The systematic position of man in the animal kingdom. Common features of humans and mammals

And with it, the position of man in the system of the animal world, it is not necessary to plunge into the past, because evolution is a process that occurs always and everywhere around us. For example, bacteria that were easily destroyed by penicillin in the past have acquired a new, antibiotic-resistant form.

Natural selection

Nature decreed as follows: the better an animal is adapted to the conditions of the area in which it lives, the greater its chances of surviving and having offspring. His children may inherit the abnormalities that made the father's animal so successful in its local environment. Animal species change over time, better adapting to environmental conditions. New species arise, live for thousands or millions of years, and then disappear. Evolution needs time and happy occasions for change to occur.

Traits that may help a species survive, such as better teeth or a larger brain, may appear in newborns as random abnormalities. If new traits really help to survive, and animals can live longer, or survive under conditions in which a normal member of the species dies, then these traits will be passed down from generation to generation. When these abilities are really useful, animals that have them will gradually crowd out those that do not.

Darwin's theory

According to Darwin's theory, any living being does not produce an identical copy of itself in the course of its life. A child is not like a mother, a kitten is not like a mother cat, even grains of wheat are different from each other. If you examine them under a microscope or conduct a chemical analysis, you can notice their dissimilarity. Variation is the material for natural selection. If these properties are necessary for the life of a new creature, then it will live and produce offspring, if not, then merciless natural selection will remove it from the biological sphere, and it will die like hundreds and thousands of unadapted individuals. What is the position of man in the system of the animal world? The most mysterious selection of nature, as well as its crown, of course, is man.

The position of man in the system of the animal world

Humans are classified as primates, of which there are more than 100 species, including great apes, gorillas and chimpanzees. If you indicate the position of a person in the system of the animal world, primates, namely chimpanzees, have the closest family ties with humans, 98.4% of their genes coincide. It is proved that 2.6 million years ago there was a division of primates into 2 branches. 1 - in Australopithecus, later extinct, and 2 the position of man in the system of the animal world, - in a skilled man. It is known that the first anthropoids existed on Earth 3-5 million years ago.

A lot of research, measurements, excavations and, based on them, scientific evidence, indicates that the position of man in the system of the animal world is classified as a species of primates. All primates have common features.

1. All have hands and feet with five fingers each.
2. There are teeth that are adapted to chew a lot of different foods.
3. All give birth mainly to one cub, less often - to several children.

Signs of the position of man in the system of the animal world

But there are also significant differences between them.

1. Only man is characterized by upright posture on two legs and, accordingly, a special structure of the spine, pelvis, legs, arms, muscles and other organs.
2. The human hand can perform many different and precise movements. The human skull is taller and rounder;
3. The brain part of the skull dominates over the facial part, has a high forehead, weak jaws with small fangs, the chin is clearly defined.
4. The human brain occupies a volume of 1800 cm3, which is 3 times larger than the brain of primates. A person has well-developed parts of the brain, where the most important mental and speech centers are located.

The first human among primates

The very first human ancestor - Australopithecus, could already move in an upright position. Thanks to this, he could hold tools and primitive weapons in his hands.

According to scientific theory, the emergence of Homo sapiens did not happen suddenly, it was the result of a long evolutionary development that took tens of millions of years. Scientists have given the name "homo sapiens" to a person who knows how to make elementary tools, as well as bury his fellow tribesmen. The most primitive tools were turned stones. 500 thousand years ago, people were already processing wooden sticks, making spears out of them. And only 250 thousand years ago appeared

50 thousand years ago they learned how to make lamps carved from stone, in which instead of fuel there was animal fat, after another 20 thousand years the first bow and arrows appeared. From the original ancestral species to the Homo sapiens species, leaps in development took place over 14-20 million years. Further evolution led to the emergence of Australopithecus, able to use the surrounding objects as tools, and even subject them to elementary processing.

Human development

When primates divided into two branches: the first subspecies in the course of evolution turned into a skilled man, and the second into an African Australopithecus, later extinct. Evolution made a leap when the species "handy man" arose. He mastered elementary thinking and speech, the main carriers of information, which was then passed on to the next generations. The species "upright man" arose 100 thousand years ago. With its appearance, the amount of information has significantly increased, which contributed to the creation of a new type of heritage - not genetically, but through material and spiritual experience. This one was equal to 1250 cm3, but its evolution did not stop there. At this stage of development, there was an accelerated progress of biological changes.

Considering the position of man in the system of the animal world, it can be briefly described as follows.

The earliest people were engaged in gathering and hunting. They led a nomadic life, eating plants and meat of animals that came across them on the way. They used caves for housing, but ancient finds confirm that the first dwellings were built from branches during this period. At some point, the tribes realized that a permanent home has a number of advantages. In a safe place, you can hide food supplies for hungry periods, protect yourself from bad weather and predators. In such villages it is more convenient to get along with each other, and it is also easier to fight off the enemy. In the process of evolution, the human brain has grown disproportionately to the body. But the most important achievement: people have become a collective active entity, the main components of which are labor, reason and speech, and this is the main difference between people and animals.

Man and animal world

The position of man in the system of the animal world has a powerful impact on this world. Paleolithic man was already hunting, exterminating now extinct creatures. Animals, birds and fish gave people food, the skins served as the first clothes, shoes and household items. Ever since people began to eat meat, they have learned how to make fire and tame animals. With the improvement of hunting tools and taming, the animal world increased.

Evolution in our time no longer matters for man, rather, on the contrary, he has a global impact on the environment. The position of man in the modern system of the animal world poses a danger to the biological diversity of species. It comes from human activities, and is associated with a change in the habitat of animals, global climate change, breeding of exotic species and the spread of diseases. Regardless of skin color, shape and size, all mankind belongs to one species - "reasonable man." Human behavior reflects how evolution has programmed it to act, such as looking for a mate, filling your stomach, or running away from danger.

Evolution or outside intervention?

Everything seems to be simple and clear in the evolutionary theory of the origin of man. Nevertheless, scientists have not yet come to a single and undeniable statement of what exactly became the impetus for the transition from primates to Homo sapiens.

According to various theories, there could be external interference, such as the interbreeding of representatives of extraterrestrial civilizations with human ancestors or the control of evolution by the forces of an extraterrestrial superintelligence.

Thanks to the intellect, a person has made a huge breakthrough: he can take care of himself, make a choice or take a risk. He knows how to write, compose music, draw with paints. And also build planes and ships to explore the entire planet, as well as spaceships to explore space.

» animals. K. Linnaeus in his "System of Nature" placed him, along with the higher and lower monkeys, in one order of primates. Ch. Darwin, using numerous examples in his special work "The Origin of Man and Sexual Selection", showed the close relationship of man with the higher anthropoid apes.

Homo sapiens belongs to the phylum Chordates, subtype Vertebrates, class Mammals, subclass placentals, order primates, family hominids.

With chordates a person is related: the presence of a notochord in the early embryonic stages, a neural tube lying above the notochord, gill slits in the walls of the pharynx, a heart on the ventral side under the digestive fact.

A person's belonging to vertebrate subtype is determined by the replacement of the chord by the spine, a developed skull and jaw apparatus, two pairs of limbs, and a brain consisting of five sections.

The presence of hair on the surface of the body, five parts of the spine, sebaceous, sweat and mammary glands diaphragm, a four-chambered heart, a highly developed cerebral cortex and warm-bloodedness indicate that a person belongs to to the class of mammals.

The development of the fetus in the mother's body and its nutrition through the placenta are features characteristic of subclass placental.

The presence of forelimbs of a grasping type (the first finger is opposed to the rest), well-developed clavicles, nails on the fingers, one pair of nipples of the mammary glands, replacement in ontogeny of milk teeth into permanent ones, the birth, as a rule, of one cub, allows us to attribute a person to primates.

More specific features, such as a similar structure of the brain and facial regions of the skull, well-developed frontal lobes of the brain, a large number of convolutions on the cerebral hemispheres, the presence of an appendix, the disappearance of the caudal spine, the development of facial muscles, four main blood types, similar Rh factors and other signs that bring humans closer to great apes. Anthropoids also suffer from many infectious diseases inherent in humans (tuberculosis, typhoid fever, infantile paralysis, dysentery, AIDS, etc.). In chimpanzees, Down's disease occurs, the occurrence of which, like in humans, is associated with the presence in the animal's karyotype of the third chromosome in the 21st pair. The proximity of man to anthropoids can be traced in other ways.

At the same time, there are fundamental differences between man and animals, including great apes. Only man has true upright posture. Due to the vertical position, the human skeleton has four sharp bends of the spine, a supporting arched foot with a strongly developed thumb, and a flat chest.

The flexible hand - the organ of labor - is capable of performing a wide variety of high-precision movements. The medulla of the skull significantly predominates over the facial. The area of ​​the cerebral cortex and the volume of the brain are much higher than in great apes. Consciousness and imaginative thinking are inherent in a person, with which such activities as design, painting, literature, and science are connected. Finally, only humans can communicate with each other through speech. These features of the structure, life and behavior of a person are the result of the evolution of his animal ancestors.

Source : ON THE. Lemeza L.V. Kamlyuk N.D. Lisov "Biology manual for applicants to universities"

The appearance in the process of human embryonic development of a notochord, gill slits in the pharyngeal cavity, dorsal hollow neural tube, bilateral symmetry in the structure of the body determines whether a person belongs to the Chordata type. The development of the spinal column, the heart on the ventral side of the body, the presence of two pairs of limbs - to the Vertebrata subtype. Warm-bloodedness, the development of the mammary glands, the presence of hair on the surface of the body indicates that a person belongs to the class Mammalia (Mammalia). The development of the baby inside the mother's body and the nutrition of the fetus through the placenta determine the person's belonging to the subclass Placental (Eutheria). Many more specific signs clearly define the position of a person in the system of the order Primates (Primates).

So, from a biological point of view, a person is one of the types of mammals belonging to the order of primates, the suborder of the narrow-nosed.

The place of Homo sapiens in the modern classification is as follows:

1. Subspecies Homo sapiens sapiens

2. Species of Homo sapiens

4. Tribe Homini

5. Subfamily Homininae

6. Family Hominidae

7. Superfamily Hominoidea

8. Section Catarrhini

9. Suborder Harlorhini (Antropoidea)

10. Squad Primates

Comparative anatomical evidence. The animal origin of man is evidenced by the presence of rudimentary organs and atavisms in him.

Rudiments are organs that have lost their original meaning in the process of evolution. There are only 90 rudiments in the human body:

1. coccygeal vertebrae (remainder of the caudal region);

2. poorly developed body hair;

3. subcutaneous muscle;

4. muscles that raise hair;

5. muscles that move the auricles;

7. brow ridges in the skull;

8. wisdom teeth;

9. appendix - caecum;

10. in the corner of the eye - the third eyelid;

11. in the circulatory system - the median sacral artery.

Atavisms are evidence of animal origin. These are deviations from the norm.

Atavisms - the appearance of signs characteristic of distant ancestors. These are signs that were laid down in embryonic development, but did not disappear, but remained for life in the human genotype:

o several pairs of nipples - multiple nipples;

o hairline - polymastia throughout the body;

o cervical fistula - as a result of non-closure of the gill slit;

o strong display of fangs;

o well-developed tubercle in the corner of the ear.

o Atavisms that disrupt normal life:

o a hole in the interventricular septum of the heart;

o the opening between the atria - the ductus botalis.

Comparative anatomical evidence includes: the same structure of the musculoskeletal, circulatory, respiratory, excretory and other organ systems in humans and monkeys. Embryological evidence of human animal origin.

Embryology is a science that studies the embryonic development of organisms.

In the early stages of development, the human embryo has signs of lower vertebrates:

ü cartilaginous skeleton - chord;

ü gill arches;

ü symmetrical discharge of blood vessels from the heart;

the smooth surface of the brain.

Later, features characteristic of mammals appear:

Ø thick hairline on the body of the fetus;

Ø several pairs of nipples;

Ø left aortic arch;

Ø constant body temperature;

Ø the body cavity is divided by the diaphragm: into the thoracic and abdominal sections;

Ø mature erythrocytes;

Ø teeth have two shifts (milk and permanent) and are divided into 3 groups;

Ø in the human skeleton there is not a single bone that mammals would not have;

Ø there are 3 auditory ossicles in the inner ear;

o A 6-month-old human fetus is covered with hair. Similarities between humans and great apes

o The same expression of feelings of joy, anger, sadness.

o Monkeys gently caress their cubs.

o Monkeys take care of children, but also punish them for disobedience.

o Monkeys have a well-developed memory.

o Monkeys are able to use natural objects as the simplest tools.

o Monkeys have concrete thinking.

o Monkeys can walk on their hind legs, leaning on their hands.

o On the fingers of monkeys, like humans, nails, not claws.

o Monkeys have 4 incisors and 8 molars - like humans.

o Humans and monkeys have common diseases (influenza, AIDS, smallpox, cholera, typhoid fever).

o In humans and great apes, the structure of all organ systems is similar.

o Biochemical evidence of human-monkey affinity:

o the degree of hybridization of human and chimpanzee DNA is 90-98%, human and gibbon - 76%, human and macaque - 66%;

o Cytological evidence of human-monkey affinity:

o humans have 46 chromosomes, chimpanzees and monkeys have 48 each, and gibbons have 44;

o in the chromosomes of the 5th pair of chimpanzee and human chromosomes there is an inverted pericentric region

All of the above facts indicate that man and great apes descended from a common ancestor and make it possible to determine the place of man in the system of the organic world.

The similarity between man and monkeys is proof of their kinship, common origin, and the differences are the result of different directions in the evolution of monkeys and human ancestors, especially the influence of human labor (tool) activity. Labor is the leading factor in the process of turning a monkey into a man.

The most characteristic feature of man, which distinguishes him from anthropomorphic apes, is the exceptionally strong development of the large brain. In terms of body weight, a person occupies approximately the middle place between a gorilla and a chimpanzee. Data on the size of the brain in humans and other primates are given in Table. 11 and in fig. 13.9.

The large human brain differs from the large brain of anthropomorphic monkeys not only in its large mass, but also in other important features: the frontal lobe and parietal lobes are more developed, and the number of small furrows is increased. A significant part of the human cortex is associated with speech: the “motor center” of speech, the “auditory center”. There is a greater wealth of interneuronal contacts. A person has new qualities - sound and written language, abstract thinking. Many anatomical features of a person are associated with upright walking and labor activity, which required the restructuring of many organs. The human spinal column has characteristic bends in the sagittal plane (lordosis and kyphosis), the chest has a flattened shape, the pelvis is expanded, as it takes on the pressure of the internal organs (Fig. 13.10).

A person is characterized by a significant strengthening of the connection between the spinal column and the pelvis, more massive lower limbs: the femur is the most powerful in the skeleton, it can withstand loads up to 1650 kg. The muscles of the lower extremities are also strongly developed: the gluteal muscles, which provide abduction and extension of the thigh, the large sciatic muscle (prevents the tendency of the body to tip forward), the gastrocnemius muscle and the calcaneal tendon (Fig. 13.11). The foot is a support organ, has a high arch, unlike the flat foot of monkeys.

The first finger of a person is less mobile. In monkeys, the upper limbs are adapted for hanging the body in an extended state and for moving through trees by "brachiation". The first toes of the hand and foot are short (Fig. 13.12), they play the role of a hook when suspended from a branch. When moving on the ground, long forelimbs act as an additional support. In humans, the upper limbs, which do not perform the function of support, are shortened and less massive (Fig. 13.13). For fast free movements, excessively large limbs of the hands would be disadvantageous.

A person has increased mobility of the hand, which allows greater freedom of movement and ensures their diversity. The first finger is much better developed, its muscles are more differentiated.

Humans are characterized by the dominant development of the brain region of the skull, the absence of the sagittal and occipital crests, to which the chewing muscles are attached in monkeys, and the weaker development of the supraorbital relief (superciliary arches). The facial section of the skull, unlike monkeys, is less developed (Fig. 13.14), which is associated with a decrease in the massiveness of the chewing apparatus, the mass of the lower jaw as a percentage of the mass of the skull in a gorilla is about 45%, and in humans only 15%.

The teeth are relatively small, a typical feature of a person is the absence of a conical shape of the fangs and their smaller size. The development of the chin protrusion is characteristic, which is not observed in any of the monkeys; this protrusion is absent in the ancient ancestors of man. The formation of the chin is associated with the reduction of the alveolar part, the straightening of the teeth, and the peculiarities of the growth of the bones of the facial skull. The human hairline is reduced. These features testify to the fundamental difference between man and animals, including monkeys.

All modern primates are not human ancestors; they separated from the common trunk of ancestral forms as early as the Tertiary period. There are two trends in the understanding of human nature; on the one hand, a misunderstanding of the qualitative specifics of a person and reducing his features only to quantitative ones (vulgar biologizing), on the other hand, an opposite nihilistic attitude towards the biological basis of a person, opposing him to other living organisms, separating him from the animal world and from nature, of which he is a part . Dialectical materialism will provide the basis for the scientific definition of the essence of man, which has a dual nature: biological and social

79. Paleontological data on the origin of primates and humans. Parapithecus, Driopithecus, Australopithecus, Archanthropes, Paleoanthropes, Neoanthropes. Scientists argue that modern man did not originate from modern anthropoid apes, which are characterized by a narrow specialization (adaptation to a strictly defined lifestyle in tropical forests), but from highly organized animals that died out several million years ago - driopithecus. The process of human evolution is very long, its main stages are presented in the diagram.

The main stages of anthropogenesis (the evolution of human ancestors)

According to paleontological finds (fossils), about 30 million years ago, ancient parapithecus primates appeared on Earth, living in open spaces and on trees. Their jaws and teeth were similar to those of great apes. Parapithecus gave rise to modern gibbons and orangutans, as well as an extinct branch of driopithecus. The latter in their development were divided into three lines: one of them led to the modern gorilla, the other to the chimpanzee, and the third to Australopithecus, and from it to man. The kinship of Dryopithecus with a man was established on the basis of a study of the structure of his jaw and teeth, discovered in 1856 in France.

The most important stage in the transformation of ape-like animals into the most ancient people was the appearance of bipedal locomotion. In connection with climate change and the thinning of forests, there has been a transition from an arboreal to a terrestrial way of life; in order to better view the area where the ancestors of man had many enemies, they had to stand on their hind limbs. Subsequently, natural selection developed and fixed upright posture, and, as a result of this, the hands were freed from the functions of support and movement. This is how australopithecines arose - the genus to which hominids belong (a family of people).

australopithecines

australopithecines- highly developed bipedal primates who used natural objects as tools (hence, Australopithecus cannot yet be considered people). Bony remains of Australopithecus were first discovered in 1924 in South Africa. They were as tall as chimpanzees and weighed about 50 kg, the brain volume reached 500 cm 3 - on this basis, Australopithecus is closer to humans than any of the fossil and modern monkeys.

The structure of the pelvic bones and the position of the head were similar to those of a person, which indicates a straightened position of the body. They lived about 9 million years ago in open steppes and fed on plant and animal food. The tools of their labor were stones, bones, sticks, jaws without traces of artificial processing.

skillful man

Not possessing a narrow specialization of the general structure, Australopithecus gave rise to a more progressive form, called Homo habilis - a skilled man. Its bone remains were discovered in 1959 in Tanzania. Their age is determined at about 2 million years. The growth of this creature reached 150 cm. The volume of the brain was 100 cm 3 larger than that of Australopithecus, the teeth of a human type, the phalanges of the fingers, like those of a person, are flattened.

Although it combined signs of both monkeys and humans, the transition of this creature to the manufacture of pebble tools (well-made stone ones) indicates the appearance of labor activity in it. They could catch animals, throw stones, and perform other activities. The heaps of bones found along with the fossils of Homo sapiens testify to the fact that meat has become a permanent part of their diet. These hominids used rough stone tools.

Homo erectus

Homo erectus - Homo erectus. the species from which modern man is believed to have descended. Its age is 1.5 million years. His jaws, teeth, and brow ridges were still massive, but the brain volume of some individuals was the same as that of modern man.

Some bones of Homo erectus have been found in caves, suggesting a permanent home. In addition to animal bones and rather well-made stone tools, heaps of charcoal and burnt bones were found in some caves, so that, apparently, at this time Australopithecus had already learned how to make fire.

This stage of hominin evolution coincides with the colonization of other colder regions by Africans. It would be impossible to survive the cold winters without developing complex behaviors or technical skills. Scientists suggest that the prehuman brain of Homo erectus was able to find social and technical solutions (fire, clothing, food supply and cohabitation in caves) to the problems associated with the need to survive in the cold of winter.

Thus, all fossil hominids, especially Australopithecus, are considered to be the precursors of humans.

The evolution of the physical features of the first humans, including modern humans, spans three stages: ancient people, or archanthropes; ancient people, or paleoanthropes; modern people, or neoanthropes.

archanthropes

The first representative of the archanthropes - Pithecanthropus(Japanese man) - ape-man, upright. His bones were found on about. Java (Indonesia) in 1891. Initially, its age was determined to be 1 million years, but, according to a more accurate modern estimate, it is a little over 400 thousand years old. The height of Pithecanthropus was about 170 cm, the volume of the cranium was 900 cm 3 .

Somewhat later there was synanthropus(Chinese person). Numerous remains of it were found in the period 1927 to 1963. in a cave near Beijing. This creature used fire and made stone tools. This group of ancient people also includes the Heidelberg man.

Paleoanthropes

Paleoanthropes - Neanderthals appeared to replace the archanthropes. 250-100 thousand years ago they were widely settled in Europe. Africa. Front and South Asia. The Neanderthals made a variety of stone tools: hand axes, side-scrapers, and points; used fire, coarse clothing. The volume of their brain grew 1400 cm 3 .

Features of the structure of the lower jaw show that they had rudimentary speech. They lived in groups of 50-100 individuals and during the onset of glaciers they used caves, driving wild animals out of them.

Man appeared on Earth as a result of a long process of historical and evolutionary development - phylogenesis and is closely connected by its origin with the animal world.

However, man differs from animals not only in a more perfect structure, but also in developed thinking, the presence of articulate speech, intelligence, which are determined by a complex of social conditions of life, social relationships, and socio-historical experience. Labor and the social environment have changed the biological characteristics of man.

In the system of the animal world, a person occupies the following position: kingdom - Animals, type - Chordates, subtype - Vertebrates, class - Mammals, order - Primates, suborder - Humanoids, section - Narrow-nosed, superfamily - Hominoids, family - Hominids, genus - Man, species - Homo sapiens.

The human body has the following distinctive features that are common to all members of the mammalian class.

1. Seven cervical vertebrae and articulation of the skull with the first cervical vertebra using the condyles of the occipital bone.

2. Abdominal obstruction (diaphragm), built of muscle tissue and separating the chest cavity from the abdominal cavity.

3. Two generations of teeth - milk and permanent, subdivided into incisors, canines and molars.

4. The presence of shaped lips and muscular cheeks.

5. A four-chambered heart that delivers arterial blood to the tissues, which does not mix with venous blood.

6. Preservation of one (left) aortic arch, while amphibians and reptiles have two (right and left) aortic arches.

7. The development of the outer ear and the presence of three auditory ossicles in the middle ear cavity.

8. The skin is covered with hair (for some - only in the fetal period of development), rich in sweat and sebaceous glands.

9. The presence of mammary glands.

In addition to the listed features of the structure, a person has a number of biological features similar to mammals. Thus, the human body has a constant temperature close to 37 °C. A person is characterized by live birth, prolonged gestation in the mother's body and the development of special organs to perform these functions.

The most similarity between humans and primates. Primates are animals with five-fingered grasping limbs. They are able to grasp objects, which is ensured by increased mobility of the fingers and the ability of the thumb to oppose the rest.

Greater mobility of the upper limb is associated with the development of the clavicle and with structural features of the spherical shoulder joint. Primate fingers are equipped with flat nails, not claws. Primates are plantigrade animals. When moving, they rely on the entire foot. Primates have well developed cerebral hemispheres.

They are characterized by low fertility, care for offspring, high development of herd relations, rich mimic and sound signaling.

Man and anthropomorphic (humanoid) monkeys (chimpanzee, gorilla, orangutan, gibbon) form a superfamily of higher narrow-nosed, or hominoids. The most important features of the similarity of anthropomorphic monkeys with humans are manifested in body proportions: a short torso and long limbs, a set of features associated with upright posture: reduction of the caudal vertebrae, a decrease in the number of thoracic and lumbar vertebrae, an increase in the number of sacral vertebrae, the presence of rudimentary bends of the spinal column, a wide sternum and others

Humans and anthropomorphic monkeys are similar in cytological and biochemical characteristics. Thus, the double set (diploid number) of chromosomes in the nuclei of somatic cells in higher anthropomorphic primates and in humans is almost the same (48 chromosomes in primates, 46 in humans). The homology of humans and chimpanzees has been established in terms of blood groups and the Rh factor, which was first discovered in monkeys.

At the same time, a person, unlike higher, anthropoid apes, has a number of characteristic features (signs of "hominization").

1. Upright posture associated with transformations in the musculoskeletal system.

2. Intensive development of the brain, especially the cerebral cortex.

3. Adaptation of the hand and especially the hand to work. The ability to oppose the thumb of the hand to the rest of the fingers, especially the little finger.

4. Changes in the dentition and the formation of articulate speech.

5. Restructuring the stages of ontogenesis - an increase in the duration of the intrauterine period, a slowdown in puberty, a lengthening of the period of childhood, an increase in life expectancy.

It should be emphasized that in humans, the properties that appeared in higher apes are most pronounced.