradation), rhetorical figures, figures of "displacement" (inversion), figures of "opposition" (antithesis).

Let's consider the figures of addition (decrease). These include all types of repetitions that serve to highlight and emphasize important points and links in the subject-speech fabric of the work.

R.O. Jacobson, referring to the ancient Indian treatise "Natyashastra", where repetition, along with metaphor, is spoken of as one of the main figures of speech, argued: "The essence of the poetic fabric consists in periodic returns"1. All sorts of returns to what has already been said, indicated are very diverse in lyrical works. Repeats have been investigated

V.M. Zhirmunsky in the work "Theory of Verse" (in the section "Composition of lyrical works"), because repetitions of various types are of great importance in the strophic composition of a poem, in creating a special melodious intonation.

Repetitions are very rare in business speech, frequent in both oratorical and artistic prose, and quite common in poetry. Yu.M. Lotman, citing the lines of B. Okudzhava:

You hear the drum roar

Soldier, say goodbye to her, say goodbye to her ..,

writes: “The second verse does not at all mean an invitation to say goodbye twice. Depending on the intonation of the reader, it can mean: "Soldier, hurry up to say goodbye, and" the person is already leaving" or "Soldier, say goodbye to her, say goodbye forever ..." But never: "Soldier, say goodbye to her, once again say goodbye to her." Thus, the doubling of the word does not mean a mechanical doubling of the concept, but a different, new, more complicated content"159.

The word “contains its material content plus an expressive halo, more or less strongly pronounced. Obviously, when the content is repeated, the material (objective, conceptual, logical) does not change, but the expression noticeably increases, even neutral words become emotional.<...>the repeated word is always more expressive than the previous one, it creates the effect of gradation, emotional pressure, which is so important in the composition of both the whole lyrical poem and its parts.

Repetition at a precisely fixed place in a poem has even greater compositional and expressive significance. We are talking about such types of repetitions as refrain, anaphora, epiphora (they will be discussed below), joint or pickup, pleonasm, etc.

Repeating elements can be adjacent and follow one after another (constant repetition), or they can be separated by other elements of the text (distant repetition).

The general view of the constant repetition is a doubling of the concept: It's time, it's time! Horns blow (A. Pushkin); I thank you for everything, for everything... (M. Lermontov); Every house is alien to me, every temple is empty to me, and it doesn’t matter, and everything is one (M. Tsvetaeva).

Ring, or prosapodosis (Greek rovarosiozіz, lit. - super-increase) - a repetition of a word or group of words at the beginning and end of the same verse or column: Horse, horse, half the kingdom for the horse! (W. Shakespeare); Cloudy sky, cloudy night! (A. Pushkin).

Joint (pickup), or anadyplosis (Greek apasіirІozіB - doubling) - repetition of a word (group of words) of a verse at the beginning of the next line:

Oh, spring, without end and without edge -

Endless and endless dream!

and at the end of the verse at the beginning of the following:

What are you, a splinter, do not burn clearly?

Do not burn clearly, do not flare up?

In book poetry, the joint is rare:

I dreamed of catching the departing shadows.

The fading shadows of the fading day...

(K. Balmont)

Pleonasm (from the Greek pleonasmos - excess) - verbosity, the use of words that are unnecessary both for semantic completeness and for stylistic expressiveness (adult man, path-road, sadness-longing). The extreme form of pleonasm is called tautology.

Amplification (otlat. amplificatio - increase, spread) - strengthening the argument by "heaping" equivalent expressions, excessive synonymy; in poetry it is used to enhance the expressiveness of speech:

Floats, flows, runs like a boat,

And how high above the ground!

(I. Bunin)

You are alive, you are in me, you are in my chest,

As a support, as a friend and as a case.

(B. Pasternak)

Anaphora (Greek anaphora - pronouncement) - monotony - repetition of a word or group of words at the beginning of several verses, stanzas, columns or phrases:

The circus shines like a shield.

The circus is squealing on the fingers,

The circus on the pipe howls

Hits soul to soul.

(V. Khlebnikov)

daily thoughts,

Day souls - away:

Daytime thoughts Stepped into the night.

(V. Khodasevich)

Above were examples of verbal anaphora, but it can also be sound, with the repetition of individual consonances:

Open the dungeon for me

Give me the shine of the day

black eyed girl,

Black-maned horse.

(M. Lermontov)

Anaphora can be syntactic:

We won't tell the commander

We won't tell anyone.

(M. Svetlov)

A. Fet in the poem "I came to you with greetings" uses an anaphora at the beginning of the second, third, fourth stanzas. He starts like this:

I came to you with greetings

Say that the sun has risen

That it trembled with hot light On the sheets.

Tell that the forest woke up;

Tell that with the same passion

Like yesterday, I came again

Tell me that from everywhere It blows fun on me.

The repetition of the verb "to tell", used by the poet in each stanza, allows him to smoothly and almost imperceptibly move from describing nature to describing the feelings of the lyrical hero. A. Fet uses anaphoric composition, which is one of the ways of the semantic and aesthetic organization of speech, the development of a thematic image.

An entire poem can be built on the anaphora:

Wait for me and I will come back,

Just wait a lot

Wait for the yellow rains to bring sadness,

Wait for the snow to come

Wait when it's hot

Wait when others are not expected

Forgetting yesterday.

(K. Simonov)

V. Khlebnikov's quatrain is filled with deep philosophical meaning:

When horses die, they breathe

When grasses die, they dry

When the suns die, they go out

When people die, they sing songs. Epiphora (from the Greek epiphora - additive) - repetition of a word or group of words at the end of several poetic lines, stanzas:

Dear friend, and in this quiet house the fever beats me.

I can't find peace in a quiet house Near a peaceful fire.

Steppes and roads The count is not over:

Stones and thresholds No account found.

(E. Bagritsky)

Epiphora also occurs in prose. In The Tale of Igor's Campaign, Svyatoslav's "golden word", which addresses the Russian princes with the idea of unification, ends with a repetition of the call: Let's stand up for the Russian land, for the wounds of Igor, the fierce Svyatoslavich! A.

C. Pushkin, with his inherent irony, in the poem “My family tree”, ends each stanza with the same word philistine, varying it in different ways: I am a philistine, I am a philistine, / I, thank God, a philistine, / Nizhny Novgorod philistine.

Another type of repetition is a refrain (in translation from French - chorus) - a word, verse, or group of verses rhythmically repeated after a stanza, often differing in their metrical features (poetic size) from the main text. For example, every sixth stanza of M. Svetlov's poem "Grenada" ends with the refrain: Grenada, Grenada, / My Grenada! b.

M. Zhirmunsky in the article “Composition of lyrical poems” defined the refrain as follows: these are “endings that are isolated from the rest of the poem in metrical, syntactic and thematic terms”1. In the presence of refrains, the thematic (compositional) closure of the stanza is enhanced. It is also strengthened by the division of the verse into stanzas, they are more clearly separated from each other; if the refrain is not in every stanza, but in a pair, three, then thereby it creates a larger compositional unit. Masterfully used the refrain in the ballad "The Triumph of the Winners" by V.A. Zhukovsky. After each stanza, he gives different quatrains, "separated" in metrical and thematic terms. Here are two of them:

The trial is over, the dispute is resolved; Happy is the one to whom the radiance The struggle has ceased; Being saved

Fate has fulfilled everything: The one to whom it is given to taste

The great city collapsed. Goodbye to my dear homeland!

But in the "Song of the Wretched Wanderer" by N.A. Nekrasov at the end of each stanza, two refrains are repeated in turn: Cold, wanderer, cold and Hungry, wanderer, hungry. They determine the emotional mood of the poem about the hard life of the people.

M. Svetlov in one of the poems simultaneously uses several types of repetitions:

All jewelry stores -

they are yours.

All birthdays, all name days - they are yours.

All the aspirations of youth are yours.

And all the happy lovers lips - they are yours.

And all the military bands of the pipe - they are yours.

This whole city, all these buildings - they are yours.

All the bitterness of life and all the suffering - they are mine.

The poem by A.S. Kochetkov "Do not part with your loved ones!":

Don't part with your loved ones!

Grow in them with all your blood -

And every time forever say goodbye!

And every time forever say goodbye

When you leave for a moment!

The anaphoric connection is not external, it is not a mere embellishment of speech. “Structural connections (syntactic, intonational, verbal, sound repetitions) express and hold together the semantic connections of verses and stanzas, it is they, in a stepped composition, that make us understand that we are not facing a simple kaleidoscope of individual images, but the harmonious development of the theme that the subsequent image follows from the previous one, and not just adjacent to it. The repetition of a word or phrase can also be in prose. Olga Ivanovna, the heroine of Chekhov's story "The Jumper", exaggerates her role in the life of the artist Ryabovsky. This is emphasized by the repetition of the word "influence" in her unselfishly direct speech: But this, she thought, he created under her influence, and in general, thanks to her influence, he changed greatly for the better. Her influence is so beneficial and significant that if she leaves him, then he, perhaps, may perish.

The expressiveness of speech also depends on how unions and other auxiliary words are used in it. If sentences are built without unions, then speech is accelerated, and a deliberate increase in unions gives speech slowness, smoothness, therefore polysyndeton belongs to the addition figures.

Polysyndeton, or polyunion (Greek polysyndetos - multiply connected) - such a construction of speech (mainly poetic), in which the number of unions between words is increased; pauses between words emphasize individual words and enhance their expressiveness:

And shine, and noise, and the sound of waves.

(A. Pushkin)

And deity, and inspiration,

And life, and tears, and love.

(A. Pushkin)

I carved the world with a flint and cleaver,

And unsteady - I brought a smile to my lips,

And smoke - haze lit up the house,

And he lifted up sweet smoke about the former.

(V. Khlebnikov)

Decrease figures include asyndeton, default, ellipse (is).

Asyndeton, or non-union (Greek asyndeton - unconnected) is such a construction of speech (mainly poetic), in which conjunctions connecting words are omitted. This is a figure that gives dynamism to speech.

A.S. Pushkin uses it in Poltava, as he needs to show a quick change of actions during the battle:

Drum beat, clicks, rattle,

The thunder of cannons, the clatter, the neighing, the groan...

With the help of non-union N.A. Nekrasov in the poem "Railway" enhances the expressiveness of the phrase:

Straight path, narrow embankments,

Poles, rails, bridges.

In M. Tsvetaeva, with the help of non-union, a whole gamut of feelings is transmitted:

Here is the window again

Where they don't sleep again.

Maybe drink wine

Maybe they sit like that.

Or just hands Do not separate the two.

In every house, friend,

There is a window.

Silence is a figure that makes it possible to guess what could have been discussed in a suddenly interrupted statement.

Many thoughts are awakened by the lines of I. Bunin:

I do not like, oh Russia, your timid

A thousand years of slave poverty.

But this cross, but this ladle is white...

Humble, native traits!

Bunin's view of the Russian national character was due to the dual nature of the Russian people. In Cursed Days, he defined this duality as follows: There are two types in the people. In one, Russia predominates, in the other - Chud, Merya. Bunin loved ancient Kievan Rus to self-forgetfulness - hence the figure of default gives rise to so many thoughts in the above lines.

An example of the use of this figure in prose is the dialogue between Anna Sergeevna and Gurov in Chekhov's Lady with a Dog. The silence here is fully justified by the fact that both characters are overwhelmed with feelings, they want to say a lot, and the meetings are short. Anna Sergeevna recalls herself in her youth: When I married him, I was twenty years old, I was tormented by curiosity, I wanted something better, because there is, I said to myself, another life. I wanted to live! Live and live ... And curiosity burned me ...

Gurov wants to be understood: But understand, Anna, understand ... - he said in an undertone, in a hurry. I beg you, please understand...

Elly n s (is) (from the Greek eIeirviz - omission, loss) - the main variety of figures of decrease, based on the omission of the implied word, easily restored in meaning; one of the defaults. With the help of an ellipsis, dynamism and emotionality of speech is achieved:

Whisper, timid breath,

trill nightingale,

Silver and the ripple of the Sleepy Stream...

The ellipsis expresses the deformation of the general language syntax. Here is an example of skipping the implied word: ... and looked for the last [time] as the legitimate [husband] was lying, pressing the lapel [of the jacket] with a pood's hand ... (B. Slutsky).

In artistic literature, the ellipsis acts as a figure, with the help of which a special expressiveness is achieved. Artistic ellipsis is associated with colloquial turns. Most often, the verb is omitted, which gives the text dynamism:

Let ... But chu! No time to play!

To the horses, brother, and a foot in the stirrup,

Saber out - and slaughter! Vї>t God gives us another feast.

(D. Davydov)

In prose, the ellipsis is mainly used in direct speech and in narration from the point of view of the narrator. Maxim Maksimych in "Bel" tells about one episode from the life of Pechorin: Grigory Alexandrovich squealed no worse than any Chechen; a gun from a case, and there - I follow him.

Let us turn to the figures of amplification (gradation, rhetorical figures, inversion, antithesis).

Gradation belongs to the “pure” amplification figures.

Gradation (lat. gradatio - gradual increase) is a syntactic construction in which each subsequent word or group of words strengthens or weakens the semantic and emotional meaning of the previous ones.

There is an ascending gradation (climax) and a descending gradation (anticlimax). The first in Russian literature is used more often.

Klymaks (from the Greek klimax - stairs) - a stylistic figure, a kind of gradation, suggesting the arrangement of words or expressions related to one subject, in ascending order: I do not regret, I do not call, I do not cry (S. Yesenin) ; And where is Mazepa? Where is the villain? Where did Judas flee in fear? (A. Pushkin); Neither call, nor shout, nor help (M. Voloshin); I called you, but you didn’t look back, / I teared up, but you didn’t descend (A. Blok).

Anticlimax (Greek anti - against, klimax - stairs) - a stylistic figure, a kind of gradation in which the significance of words gradually decreases:

He promises half the world

France only for myself.

(M. Lermontov)

All facets of feelings

All facets of truth erased

In worlds, in years, in hours.

(A. Bely)

like a bomb

like a razor

double-edged

like an explosive

at twenty sorry

two meters tall.

(V. Mayakovsky)

A multifaceted gradation lies in the composition of Pushkin's "Tale of the Fisherman and the Fish", built on the growing desires of the old woman, who wanted to become a noblewoman, queen, and then "mistress of the sea."

The figures of amplification include rhetorical figures. They give artistic speech emotionality and expressiveness. G.N. Pospelov calls them “emotional-rhetorical types of intonation”1, because in artistic speech no one answers emotional-rhetorical questions, but they arise to create emphatic intonation. The definition of "rhetorical" fixed in the names of these figures does not indicate that they developed in oratory prose, and then in fiction.

Rhetorical question (from the Greek.

GeShe - speaker) - one of the syntactic figures; such a construction of speech, mainly poetic, in which the statement is expressed in the form of a question:

Who is jumping, who is rushing under the cold haze?

(V. Zhukovsky)

And if so, what is beauty

And why do people deify her?

She is a vessel in which there is emptiness,

Or fire flickering in a vessel?

(N. Zabolotsky)

In the examples given, rhetorical questions introduce an element of philosophy into the text, as in verses 3. Gippius:

The world is rich in triple bottomlessness.

Triple bottomlessness is given to poets.

But don't the poets say

Only about this?

Rhetorical exclamation increases emotional tension. With its help, attention is focused on a specific subject. In the form of an exclamation, this or that concept is affirmed:

How poor is our language!

(F. Tyutchev) -

Hey watch out! under the forests do not indulge ... -

We know everything ourselves, shut up!

(V. Bryusov)

Rhetorical exclamations intensify the thinking of feeling in the message:

1 Introduction to Literary Studies / Ed. G.N. Pospelov. | \"L How good, how fresh were the roses

In my garden! How they deceived my eyes!

(I. Myatlev)

The rhetorical appeal, being in the form of an appeal, is conditional and gives the poetic speech the necessary author's intonation: the intonation of anger, cordiality, solemnity, irony.

A writer (poet) can refer to readers, to the heroes of his works, to objects, to phenomena:

Tatiana, dear Tatiana!

With you now I shed tears.

(A. Pushkin)

What do you know, boring whisper?

Reproach or grumbling

I lost a day?

What do you want from me?

(A. Pushkin)

Someday, lovely creature,

I will become your memory.

(M. Tsvetaeva)

Of the two functions inherent in the appeal - invocative and evaluative-characterizing (expressively expressive) - the last one prevails in the rhetorical address: the Earth is the mistress! I bowed my brow to you (V. Solovyov).

Rhetorical exclamation, rhetorical question, rhetorical appeal can be combined, which creates additional emotionality:

Youth! Oy! Has she left?

You are not lost - dropped.

(K. Sluchevsky)

Where are you, my cherished star,

A crown of heavenly beauty?

(I. Bunin)

O cry of women of all times:

My dear, what have I done to you?!

(M. Tsvetaeva)

In artistic speech there is a rhetorical statement: Yes, there were people in our time -

Mighty, dashing tribe...

(M. Lermontov)

Yes, love like our blood loves,

None of you love!

and rhetorical denial:

No, I'm not Byron

I'm different.

(M. Lermontov)

Rhetorical figures are also found in epic works: And what Russian does not like to drive fast? Does his soul, striving to spin, take a walk, sometimes say “Damn it all!” - Is it possible for his soul not to love her?<...>Eh, trio! Threesome bird, who invented you? To know that you could only be born among a lively people, in that land that does not like to joke, but spread out half the world as evenly as possible, and go and count the miles until it fills your eyes.

Isn't it true that you too, Rus, that a brisk, unbeatable troika are rushing about? Where are you going? Give an answer. Does not give an answer (N.V. Gogol).

In the above example, there are rhetorical questions, and rhetorical exclamations, and rhetorical appeals.

The figures of reinforcement include the figures of "opposition", which are based on the juxtaposition of opposites.

Antithesis (Greek antithesis - opposition). This term in the "Literary Encyclopedic Dictionary" denotes two concepts: 1) a stylistic figure based on a sharp opposition of images and concepts; 2) the designation of any content-significant contrast (which can be intentionally hidden), in contrast to which the anti-theme is always demonstrated openly (often through layer-io-antonyms)1:

I am a king - I am a slave. I am a worm - I am a god!

(G. Derzhavin) Do not fall behind you. I am a guard.

You are a convoy. Fate is one.

(A. Akhmatova)

The antithesis enhances the emotional coloring of speech and emphasizes the sharply expressed opposition of concepts or phenomena. A convincing example is Lermontov's poem "Duma":

And we hate, and we love by chance,

Sacrificing nothing to either malice or love.

And some kind of secret cold reigns in the soul,

When the fire boils in the blood.

The opposition can also be expressed descriptively: Once he served in the hussars, and even happily; no one knew the reason that prompted him to retire and settle in a poor place, where he lived both poorly and prodigally: he always walked, in a worn-out black frock coat, and kept an open table for all the officers of our regiment. True, his dinner consisted of two or three dishes prepared by a retired soldier, but champagne flowed like a river (A.S. Pushkin).

In the examples given, antonyms are used. But the antithesis is based not only on the use of the opposite meaning of words, but also on a detailed opposition of characters, phenomena, properties, images and concepts.

S.Ya. Marshak, translating an English folk song, jokingly emphasized two principles that distinguish boys and girls: mischievous, prickly in the first and gentle, soft in the second.

Boys and girls

What are boys made of?

From thorns, shells

And green frogs.

This is what boys are made of.

What are girls made of?

From sweets and cakes,

And all kinds of sweets.

This is what girls are made of.

The emergence of the concept of "antithesis" is associated with ancient times, when a person began to realize the difference between such concepts as land / water, earth / sky, day / night, cold / heat, sleep / reality, etc.

The first antitheses are found in myths. Suffice it to recall the antipode heroes: Zeus-Prometheus, Zeus-Typhon, Perseus-Atlas.

From mythology, the antithesis passed into folklore: into fairy tales (“Truth and Falsehood”), epics (Ilya Muromets - the Nightingale the Robber), proverbs (Learning is light, and ignorance is darkness).

In literary works, where moral and idealistic problems are always comprehended (Good and Evil, Life and Death, Harmony and Chaos), there are almost always antipodal heroes (Don Quixote and Sancho Panso in Cervantes, Merchant Kalashnikov and guardsman Kiribeevich in M. Lermontov, Pontius Pilate and Yeshua Ga-Notsri at M. Bulgakov). In many works, the antithesis is already present in the titles: "The Wolf and the Lamb", I. Krylov, "Mozart and Salieri" by A. Pushkin, "Wolves and Sheep" by A. Ostrovsky, "Fathers and Sons" by I. Turgenev, "Crime and Punishment » F. Dostoevsky, "War and Peace" by L. Tostoy, "Thick and Thin" by M. Chekhov.

A kind of antithesis is an oxymoron (o ksimoron) (from the Greek oxymoron - witty-deep) - a stylistic device of combining words that are opposite in meaning with the aim of an unusual, impressive expression of a new concept, idea. This figure is often used in Russian literature, for example, in the titles of works ("The Living Corpse" by L. Tolstoy, "Dead Souls" by 11. Gogol, "Optimistic Tragedy" by V. Vishnevsky).

On the one hand, an oxymoron is a combination of antonymous

a) a noun with an adjective: I love the magnificent nature of withering (A.S. Pushkin); The wretched luxury of the outfit (N.A. Nekrasov);

b) a noun with a noun: peasant ladies (A.S. Pushkin);

c) an adjective with an adjective: a bad good person (A.P. Chekhov);

d) a verb with an adverb and participles with an adverb: It is fun for her to be sad so elegantly naked (A. Akhmatova).

On the other hand, the antithesis, brought to a paradox, aims to strengthen the meaning and emotional tension:

Oh, how painfully happy I am with you!

(A. Pushkin)

But their ugly beauty

I soon comprehended the mystery.

(M. Lermontov)

And the impossible is possible

The road is long and easy.

Sometimes the figures of "displacement" include inversion.

Inversion (lat. shuegeyu - permutation, turning over) is a stylistic figure that consists in violating the generally accepted grammatical sequence of speech.

Words placed in unusual places attract attention and acquire a greater semantic load. The rearrangement of parts of the phrase gives it a peculiar expressive shade. When A. Tvardovsky writes The battle is on, holy and right .., the inversion emphasizes the correctness of the people waging a war of liberation.

A common type of inversion is the setting of an emotional definition (epithet) in the form of an adjective (or adverb) after the word it defines. It is used by M. Lermontov in the poem "Sail":

A lonely sail turns white

In the blue mist of the sea!

What is he looking for in a distant land?

What is he looking for in his native land?

Adjectives are placed at the end of each verse. And this is not accidental - it is they who determine the main semantic and emotional mood of the work of M. Lermontov. In addition, the author used another feature related to the verse in general: the end of the verse has an additional pause, which allows the word at the end of the verse to be emphasized.

In some cases, the inversion consists in the fact that the words in the sentence are interchanged, but at the same time those that should be nearby are separated, and this gives the phrase semantic weight:

Where the light-winged one betrayed my joy.

(A. Pushkin)

Using inversion, the poet A. Zhemchuzhnikov creates a poem in which tragic reflections about the homeland sound:

I know that country where the sun is without power,

Where the shroud is already waiting, the cold, the earth And where in the bare forests a dull wind blows, -

Either my native land, or my homeland.

There are two main types of inversion: anastrophe (rearrangement of adjacent words) and hyperbaton (separating them to highlight in a phrase): And the death of this alien land did not calm the guests (A. Pushkin) - that is, guests from a foreign land who did not even calm down in death.

Many stylistic devices since Antiquity have been called into question, namely to consider them as figures or tropes. Such techniques include parallelism - a stylistic technique of parallel construction of adjacent phrases, poetic lines or stanzas.

Parallelism (Greek parallioz - located, or walking side by side) is an identical or similar arrangement of elements of speech in adjacent parts of the text, which, correlating, create a single poetic image161. Usually it is based on a comparison of actions, and on this basis - persons, objects, circumstances.

Figurative parallelism arose even in oral syncretic creativity, which was characterized by parallels between relationships in nature and people's lives, because people were aware of the connection between nature and human life. Nature has always been in the first place, human actions - in the second. Here is an example from a Russian folk song:

Do not twist, do not twist grass with dodder,

Don't get used to it, don't get used to it, well done with the girl.

There are several varieties of figurative parallelism. "Psychological"162 was widely used in folklore:

Not a falcon flies through the sky,

Not a falcon drops its gray wings,

The young man is galloping along the path,

Bitter tears pour from clear eyes.

This technique also occurs in prose. For example, in two episodes from L.N. Tolstoy's "War and Peace" describes the oak (in the first - old, clumsy, in the second - covered with spring foliage, awakening to life). Each of the descriptions is correlated with the state of mind of Andrei Bolkonsky, who, having lost hope for happiness, returns to life after meeting with Natasha Rostova in Otradnoe.

In Pushkin's novel "Eugene Onegin" human life is closely connected with nature. In it, this or that landscape picture serves as a "screensaver" to a new stage in the life of the heroes of the novel and a detailed metaphor for his spiritual life. Spring is defined as "the time of love", and the loss of the ability to love is compared to the "storm of cold autumn." Human life is subject to the same universal laws as the life of nature; constant parallels deepen the idea that the life of the characters of the novel is "inscribed" in the life of nature.

Literature has mastered the possibility not directly, but indirectly, to correlate the spiritual movements of characters with this or that state of nature. However, they may or may not match. So, in Turgenev's novel "Fathers and Sons" in Chapter XI, the melancholy mood of Nikolai Petrovich Kirsanov is described, to whom nature seems to accompany and therefore he ... was unable to part with the darkness, with the garden. With a feeling of fresh air on his face, and with this sadness, with this anxiety... Unlike Nikolai Petrovich, his brother was incapable of feeling the beauty of the world: Pavel Petrovich reached the end of the garden, and also thought, and also raised his eyes to the sky. But his beautiful dark eyes reflected nothing but the light of the stars. He was not born a romantic, and his smartly dry and passionate, in a French way, misanthropic soul did not know how to dream ...

There is a parallelism built on the opposition:

From others I praise - that the ashes,

From you and blasphemy - praise.

(A. Akhmatova)

Negative parallelism (anti-parallelism) is singled out, in which negation emphasizes not the difference, but the coincidence of the main features of the compared phenomena:

It is not the wind that rages over the forest,

Streams did not run from the mountains,

Frost-voivode on patrol Bypasses his possessions.

(N. Nekrasov)

A.N. Veselovsky noted that “psychologically, one can look at a negative formula as a way out of parallelism”163. Anti-parallelism is common in oral folk poetry and less frequently in literature. It cannot serve as an independent means of subject representation, the basis for constructing a whole work, and is usually used in the beginnings of works or in separate episodes.

Another kind of parallelism - inverted (inverted) parallelism is denoted by the term chiasm (from the Greek. sShaBtoe), in which the parts are located in the sequence AB - BA "A": Everything is in me, and I am in everything (F. Tyutchev); usually with the meaning of the antithesis: We eat to live, not live to eat.

Parallelism can be based on the repetition of words (“verbal” parallelism), sentences (“syntactic” parallelism) and adjacent columns of speech (isocolon)164.

Syntactic parallelism, i.e., a detailed comparison of two or more phenomena given in similar syntactic constructions, belongs to syntactic figures and in its function approaches comparison:

The stars are shining in the blue sky

Waves crash in the blue sea.

(A.S. Pushkin)

Where does the wind blow in the sky,

obedient clouds rush there.

(M.Yu. Lermontov)

An equal number of adjacent columns of speech is denoted by the term isocolon (from the Greek isokolon).

N.V. Gogol in "Notes of a Madman" in the first phrase creates an isocolon of two terms, in the second - of three: Save me! take me! give me a trio of horses as fast as a whirlwind! Sit down, my driver, ring, my bell, soar, horses, and carry me from this world!

The field of poetic syntax includes deviations from standard language forms, expressed in the absence of grammatical connection or in its violation.

Solecism (Greek soloikismos from the name of the city of Sola, whose inhabitants spoke impurely in Attic) is an incorrect language turnover as an element of style (usually “low”): the use of a non-literary word (dialectism, barbarism, vulgarism). The difference between solecism and figures is that figures are usually used to create a "high" style. An example of solecism: I am ashamed as an honest officer (A. Griboyedov).

A special case of solecism is the omission of prepositions: She bowed her hand; the window is flying (V. Mayakovsky).

Enallaga (Greek ennalage - rotation, movement, substitution) - the use of one grammatical category instead of another:

Asleep, the creator will rise (instead of “asleep, he will rise”)

(G. Batenkov)

Enallaga has two meanings: 1) type of solecism: incorrect use of grammatical categories (parts of speech, gender, person, number, case): There can be no talk of taking a walk (instead of: a walk); 2) type of metonymy - the transfer of a definition to a word adjacent to the one being defined:

Half-asleep flock of old people (instead of: "half-asleep")

(N. Nekrasov)165

Sylleps (Greek syllepsis - capture) - a stylistic figure: the union of heterogeneous members in a common syntactic or semantic subordination; syntactic alignment of heterogeneous members:

Don't wait from the tomb for Sunday

Substances lying in the mud,

Alkaya in her fun And aloof deities.

(G. Batenkov)

Here are examples of a sylleps with syntactical heterogeneity: We love fame, but drown different minds in a glass (A. Pushkin) - here: additions expressed by a noun and an infinitive are combined; with phraseological heterogeneity: The gossip's eyes and teeth flared up (I. Krylov) - here: phraseology eyes flared up and the extra-phraseological word teeth; with semantic heterogeneity: Full of sounds and confusion (A. Pushkin) - here: state of mind and its cause166. Anakoluf (Greek anakoluthos - incorrect, inconsistent) - syntactic mismatch of parts or members of sentences:

Who knows a new name

Wearing seals, he is resurrected (instead of: “resurrect”) with a myrrh-streaming head.

(O. Mandelstam)

Neva all night

Rushed to the sea against the storm,

Not having overcome them (instead of: "her") violent dope.

(A. Pushkin)

Anacoluf is one of the means of characterizing the character's speech. For example, Smerdyakov's phrase - This, so that it could be, sir, on the contrary, never at all, sir ... ("The Brothers Karamazov" by Dostoevsky) - testifies to uncertainty, inability to express thoughts, about the poor vocabulary of the character. Anakoluf is widely used as a means of a satirical image: Approaching this station and looking at nature through the window, my hat fell off (A.P. Chekhov).

poetic syntax. Figures.

No less significant than the poetic dictionary, the area of study of expressive means is poetic syntax. The study of poetic syntax consists in the analysis of the functions of each of the artistic methods of selection and subsequent grouping of lexical elements into single syntactic constructions. If in the immanent study of the vocabulary of a literary text, words act as the analyzed units, then in the study of syntax, sentences and phrases. If the study of vocabulary establishes the facts of deviation from the literary norm in the selection of words, as well as the facts of the transfer of the meanings of words (a word with a figurative meaning, i.e. a trope, manifests itself only in context, only during semantic interaction with another word), then the study of syntax obliges not only a typological consideration of the syntactic units and grammatical relationships of words in a sentence, but also to identify the facts of correction or even change in the meaning of the whole phrase with the semantic correlation of its parts (which usually occurs as a result of the use of so-called figures by the writer).

It is necessary to pay attention to the author's selection of types of syntactic constructions because this selection can be dictated by the subject and general semantics of the work. Let us turn to examples that will serve as fragments of two translations of the "Ballad of the Hanged" by F. Villon.

There are five of us hanged, maybe six.

And the flesh, which knew a lot of delights,

It has long been devoured and has become a stench.

We became bones - we will become dust and rottenness.

Whoever smiles will not be happy himself.

Pray to God to forgive us.

(A. Parin, "The Ballad of the Hanged")

There were five of us. We wanted to live.

And they hung us. We blackened.

We lived like you. We are no more.

Do not try to condemn - people are insane.

We will not object in response.

Look and pray, and God will judge.

(I. Ehrenburg, "Epitaph written by Villon for him

and his comrades in anticipation of the gallows")

The first translation more accurately reflects the composition and syntax of the source, but its author fully showed his poetic individuality in the selection of lexical means: verbal series are built on stylistic antitheses (for example, the high word "delights" collides within one phrase with the low word "gorged") . From the point of view of the stylistic diversity of vocabulary, the second translation seems to be depleted. In addition, we can see that Ehrenburg filled the text of the translation with short, "chopped" phrases. Indeed, the minimum length of the phrases of Parin's translator is equal to a line of verse, and the maximum length of Ehrenburg's phrases in the above passage is also equal to it. Is it by chance?

Apparently, the author of the second translation sought to achieve the utmost expressiveness through the use of exclusively syntactic means. Moreover, he coordinated the choice of syntactic forms with the point of view chosen by Villon. Villon endowed the right of the narrating voice not with living people, but with the soulless dead who speak to the living. This semantic antithesis should have been emphasized syntactically. Ehrenburg had to deprive the speech of the hanged of emotionality, and therefore there are so many uncommon, vaguely personal sentences in his text: bare phrases tell bare facts ("And we were hanged. We turned black ..."). In this translation, the absence of evaluative vocabulary, in general, of epithets is a kind of "minus-reception".

An example of Ehrenburg's poetic translation is a logically justified deviation from the rule. Many writers formulated this rule in their own way when they touched upon the issue of distinguishing between poetic and prose speech. A.S. Pushkin spoke about the syntactic properties of verse and prose as follows:

“But what can be said about our writers, who, considering it base to explain simply the most ordinary things, think to enliven children's prose with additions and sluggish metaphors? These people will never say friendship without adding: this sacred feeling, of which noble flame, etc. say: early in the morning - and they write: as soon as the first rays of the rising sun illuminated the eastern edges of the azure sky - oh, how new and fresh it all is, is it better only because it is longer. Accuracy and brevity are the first virtues of prose. It requires thought and thoughts - without them, brilliant expressions are of no use. Poems are another matter..." ("On Russian Prose")

Consequently, the "brilliant expressions" that the poet wrote about - namely, the lexical "beauties" and the variety of rhetorical means, in general types of syntactic constructions - are not an obligatory phenomenon in prose, but possible. And in poetry it is common, because the actual aesthetic function of a poetic text always significantly overshadows the informative function. This is proved by examples from the work of Pushkin himself. Syntactically brief Pushkin the prose writer:

"Finally, something began to turn black in the direction. Vladimir turned in that direction. Approaching, he saw a grove. Thank God, he thought, now it's close." ("Blizzard")

On the contrary, Pushkin the poet is often verbose, building long phrases with rows of periphrastic phrases:

The philosopher is frisky and piit,

Parnassian happy sloth,

Harit pampered favorite,

Confidant of the lovely aonids,

Pochto on a golden-stringed harp

Silenced, joy singer?

Can it be you, young dreamer,

Finally broke up with Phoebus?

("To Batyushkov")

E. G. Etkind, analyzing this poetic message, comments on the periphrastic row: "Piit" - this old word means "poet". "Parnassian happy sloth" - it also means "poet". "Kharit pampered favorite" - "poet". "Confidant of the lovely aonids" - "poet". "Joy singer" - also a "poet". In essence, a "young dreamer" and a "frisky philosopher" are also a "poet." "Almost fell silent on the golden-stringed harp ..." This means: "Why did you stop writing poetry?" But further: “Have you really ... parted with Phoebus ...” - this is the same thing, ”and he concludes that Pushkin’s lines“ modify the same thought in every way: “Why don’t you, poet, do you write more poetry?

It should be clarified that lexical "beauty" and syntactic "longness" are necessary in poetry only when they are semantically or compositionally motivated. Verbosity in poetry may be unjustified. And in prose, lexico-syntactic minimalism is just as unjustified if it is raised to an absolute degree:

"The donkey put on a lion's skin, and everyone thought it was a lion. The people and cattle ran. The wind blew, the skin opened up, and the donkey became visible. The people came running: they beat the donkey."

("Donkey in a lion's skin")

The sparing phrases give this finished work the appearance of a preliminary plot plan. The choice of constructions of the elliptical type (“and everyone thought it was a lion”), the economy of significant words, leading to grammatical violations (“the people and cattle ran”), and finally, the economy of official words (“the people ran away: they beat the donkey”) determined the excessive schematism of the plot of this parables, and therefore weakened its aesthetic impact.

The other extreme is the overcomplication of constructions, the use of polynomial sentences with different types of logical and grammatical connections, with many ways of distribution. For example:

“It was good for a year, two, three, but when is it: evenings, balls, concerts, dinners, ball gowns, hairstyles that expose the beauty of the body, young and middle-aged courtiers, all the same, everyone seems to know something, they seem to have the right to use everything and to laugh at everything, when the summer months at the dacha with the same nature, also only giving the top of the pleasantness of life, when music and reading are also the same - only raising questions of life, but not resolving them - when all this lasted seven , eight years, not only not promising any change, but, on the contrary, losing her charms more and more, she fell into despair, and a state of despair, a desire for death began to come over her "(" What I saw in a dream ")

In the field of Russian language studies, there is no established idea of what maximum length a Russian phrase can reach. However, readers should feel the extreme protractedness of this sentence. For example, the part of the phrase "but when all this" is not perceived as an inaccurate syntactic repetition, as a paired element to the part "but when it is". Because we, reaching the first indicated part in the process of reading, cannot keep in memory the already read second part: these parts are too far apart from one another in the text, the writer complicated our reading with too many details mentioned within one phrase. The author's desire for maximum detail when describing actions and mental states leads to violations of the logical connection of the parts of the sentence ("she fell into despair, and a state of despair began to come over her").

The quoted parable and story belong to L.N. Tolstoy. It is especially easy to determine its authorship when referring to the second example, and attention to style-forming syntactic devices helps in this. G.O. Vinokur wrote about the above quote from the story: "... I recognize Leo Tolstoy here not only because this passage talks about what this writer often and usually talks about, and not only by that tone, with which he usually talks about such subjects, but also in terms of the language itself, in terms of its syntactic signs ... Style evolutions are facts of the author's biography, and therefore, in particular, it is necessary to trace the evolution of style at the level of syntax as well.

The study of poetic syntax also involves an assessment of the facts of the correspondence of the methods of grammatical connection used in the author's phrases to the norms of the national literary style. Here we can draw a parallel with passive vocabulary of different styles as an important part of the poetic vocabulary. In the sphere of syntax, as well as in the sphere of vocabulary, barbarisms, archaisms, dialectisms, etc. are possible, because these two spheres are interconnected: according to B.V. Tomashevsky, "each lexical environment has its own specific syntactic turns."

In Russian literature, syntactic barbarisms, archaisms, and vernacular are the most common. Barbarism in syntax occurs if the phrase is built according to the rules of a foreign language. In prose, syntactic barbarisms are more often identified as speech errors: "Approaching this station and looking at nature through the window, my hat flew off" in A.P. Chekhov's story "The Book of Complaints" - this gallicism is so obvious that it causes the reader to feel comic . In Russian poetry, syntactic barbarisms were sometimes used as signs of high style. For example, in Pushkin's ballad "There was a poor knight in the world..." the line "He had one vision..." is an example of such barbarism: the link "he had a vision" appears instead of "he had a vision". Here we also encounter syntactic archaism with the traditional function of raising the stylistic height: "There is no prayer to the Father, nor to the Son, / Nor to the Holy Spirit forever / It has not happened to a paladin ..." (it would follow: "neither to the Father, nor to the Son"). Syntactic vernacular, as a rule, is present in epic and dramatic works in the speech of the characters for a realistic reflection of the individual speech style, for the autocharacterization of the characters. To this end, Chekhov resorted to the use of vernacular: “Your dad told me that he was a court adviser, but now it turns out that he is only a titular one” (“Before the wedding”), “Are you talking about which Turkins? This is about those that my daughter plays pianos?" ("Ionych").

Of particular importance for identifying the specifics of artistic speech is the study of stylistic figures (they are also called rhetorical - in relation to the private scientific discipline in which the theory of tropes and figures was first developed; syntactic - in relation to that side of the poetic text, for the characteristics of which they are required description).

The doctrine of figures took shape already at the time when the doctrine of style was taking shape, in the era of Antiquity; developed and supplemented - in the Middle Ages; finally, it finally turned into a permanent section of normative "poetics" (textbooks on poetics) - in modern times. The first attempts to describe and systematize figures are presented in ancient Latin treatises on poetics and rhetoric (more fully in Quintilian's Education of an Orator). The ancient theory, according to M.L. Gasparov, "assumed that there is some simple," natural "verbal expression of any thought (as if a distilled language without stylistic color and taste), and when real speech somehow deviates from this unimaginable standard , then each individual deviation can be separately and taken into account as a "figure".

Tropes and figures were the subject of a single doctrine: if "tropes" is a change in the "natural" meaning of a word, then "figure" is a change in the "natural" word order in a syntactic construction (rearrangement of words, omission of necessary or use of "extra" - from the point of view of " natural" speech - lexical elements). We also note that within the limits of ordinary speech, which does not have an orientation towards artistry, figurativeness, the “figures” found are often considered as speech errors, but within the limits of artistically oriented speech, the same figures are usually distinguished as effective means of poetic syntax.

Currently, there are many classifications of stylistic figures, which are based on one or another - quantitative or qualitative - differentiating feature: the verbal composition of the phrase, the logical or psychological correlation of its parts, etc. Below we list the most significant figures, taking into account three factors:

1. Unusual logical or grammatical connection of elements of syntactic constructions.

2. An unusual mutual arrangement of words in a phrase or phrases in a text, as well as elements that are part of different (adjacent) syntactic and rhythmic-syntactic structures (verses, columns), but possessing grammatical similarity.

3. Unusual ways of intonational markup of the text using syntactic means.

Taking into account the dominance of a single factor, we will single out the corresponding groups of figures. But we emphasize that in some cases in the same phrase one can find both a non-trivial grammatical connection, and an original arrangement of words, and techniques that indicate a specific intonation "score" in the text: within the same segment of speech, not only different paths, but also different figures.

The group of methods of non-standard connection of words into syntactic units includes ellipse, anacoluf, sylleps, alogism, amphibole (figures that are distinguished by an unusual grammatical connection), as well as catachresis, oxymoron, gendiadis, enallaga (figures with an unusual semantic connection of elements).

One of the most common syntactic devices not only in fiction, but also in everyday speech is the ellipse (Greek elleipsis - abandonment). This is an imitation of a break in a grammatical connection, consisting in the omission of a word or a number of words in a sentence, in which the meaning of the omitted members is easily restored from the general speech context. This technique is most often used in epic and dramatic works when constructing character dialogues: with its help, the authors add lifelikeness to the scenes of communication of their characters.

Elliptical speech in a literary text gives the impression of being reliable, because in a life situation of a conversation, an ellipse is one of the main means of composing phrases: when exchanging remarks, it allows you to skip previously spoken words. Consequently, in colloquial speech, an exclusively practical function is assigned to ellipses: the speaker conveys information to the interlocutor in the required volume, while using a minimum vocabulary.

Meanwhile, the use of the ellipse as an expressive means in artistic speech can also be motivated by the author's attitude to the psychologism of the narrative. The writer, wishing to depict various emotions, psychological states of his hero, can change his individual speech style from scene to scene. So, in the novel by F.M. Dostoevsky "Crime and Punishment" Raskolnikov often expresses himself in elliptical phrases. In his conversation with the cook Nastasya (part I, ch. 3), ellipses serve as an additional means of expressing his alienated state:

- ... Before, you say, you went to teach children, but now why don’t you do anything?

I am doing [something] ... - Raskolnikov said reluctantly and sternly.

What are you doing?

- [I'm doing] Work...

What kind of work [are you doing]?

- [I] Think, - he answered seriously after a pause.

Here we see that the omission of some words emphasizes the special semantic load of the remaining others.

Often ellipses also denote a rapid change in states or actions. Such, for example, is their function in the fifth chapter of Eugene Onegin, in the story of Tatyana Larina's dream: “Tatyana ah! and he roar ... "," Tatiana into the forest, the bear behind her ... ".

Both in everyday life and in literature, the anacoluf (Greek anakoluthos - inconsistent) is recognized as a speech error - the incorrect use of grammatical forms in coordination and management: "The smell of shag and some sour soup made from there almost unbearable life in this place" (A. F. Pisemsky, "Sin of Senile"). However, its use can be justified in cases where the writer gives expression to the character's speech: "Stop, brothers, stop! You're not sitting like that!" (in Krylov's fable "Quartet").

On the contrary, a sylleps (Greek syllepsis - conjugation, capture) turns out to be more of a deliberately applied technique than an accidental mistake in the literature, consisting in the syntactic design of semantically heterogeneous elements in the form of a series of homogeneous members of a sentence: cheeks" (Turgenev, "Strange story").

European writers of the 20th century, especially representatives of the "literature of the absurd", regularly turned to alogism (Greek a - a negative particle, logismos - reason). This figure is a syntactic correlation of semantically incompatible parts of a phrase with the help of its service elements, expressing a certain type of logical connection (causal, generic, species relations, etc.): "The car drives fast, but the cook cooks better" (E. Ionesco, "Bald Singer"), "How wonderful the Dnieper is in calm weather, so why are you here, Nentsov?" (A. Vvedensky, "Minin and Pozharsky").

If anacoluf is more often seen as a mistake than an artistic technique, and sylleps and alogism are more often a technique than a mistake, then amphibolia (Greek amphibolia) is always perceived in two ways. Duality is in its very nature, since amphibole is the syntactic indistinguishability of the subject and direct object, expressed by nouns in the same grammatical forms. "Hearing sensitive sail strains ..." in the poem of the same name by Mandelstam - a mistake or a trick? It can be understood as follows: "A sensitive ear, if its owner desires to catch the rustle of the wind in the sails, magically acts on the sail, forcing it to strain," or as follows: "A wind-blown (i.e. tense) sail attracts attention, and a person strains his hearing" . Amphibolia is justified only when it turns out to be compositionally significant. Thus, in D. Kharms' miniature "Chest", the hero checks the possibility of life after death by self-suffocation in a locked chest. The finale for the reader, as the author planned, is unclear: either the hero did not suffocate, or he suffocated and resurrected, as the hero ambiguously sums up: "It means that life defeated death in a way unknown to me."

An unusual semantic connection between the parts of a phrase or sentence is created by catachresis (see the section "Paths") and oxymoron (Greek oxymoron - witty-silly). In both cases, there is a logical contradiction between the members of a single structure. Catahresis arises as a result of the use of an erased metaphor or metonymy and is assessed as a mistake within the framework of "natural" speech: "sea voyage" is a contradiction between "sail on the sea" and "walk on land", "oral prescription" - between "oral" and " in writing", "Soviet Champagne" - between "Soviet Union" and "Champagne". Oxymoron, on the contrary, is a planned consequence of the use of a fresh metaphor and is perceived even in everyday speech as an exquisite figurative tool. "Mom! Your son is beautifully ill!" (V. Mayakovsky, "A cloud in pants") - here "sick" is a metaphorical replacement for "in love".

Among the rare and therefore especially noticeable figures in Russian literature is gendiadis (from the Greek hen dia dyoin - one through two), in which complex adjectives are divided into their original constituent parts: "longing for the road, iron" (A. Blok, "On the iron road"). Here the word "railroad" was split, as a result of which three words entered into interaction - and the verse acquired an additional meaning. E.G. Etkind, referring to the issue of the semantics of the epithets "iron", "iron" in Blok's poetic dictionary, noted: two definitions, striving towards each other, as if forming one word "railroad", and at the same time starting from this word - it has a completely different meaning. "Iron anguish" is a despair caused by the dead, mechanical world of modern - "iron" - civilization.

Words in a column or verse receive a special semantic connection when the writer uses enallag (Greek enallage - movement) - the transfer of a definition to a word adjacent to the one being defined. So, in the line "Through the meat, fat trenches ..." from N. Zabolotsky's poem "Wedding", the definition of "fat" became a vivid epithet after being transferred from "meat" to "trench". Enallaga is a sign of verbose poetic speech. The use of this figure in an elliptical construction leads to a deplorable result: the verse "A familiar corpse lay in that valley ..." in Lermontov's ballad "Dream" is an example of an unforeseen logical error. The combination "familiar corpse" was supposed to mean "the corpse of a familiar [person]", but for the reader it actually means: "This person has long been known to the heroine precisely as a corpse."

Figures with an unusual arrangement of parts of syntactic constructions include various types of parallelism and inversion.

Parallelism (from the Greek. parallelos - walking side by side) implies the compositional correlation of adjacent syntactic segments of the text (lines in a poetic work, sentences in a text, parts in a sentence). Types of parallelism are usually distinguished on the basis of some feature possessed by the first of the related constructions, which serves as a model for the author when creating the second one.

So, projecting the word order of one syntactic segment onto another, they distinguish between direct parallelism ("The animal Dog is sleeping, / The bird Sparrow is Dozing" in Zabolotsky's verse "The signs of the Zodiac are fading ...") and reversed ("Waves are playing, the wind is whistling" in " Sail" Lermontov). We can write the columns of the Lermontov string vertically:

waves are playing

the wind is whistling

And we will see that in the second column, the subject and predicate are given in reverse order with respect to the arrangement of words in the first. If we now graphically connect nouns and - separately - verbs, we can get the image of the Greek letter "". Therefore, reversed parallelism is also called chiasm (Greek chiasmos - -shape, cruciformity).

When comparing the number of words in paired syntactic segments, complete and incomplete parallelism is also distinguished. Complete parallelism (its common name is isocolon; Greek isokolon - equinoxity) - in Tyutchev's two-word lines "Amphoras are empty, / Baskets are overturned" (verse "The feast is over, the choirs are silent ..."), incomplete - in his unequal lines " Slow down, slow down, evening day, / Last, last, charm "(verse. "Last Love"). There are other types of parallelism.

The same group of figures includes such a popular poetic means as inversion (Latin inversio - permutation). It manifests itself in the arrangement of words in a phrase or sentence in an order that is different from the natural one. In Russian, for example, the order "subject + predicate", "definition + defined word" or "preposition + noun in case form" is natural, and the reverse order is unnatural.

"Eros of lofty and dumb wings on ...", - this is how the parody of the famous satirist of the early twentieth century begins. A. Izmailov to the verses by Vyacheslav Ivanov. The parodist suspected the symbolist poet of abusing inversions, so he oversaturated the lines of his text with them. "Erota wings on" - the order is wrong. But if a separate inversion of "Erota's wings" is quite acceptable, moreover, it is felt as traditional for Russian poetry, then "wings on" is recognized as a sign not of artistry of speech, but of tongue-tied tongue.

Inverted words can be placed in a phrase in different ways. With contact inversion, the adjacency of words is preserved (“Like a tragedian in the province of Shakespeare’s drama ...” by Pasternak), with distant inversion, other words are wedged between them (“An old man obedient to Perun alone ...” by Pushkin). In both cases, the unusual position of a single word affects its intonation. As Tomashevsky noted, "in inverted constructions, words sound more expressive, more weighty."

The group of figures that mark the unusual intonational composition of the text or its individual parts includes various types of syntactic repetition, as well as tautology, annomination and gradation, polysyndeton and asyndeton.

There are two subgroups of repetition techniques. The first includes techniques for repeating individual parts within a sentence. With their help, authors usually emphasize a semantically tense place in a phrase, since any repetition is intonational emphasis. Like inversion, repetition can be contact ("It's time, it's time, the horns are blowing ..." in Pushkin's poem "Count Nulin") or distant ("It's time, my friend, it's time! The heart asks for peace ..." in Pushkin's verse of the same name. ).

A simple repetition is applied to different units of the text - both to the word (as in the above examples) and to the phrase ("Evening ringing, evening ringing!" translated by I. Kozlov from T. Moore) - without changing the grammatical forms and lexical meaning. The repetition of one word in different case forms, while maintaining its meaning from ancient times, is recognized as a special figure - polyptoton (Greek polyptoton - polycase): "But a man / He sent a man to the anchar with an authoritative look ..." (Pushkin, "Anchar"). According to R. Yakobson's observation, "The Tale of the Little Red Riding Hood" by Mayakovsky is built on the polyptotone, in which a complete paradigm of case forms of the word "cadet" is presented. An equally ancient figure is antanaklasis (Greek antanaklasis - reflection) - the repetition of a word in its original grammatical form, but with a change in meaning. "The last owl is broken and sawn. / And, with a clerical button, pinned / Head down to the autumn branch, // Hanging and thinking with his head ..." (A. Eremenko, "In dense metallurgical forests ...") - here the word "head " is used in a direct, and then in a metonymic sense.

The second subgroup includes figures of repetition, which do not apply to a sentence, but to a larger part of the text (stanza, syntactic period), sometimes to the entire work. Such figures mark the intonation equalization of those parts of the text to which they were extended. These types of repetition are distinguished by their position in the text. So, anaphora (Greek anaphora - pronouncement; patristic term - mononaming) is the fastening of speech segments (columns, verses) by repeating a word or phrase in the initial position: "This is a steeply poured whistle, / This is the clicking of squeezed ice floes, / This is the night chilling the leaf, / This is the duel of two nightingales" (Pasternak, "Definition of Poetry"). Epiphora (Greek epiphora - additive; paternal term - one-sidedness), on the contrary, connects the ends of speech series with lexical repetition: "Scallops, all scallops: || cape from scallops, | scallops on the sleeves, | epaulets from scallops, | scallops below, | festoons everywhere" (Gogol, "Dead Souls"). Having projected the principle of epiphora onto a whole poetic text, we will see its development in the phenomenon of a refrain (for example, in a classical ballad).

Anadiplosis (Greek anadiplosis - doubling; native term - joint) is a contact repetition that connects the end of a speech series with the beginning of the next. This is how the columns in the lines of S. Nadson "Only the morning of love is good: | only the first, timid speeches are good", this is how Blok's poems "Oh, spring without end and without edge - / Endless and without edge dream" are connected. Anaphora and epiphora often act in small lyrical genres as a structure-forming device. But anadiplosis can also acquire the function of a compositional core around which speech is built. From long chains of anadiplosis, for example, the best examples of early Irish lyrics are composed. Among them, perhaps the oldest is the anonymous "Spell of Amergin", presumably dated to the 5th-6th centuries. AD (below is its fragment in a syntactically accurate translation by V. Tikhomirov):

Erin I call loudly

The deep sea is fat

Fat on the hillside grass

Herbs in oak forests are juicy

Moisture in the lakes is juicy

Moisture rich source

The source of the tribes is one

The only lord of Temra...

Anadiplosis is opposed to prosapodosis (Greek prosapodosis - addition; Russian term - ring, coverage), a distant repetition, in which the initial element of the syntactic construction is reproduced at the end of the following: "The sky is cloudy, the night is cloudy ..." in Pushkin's "Demons". Also, prosapodosis can cover a stanza (Esenin's verse "Shagane you are mine, Shagane ..." is built on ring repetitions) and even the entire text of the work ("Night. Street. Lantern. Pharmacy ..." A. Blok)

This subgroup also includes a complex figure formed by a combination of anaphora and epiphora within the same segment of the text - symplok (Greek symploce - plexus): "I don't want Falaleus, | I hate Falaleus, | I spit on Falaleus, | | I will crush Falaleus, | I will love Asmodeus rather, | than Falaleus!" (Dostoevsky, "The Village of Stepanchikovo and Its Inhabitants") - this example from Foma Opiskin's monologue serves as clear evidence that not only repeating elements are emphasized intonation: with a simplock, words framed by anaphora and epiphora stand out in each column.

It is possible to reproduce during repetition not only the word as a single sign, but also the meaning torn off from the sign. Tautology (Greek tauto - the same thing, logos - word), or pleonasm (Greek pleonasmos - excess) - a figure, when using which the word is not necessarily repeated, but the meaning of any lexical element is necessarily duplicated. To do this, the authors select either synonymous words or periphrastic phrases. The deliberate use of tautology by the writer creates in the reader a feeling of verbal excess, irrational verbosity, makes him pay attention to the corresponding segment of speech, and the reciter - to isolate this entire segment intonation. Yes, in verse. A. Eremenko "Pokryshkin" double tautology intonationally highlights the "evil bullet of gangster evil" against the background of the general flow of speech.

For the purpose of intonational highlighting of a semantically significant speech segment, annomination is also used (lat. annominatio - subscript) - a contact repetition of the same-root words: "I think my thought ..." in N. Nekrasov's "Railway". This figure is common in song folklore and in the works of poets, whose work was affected by their passion for stylization of speech.

Gradation (lat. gradatio - change of degree) is close to repetition figures, in which words grouped into a series of homogeneous members have a common semantic meaning (of a feature or action), but their location expresses a consistent change in this meaning. The manifestation of a unifying sign can gradually increase or decrease: "I swear by heaven, there is no doubt that you are beautiful, it is undeniable that you are beautiful, it is true that you are attractive" ("The Fruitless Labours of Love" by Shakespeare in the translation of Yu. Korneev). In this phrase, next to "undoubtedly-indisputably-true" is an increase in one feature, and next to "beautiful-beautiful-attractive" - a weakening of another. Regardless of whether the sign is strengthening or weakening, the graduated phrase is pronounced with increasing emphasis (intonational expressiveness): “It sounded over a clear river, / It rang in a faded meadow, / It swept over a mute grove ..." (Fet, "Evening").

In addition, the group of means of intonational marking includes polysyndeton (Greek polysyndeton - polyunion) and asyndeton (Greek asyndeton - non-union). Like the gradation that both figures often accompany, they suggest emphatic emphasis on the part of the text corresponding to them in sounding speech. Polysyndeton in essence is not only a polyunion ("life, and tears, and love" in Pushkin), but also a multi-sentence ("about valor, about deeds, about glory" from Blok). Its function is either to mark the logical sequence of actions ("Autumn" by Pushkin: "And the thoughts in the head agitate in courage, And the light rhymes run towards them, / And the fingers ask for a pen ...") or to encourage the reader to generalize, to perceive the series details as an integral image (“I erected a monument to myself not made by hands ...” Pushkin: the specific “And the proud grandson of the Slavs, and the Finn, and now wild / Tungus, and the Kalmyk friend of the steppes” is formed when perceived in the generic “peoples of the Russian Empire”). And with the help of asyndeton, either the simultaneity of actions is emphasized ("Swede, Russian stabs, cuts, cuts ..." in Pushkin's "Poltava"), or the fragmentation of the phenomena of the depicted world ("Whisper. Timid breathing. / Trills of the nightingale. / Silver and swaying / Sleepy Creek" by Fet).

The use of syntactic figures by the writer leaves an imprint of individuality on his author's style. By the middle of the 20th century, by the time the concept of "creative individuality" had significantly depreciated, the study of figures ceased to be relevant, which was recorded by A. Kvyatkovsky in his "Dictionary of Poetic Terms" of 1940 edition: "At present, the names of rhetorical figures have been preserved behind the three most stable phenomena of style, such as: 1) a rhetorical question, 2) a rhetorical exclamation, 3) a rhetorical appeal ... ". Today, interest in the study of syntactic techniques as a means of artistic stylistics is being revived. The study of poetic syntax has received a new direction: modern science is increasingly analyzing phenomena that are at the junction of different aspects of a literary text, for example, rhythm and syntax, meter and syntax, vocabulary and syntax, etc.

Bibliography

Ancient rhetoric / Under the general. ed. A.A.Takho-Godi. M., 1978.

Antique theories of language and style / Ed. ed. O.M.Freidenberg. M.; L., 1936.

Gornfeld A.G. Figure in poetics and rhetoric // Questions of theory and psychology of creativity. 2nd ed. Kharkov, 1911. Vol.1.

Dubois J., Adeline F., Klinkenberg J.M. etc. General rhetoric. M., 1986.

Korolkov V.I. To the theory of figures // Sat. scientific Proceedings of Moscow. state ped. Institute of foreign languages. Issue 78. M., 1974.

Essays on the history of the language of Russian poetry of the twentieth century: Grammatical categories. Text syntax. M., 1993.

Pospelov G.N. The syntactic structure of Pushkin's poetic works. M., 1960.

Tomashevsky B.V. Stylistics and versification: A course of lectures. L., 1959.

Yakobson R. Grammatical parallelism and its Russian aspects // Yakobson R. Works on poetics. M., 1987.

Lausberg H. Handbuch der literaturischen Rhetorik: eine Grundlegung der Literaturwissenschaft. Bd.1-2. Munchen, 1960.

Todorov T. Tropes and figures // To honor R.Jakobson. Essays on the occasion of his seventieth birthday. The Hague; P., 1967. Vol.3.

Etkind E.G. Prose about poetry. SPb., 2001. P.105.

Vinokur G.O. On the study of the language of literary works // Russian literature: from the theory of literature to the structure of the text. Anthology. Ed. V.P. Neroznak. M., 1997. P. 185.

Tomashevsky B.V. Theory of Literature. Poetics. M., 1996. P.73.

Gasparov M.L. Medieval Latin Poetics in the System of Medieval Grammar and Rhetoric. // Gasparov M.L. Selected works, in 3 vols. Volume 1, About poets. M., 1997. P. 629. Compare: Gasparov M.L. Ancient rhetoric as a system. // There. P.570.

Etkind E.G. Prose about poetry. SPb., 2001. P.61.

Tomashevsky B.V. Theory of Literature. Poetics. P.75.

Yakobson R. The basis of comparative Slavic literary criticism // Yakobson R. Works on poetics. M., 1987. P.32.

Kvyatkovsky A.P. Dictionary of poetic terms. M., 1940. P. 176.

See, for example, the articles by M. Tarlinskaya, T.V. Skulacheva, M. L. Gasparov, N. A. Kozhevnikova in Slavonic Verse: Linguistic and Applied Poetics / Ed. M.L. Gasparova, A.V. Prokhorova, T.V. Skulacheva. M., 2001.

There are five of us hanged, maybe six.

And the flesh, which knew a lot of delights,

It has long been devoured and has become a stench.

We became bones - we will become dust and rottenness.

Whoever smiles will not be happy himself.

Pray to God to forgive us.

(A. Parin, "The Ballad of the Hanged")

There were five of us. We wanted to live.

And they hung us. We blackened.

We lived like you. We are no more.

Do not try to condemn - people are insane.

We will not object in response.

Look and pray, and God will judge.

(I. Ehrenburg, "Epitaph written by Villon for him

and his comrades in anticipation of the gallows")

“But what can be said about our writers, who, considering it base to explain simply the most ordinary things, think to enliven children's prose with additions and sluggish metaphors? These people will never say friendship without adding: this sacred feeling, of which noble flame, etc. say: early in the morning - and they write: as soon as the first rays of the rising sun illuminated the eastern edges of the azure sky - oh, how new and fresh it all is, is it better just because it is longer.<...>Accuracy and brevity are the first virtues of prose. It requires thoughts and thoughts - without them, brilliant expressions are of no use. Poems are another matter..." ("On Russian Prose")

"Finally, something began to turn black in the direction. Vladimir turned in that direction. Approaching, he saw a grove. Thank God, he thought, now it's close." ("Blizzard")

On the contrary, Pushkin the poet is often verbose, building long phrases with rows of periphrastic phrases:

The philosopher is frisky and piit,

Parnassian happy sloth,

Harit pampered favorite,

Confidant of the lovely aonids,

Pochto on a golden-stringed harp

Silenced, joy singer?

Can it be you, young dreamer,

Finally broke up with Phoebus?<...>

("To Batyushkov")

E. G. Etkind, analyzing this poetic message, comments on the periphrastic row: "Piit" - this old word means "poet". "Parnassian happy sloth" - it also means "poet". "Kharit pampered favorite" - "poet". "Confidant of the lovely aonids" - "poet". "Joy singer" - also a "poet". In essence, a "young dreamer" and a "frisky philosopher" are also a "poet."<...>"Almost fell silent on the golden-stringed harp ..." This means: "Why did you stop writing poetry?" But further: "Have you really ... parted with Phoebus ..."<...>- this is the same thing," and concludes that Pushkin's lines "modify the same thought in every way: "Why don't you, a poet, write more poetry?"

("Donkey in a lion's skin")

The other extreme is the overcomplication of constructions, the use of polynomial sentences with different types of logical and grammatical connections, with many ways of distribution. For example:

Poetic Syntax

The general nature of the writer's work leaves a certain imprint on his poetic syntax, that is, on his manner of constructing phrases and sentences. It is in poetic syntax that the syntactic structure of poetic speech is determined by the general nature of the writer's creative talent.

The poetic figures of the language are associated with a special role played by individual lexical resources and visual means of the language.

Rhetorical exclamations, appeals, questions are created by the author to focus readers' attention on the phenomenon or problem in question. Thus, they should draw attention to them, and not demand an answer (“O field, field, who strewn you with dead bones?” “Do you know the Ukrainian night?”, “Do you like theater?”, “O Rus! Raspberry field...").

Repetitions: anaphora, epiphora, junction. They belong to the figures of poetic speech and are syntactic constructions based on the repetition of individual words that carry the main semantic load.

Among the repetitions stand out anaphora, that is, the repetition of initial words or phrases in sentences, poems or stanzas (“I loved you” - A.S. Pushkin;

I swear on the first day of creation

I swear on his last day

I swear on the shame of crime,

And eternal truth triumph. - M.Yu. Lermontov).

Epiphora represents a repetition of the final words or phrases in sentences or stanzas - “Here the master will come” N.A. Nekrasov.

joint- a rhetorical figure in which a word or expression is repeated at the end of one phrase and at the beginning of the second. Most often found in folklore:

He fell on the cold snow

On the cold snow like a pine

Like a pine in a damp forest ... - (M.Yu. Lermontov).

Oh spring, without end and without edge,

A dream without end and without edge ... - (A.A. Blok).

Gain represents the arrangement of words and expressions according to the principle of their increasing power: "I spoke, persuaded, demanded, ordered." The authors need this figure of poetic speech for greater strength and expressiveness when conveying the image of an object, thought, feeling: “I knew him in love tenderly, passionately, furiously, boldly, modestly ...” - (I.S. Turgenev).

Default- a rhetorical device based on the omission of individual words or phrases in the speech (most often this is used to emphasize the excitement or unpreparedness of the speech). - “There are such moments, such feelings ... You can only point to them ... and pass by” - (I.S. Turgenev).

Parallelism- is a rhetorical device - a detailed comparison of two or more phenomena, given in similar syntactic constructions. -

What is clouded, the dawn is clear,

Has fallen to the ground with dew?

What are you thinking, red girl,

Did your eyes sparkle with tears? (A.N. Koltsov)

Parceling- dismemberment of a single syntactic structure of a sentence for the purpose of a more emotional, vivid perception by the reader - “A child must be taught to feel. beauty. Of people. All living things around.

Antithesis(opposition, opposition) is a rhetorical device in which the disclosure of contradictions between phenomena is usually carried out using a number of antonymic words and expressions.-

Black evening, white snow... - (A.A. Blok).

I'm rotting in the ashes,

I command thunder with my mind.

I am a king - I am a slave, I am a worm - I am a god! (A.N. Radishchev).

Inversion- unusual word order in a sentence. Despite the fact that in the Russian language there is no once and for all fixed word order, nevertheless there is a familiar order. For example, the definition comes before the word being defined. Then Lermontov’s “A lonely sail turns white In the blue fog of the sea” seems unusual and poetically sublime compared to the traditional one: “A lonely sail turns white in the blue fog of the sea.” Or “The longed-for moment has come: My long-term work is over” - A.S. Pushkin.

Unions can also be used to make speech expressive. So, asyndeton usually used to convey the swiftness of the action when depicting pictures or sensations: “Cannonballs are rolling, bullets are whistling, Cold bayonets are hovering ...”, or “Lanterns are flashing by, Pharmacies, fashion stores ... Lions at the gates ...” - A. WITH. Pushkin.

Poetry is an incredible genre of literature that relies on rhyme, that is, all lines in a poetic work rhyme with each other. However, the poems and various similar works belonging to this genre would not be so impressive if it were not for the poetic syntax. What it is? This is a system of special means of constructing speech, which are responsible for improving its expressiveness. Simply put, poetic syntax is the collection of these poetic devices, which are most commonly referred to as figures. It is about these figures that this article will be discussed - you will learn about the different means of expression that can often be found in poetic works.

Repeat

Poetic syntax is very diverse, it includes dozens of expressive means that can be used in certain situations. However, this article will only talk about the most important and common figures of poetic speech. And the first thing without which it is impossible to imagine poetic syntax is repetition. There are a large number of different repetitions, each of which has its own characteristics. You can find epanalipsis, anadiplosis and much more in poetry, but this article will talk about the two most common forms - anaphora and epiphora

Anaphora

Features of poetic syntax suggest the use of various in combination with the rest, but most often poets use repetition. And the most popular among them is anaphora. What it is? Anaphora is the repetition of consonances or identical words at the beginning of each of the lines of a poem or part of it.

No matter how the hand of fate oppresses,

No matter how deception torments people ... "

This is one of the ways of semantic and aesthetic organization of speech, which can be used to give one or another emphasis to what was said. However, the figures of poetic speech can be varied, and even repetitions, as you have already learned, can differ from each other.

Epiphora

What is an epiphora? This is also a repetition, but it differs from the anaphora. The difference lies in the fact that in this case the words are repeated at the end of the lines of the poem, and not at the beginning.

"Steppes and roads

The account is not over;

Stones and thresholds

Account not found.

As in the case of the previous figure, the epiphora is an expressive tool and can give the poem a special expression. Now you know what an epiphora is, but it doesn't end there. As mentioned earlier, the syntax of poems is very extensive and provides endless possibilities.

polysyndeton

Poetic language is very harmonious precisely because poets use various means of poetic syntax. Among them, polysyndeton is often found, which is also called polyunion. This is an expressive means that, due to redundancy, gives the poem a special tone. Often, polysyndeton is used together with anaphora, that is, repeated conjunctions begin at the beginning of the line.

Asyndeton

The poetic syntax of a poem is a collection of various poetic figures, you have already learned about this earlier. However, you still do not know even a small fraction of the means that are used for poetic expression. You have already read about multi-union - it's time to learn about non-union, that is, asyndeton. In this case, the lines of the poem turn out to be without unions at all, even in those cases where, logically, they should be present. Most often, this tool is used in long ones, which are eventually listed separated by commas to create a certain atmosphere.

Parallelism

This expressive means is very interesting, because it allows the author to beautifully and effectively compare any two concepts. Strictly speaking, the essence of this technique lies in the open and detailed comparison of two different concepts, but not just like that, but in the same or similar syntactic constructions. For example:

“Day - I spread like grass.

Night - I wash myself with tears.

Angenbeman

Enjambement is a rather complex expressive tool that is not so easy to use correctly and beautifully. In simple words, this is a transfer, but far from the most ordinary. In this case, part of the sentence is transferred from one line to another, however, in such a way that the semantic and syntactic part of the previous one is on the other line. To better understand what is meant, it's easier to look at an example:

"To the ground, laughing that first

I got up, in the dawn of the crown.

As you can see, the sentence “Into the ground, laughing that I got up first” is one separate part, and “in the dawn of the crown” is another. However, the word “stood” is transferred to the second line, and it turns out that the rhythm is observed.

Inversion

Inversion in poems is very common - it gives them a poetic flavor, and also ensures the creation of rhyme and rhythm. The essence of this technique is to change the order of words to atypical. For example, you can take the sentence "A lonely sail turns white in the blue mist of the sea." No. Is it a well-formed sentence with the correct word order? Absolutely. But what happens if you use inversion?

"The lonely sail turns white

In the mist of the blue sea.

As you can see, the sentence was not quite correct - its meaning is clear, but the word order does not correspond to the norm. But at the same time, the sentence became much more expressive, and also now fits into the general rhythm and rhyme of the poem.

Antithesis

Another technique that is used very often is the antithesis. Its essence lies in the opposition of images and concepts used in the poem. This technique adds drama to the poem.

gradation

This technique is a syntactic construction in which there is a certain set of words built in a specific order. This can be either a descending order or an ascending order of the significance and importance of these words. Thus, each subsequent word either strengthens the importance of the previous one, or weakens it.

Rhetorical question and rhetorical appeal

Rhetoric in poetry is used very often, and in many cases it is addressed to the reader, but often it is also used to address specific characters. What is the essence of this phenomenon? A rhetorical question is a question that does not require an answer. It is used to get attention, not for someone to come up with an answer and report it. Approximately the same situation with rhetorical appeal. It would seem that the appeal is used in order for the one to whom they are addressing to respond. However, rhetorical appeal, again, is used only as a means of attracting attention.