Layers of the atmosphere in order from the surface of the earth. The size of the earth's atmosphere

At 0 °C - 1.0048 10 3 J / (kg K), C v - 0.7159 10 3 J / (kg K) (at 0 °C). The solubility of air in water (by mass) at 0 ° C - 0.0036%, at 25 ° C - 0.0023%.

In addition to the gases indicated in the table, the atmosphere contains Cl 2, SO 2, NH 3, CO, O 3, NO 2, hydrocarbons, HCl,, HBr, vapors, I 2, Br 2, as well as many other gases in minor quantities. In the troposphere there is constantly a large amount of suspended solid and liquid particles (aerosol). Radon (Rn) is the rarest gas in the Earth's atmosphere.

The structure of the atmosphere

boundary layer of the atmosphere

The lower layer of the atmosphere adjacent to the Earth's surface (1-2 km thick) in which the influence of this surface directly affects its dynamics.

Troposphere

Its upper limit is at an altitude of 8-10 km in polar, 10-12 km in temperate and 16-18 km in tropical latitudes; lower in winter than in summer. The lower, main layer of the atmosphere contains more than 80% of the total mass of atmospheric air and about 90% of all water vapor present in the atmosphere. Turbulence and convection are strongly developed in the troposphere, clouds appear, cyclones and anticyclones develop. Temperature decreases with altitude with an average vertical gradient of 0.65°/100 m

tropopause

The transitional layer from the troposphere to the stratosphere, the layer of the atmosphere in which the decrease in temperature with height stops.

Stratosphere

The layer of the atmosphere located at an altitude of 11 to 50 km. A slight change in temperature in the 11-25 km layer (lower layer of the stratosphere) and its increase in the 25-40 km layer from −56.5 to 0.8 ° (upper stratosphere or inversion region) are typical. Having reached a value of about 273 K (almost 0 °C) at an altitude of about 40 km, the temperature remains constant up to an altitude of about 55 km. This region of constant temperature is called the stratopause and is the boundary between the stratosphere and the mesosphere.

Stratopause

The boundary layer of the atmosphere between the stratosphere and the mesosphere. There is a maximum in the vertical temperature distribution (about 0 °C).

Mesosphere

The mesosphere begins at an altitude of 50 km and extends up to 80-90 km. The temperature decreases with height with an average vertical gradient of (0.25-0.3)°/100 m. The main energy process is radiant heat transfer. Complex photochemical processes involving free radicals, vibrationally excited molecules, etc., cause atmospheric luminescence.

Mesopause

Transitional layer between mesosphere and thermosphere. There is a minimum in the vertical temperature distribution (about -90 °C).

Karman Line

Altitude above sea level, which is conventionally accepted as the boundary between the Earth's atmosphere and space. According to the FAI definition, the Karman Line is at an altitude of 100 km above sea level.

Thermosphere

The upper limit is about 800 km. The temperature rises to altitudes of 200-300 km, where it reaches values of the order of 1226.85 C, after which it remains almost constant up to high altitudes. Under the influence of solar radiation and cosmic radiation, air is ionized (“ auroras”) - the main regions of the ionosphere lie inside the thermosphere. At altitudes above 300 km, atomic oxygen predominates. The upper limit of the thermosphere is largely determined by the current activity of the Sun. During periods of low activity - for example, in 2008-2009 - there is a noticeable decrease in the size of this layer.

Thermopause

The region of the atmosphere above the thermosphere. In this region, the absorption of solar radiation is insignificant and the temperature does not actually change with height.

Exosphere (scattering sphere)

Up to a height of 100 km, the atmosphere is a homogeneous, well-mixed mixture of gases. In higher layers, the distribution of gases in height depends on their molecular masses, the concentration of heavier gases decreases faster with distance from the Earth's surface. Due to the decrease in gas density, the temperature drops from 0 °C in the stratosphere to −110 °C in the mesosphere. However, the kinetic energy of individual particles at altitudes of 200–250 km corresponds to a temperature of ~150 °C. Above 200 km, significant fluctuations in temperature and gas density are observed in time and space.

At an altitude of about 2000-3500 km, the exosphere gradually passes into the so-called near space vacuum, which is filled with highly rarefied particles of interplanetary gas, mainly hydrogen atoms. But this gas is only part of the interplanetary matter. The other part is composed of dust-like particles of cometary and meteoric origin. In addition to extremely rarefied dust particles, electromagnetic and corpuscular radiation of solar and galactic origin penetrates into this space.

Review

Based on the electrical properties in the atmosphere, they emit the neutrosphere and ionosphere .

Depending on the composition of the gas in the atmosphere, they emit homosphere and heterosphere. heterosphere- this is an area where gravity affects the separation of gases, since their mixing at such a height is negligible. Hence follows the variable composition of the heterosphere. Below it lies a well-mixed, homogeneous part of the atmosphere, called the homosphere. The boundary between these layers is called turbopause, it lies at an altitude of about 120 km.

Other properties of the atmosphere and effects on the human body

Already at an altitude of 5 km above sea level, an untrained person develops oxygen starvation and, without adaptation, a person's performance is significantly reduced. This is where the physiological zone of the atmosphere ends. Human breathing becomes impossible at an altitude of 9 km, although up to about 115 km the atmosphere contains oxygen.

The atmosphere provides us with the oxygen we need to breathe. However, due to the decrease in the total pressure of the atmosphere, as one rises to a height, the partial pressure of oxygen also decreases accordingly.

In rarefied layers of air, the propagation of sound is impossible. Up to altitudes of 60-90 km, it is still possible to use air resistance and lift for controlled aerodynamic flight. But starting from altitudes of 100-130 km, the concepts of the M number and the sound barrier familiar to every pilot lose their meaning: there passes the conditional Karman line, beyond which the area of purely ballistic flight begins, which can only be controlled using reactive forces.

At altitudes above 100 km, the atmosphere is also deprived of another remarkable property - the ability to absorb, conduct and transfer thermal energy by convection (that is, by mixing air). This means that various elements of equipment, equipment of the orbital space station will not be able to be cooled from the outside in the way it is usually done on an airplane - with the help of air jets and air radiators. At such a height, as in space in general, the only way to transfer heat is thermal radiation.

History of the formation of the atmosphere

According to the most common theory, the Earth's atmosphere has been in three different compositions throughout its history. Initially, it consisted of light gases (hydrogen and helium) captured from interplanetary space. This so-called primary atmosphere. At the next stage, active volcanic activity led to the saturation of the atmosphere with gases other than hydrogen (carbon dioxide, ammonia, water vapor). This is how secondary atmosphere. This atmosphere was restorative. Further, the process of formation of the atmosphere was determined by the following factors:

leakage of light gases (hydrogen and helium) into interplanetary space;
chemical reactions occurring in the atmosphere under the influence of ultraviolet radiation, lightning discharges and some other factors.

Gradually, these factors led to the formation tertiary atmosphere, characterized by a much lower content of hydrogen and a much higher content of nitrogen and carbon dioxide (formed as a result of chemical reactions from ammonia and hydrocarbons).

Nitrogen

The formation of a large amount of nitrogen N 2 is due to the oxidation of the ammonia-hydrogen atmosphere by molecular oxygen O 2, which began to come from the surface of the planet as a result of photosynthesis, starting from 3 billion years ago. Nitrogen N 2 is also released into the atmosphere as a result of the denitrification of nitrates and other nitrogen-containing compounds. Nitrogen is oxidized by ozone to NO in the upper atmosphere.

Nitrogen N 2 enters into reactions only under specific conditions (for example, during a lightning discharge). Oxidation of molecular nitrogen by ozone during electrical discharges is used in small quantities in the industrial production of nitrogen fertilizers. It can be oxidized with low energy consumption and converted into a biologically active form by cyanobacteria (blue-green algae) and nodule bacteria that form rhizobial symbiosis with legumes, which can be effective green manure plants that do not deplete, but enrich the soil with natural fertilizers.

Oxygen

The composition of the atmosphere began to change radically with the advent of living organisms on Earth, as a result of photosynthesis, accompanied by the release of oxygen and the absorption of carbon dioxide. Initially, oxygen was spent on the oxidation of reduced compounds - ammonia, hydrocarbons, the ferrous form of iron contained in the oceans, etc. At the end of this stage, the oxygen content in the atmosphere began to grow. Gradually, a modern atmosphere with oxidizing properties formed. Since this caused serious and abrupt changes in many processes occurring in the atmosphere, lithosphere and biosphere, this event was called the Oxygen catastrophe.

noble gases

Air pollution

Recently, man has begun to influence the evolution of the atmosphere. The result of human activity has been a constant increase in the content of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere due to the combustion of hydrocarbon fuels accumulated in previous geological epochs. Huge amounts of CO 2 are consumed during photosynthesis and absorbed by the world's oceans. This gas enters the atmosphere due to the decomposition of carbonate rocks and organic substances of plant and animal origin, as well as due to volcanism and human production activities. Over the past 100 years, the content of CO 2 in the atmosphere has increased by 10%, with the main part (360 billion tons) coming from fuel combustion. If the growth rate of fuel combustion continues, then in the next 200-300 years the amount of CO 2 in the atmosphere will double and may lead to global climate change.

Fuel combustion is the main source of polluting gases (СО,, SO 2). Sulfur dioxide is oxidized by atmospheric oxygen to SO 3, and nitric oxide to NO 2 in the upper atmosphere, which in turn interact with water vapor, and the resulting sulfuric acid H 2 SO 4 and nitric acid HNO 3 fall on the Earth's surface in the form so-called. acid rain. The use of internal combustion engines leads to significant air pollution with nitrogen oxides, hydrocarbons and lead compounds (tetraethyl lead Pb (CH 3 CH 2) 4).

Aerosol pollution of the atmosphere is caused both by natural causes (volcanic eruption, dust storms, entrainment of sea water droplets and plant pollen, etc.) and by human economic activity (mining of ores and building materials, fuel combustion, cement production, etc.). Intense large-scale removal of solid particles into the atmosphere is one of the possible causes of climate change on the planet.

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Notes

M. I. Budyko , K. Ya. Kondratiev Atmosphere of the Earth // Great Soviet Encyclopedia. 3rd ed. / Ch. ed. A. M. Prokhorov. - M .: Soviet Encyclopedia, 1970. - T. 2. Angola - Barzas. - pp. 380-384.
- article from the Geological Encyclopedia
Gribbin, John. Science. A History (1543-2001). - L. : Penguin Books, 2003. - 648 p. - ISBN 978-0-140-29741-6.
Tans, Pieter. Globally averaged marine surface annual mean data . NOAA/ESRL. Retrieved February 19, 2014.(English) (for 2013)
IPCC (English) (for 1998).
S. P. Khromov Air humidity // Great Soviet Encyclopedia. 3rd ed. / Ch. ed. A. M. Prokhorov. - M .: Soviet Encyclopedia, 1971. - T. 5. Veshin - Gazli. - S. 149.
(English) , SpaceDaily, 07/16/2010

Literature

V. V. Parin, F. P. Kosmolinsky, B. A. Dushkov"Space biology and medicine" (2nd edition, revised and supplemented), M .: "Prosveshchenie", 1975, 223 pages.
N. V. Gusakova"Chemistry of the environment", Rostov-on-Don: Phoenix, 2004, 192 with ISBN 5-222-05386-5
Sokolov V. A. Geochemistry of natural gases, M., 1971;
McEwen M, Phillips L. Chemistry of the atmosphere, M., 1978;
Wark K., Warner S. Air pollution. Sources and control, trans. from English, M.. 1980;
Monitoring of background pollution of natural environments. in. 1, L., 1982.

Links

// December 17, 2013, FOBOS Center



History of the Earth

Physical properties of the Earth

Shells of the Earth

Geography and geology

Environment

see also

An excerpt characterizing the Earth's atmosphere

When Pierre approached them, he noticed that Vera was in a self-satisfied enthusiasm for the conversation, Prince Andrei (which rarely happened to him) seemed embarrassed.
- What do you think? Vera said with a thin smile. - You, prince, are so insightful and understand the character of people at once. What do you think of Natalie, can she be constant in her affections, can she, like other women (Vera understood herself), love a person once and remain faithful to him forever? This is what I consider true love. What do you think, prince?
“I know your sister too little,” answered Prince Andrei with a mocking smile, under which he wanted to hide his embarrassment, “to solve such a delicate question; and then I noticed that the less a woman likes, the more constant she is, ”he added and looked at Pierre, who had approached them at that time.
- Yes, it's true, prince; in our time, Vera continued (referring to our time, as limited people generally like to mention, believing that they have found and appreciated the features of our time and that the properties of people change with time), in our time the girl has so much freedom that le plaisir d "etre courtisee [the pleasure of having fans] often drowns out the true feeling in her. Et Nathalie, il faut l" avouer, y est tres sensible. [And Natalya, it must be confessed, is very sensitive to this.] The return to Natalya again made Prince Andrei frown unpleasantly; he wanted to get up, but Vera continued with an even more refined smile.
“I don’t think anyone was as courtisee [object of courtship] as she was,” Vera said; - but never, until very recently, did she seriously like anyone. You know, count, - she turned to Pierre, - even our dear cousin Boris, who was, entre nous [between us], very, very dans le pays du tendre ... [in the land of tenderness ...]
Prince Andrei frowned silently.
Are you friends with Boris? Vera told him.
- Yes, I know him…
- Did he tell you right about his childhood love for Natasha?
Was there childhood love? - suddenly suddenly blushing, asked Prince Andrei.
- Yes. Vous savez entre cousin et cousine cette intimate mene quelquefois a l "amour: le cousinage est un dangereux voisinage, N" est ce pas? [You know, between cousin and sister, this closeness sometimes leads to love. Such kinship is a dangerous neighborhood. Is not it?]
“Oh, without a doubt,” said Prince Andrei, and suddenly, unnaturally animated, he began to joke with Pierre about how careful he should be in his treatment of his 50-year-old Moscow cousins, and in the middle of a joking conversation, he got up and, taking under the arm of Pierre, took him aside.
- Well? - said Pierre, looking with surprise at the strange animation of his friend and noticing the look that he threw at Natasha getting up.
“I need, I need to talk to you,” said Prince Andrei. - You know our women's gloves (he talked about those Masonic gloves that were given to the newly elected brother to present to his beloved woman). - I ... But no, I'll talk to you later ... - And with a strange gleam in his eyes and restlessness in his movements, Prince Andrei went up to Natasha and sat down beside her. Pierre saw how Prince Andrei asked her something, and she, flushing, answered him.
But at this time, Berg approached Pierre, urging him to take part in a dispute between the general and the colonel about Spanish affairs.
Berg was pleased and happy. The smile of joy never left his face. The evening was very good and exactly like the other evenings he had seen. Everything was similar. And ladylike, subtle conversations, and cards, and behind the cards a general raising his voice, and a samovar, and cookies; but one thing was still missing, that which he always saw at parties, which he wished to imitate.
There was a lack of loud conversation between men and an argument about something important and clever. The general started this conversation and Berg brought Pierre to it.

The next day, Prince Andrei went to the Rostovs for dinner, as Count Ilya Andreich called him, and spent the whole day with them.
Everyone in the house felt for whom Prince Andrei went, and he, without hiding, tried all day to be with Natasha. Not only in the soul of Natasha, frightened, but happy and enthusiastic, but in the whole house, fear was felt before something important that had to happen. The Countess looked at Prince Andrei with sad and seriously stern eyes when he spoke with Natasha, and timidly and feignedly began some kind of insignificant conversation, as soon as he looked back at her. Sonya was afraid to leave Natasha and was afraid to be a hindrance when she was with them. Natasha turned pale with fear of anticipation when she remained face to face with him for minutes. Prince Andrei struck her with his timidity. She felt that he needed to tell her something, but that he could not bring himself to do so.
When Prince Andrei left in the evening, the countess went up to Natasha and said in a whisper:
- Well?
- Mom, for God's sake don't ask me anything now. You can’t say that,” Natasha said.
But despite the fact that that evening Natasha, now agitated, now frightened, with stopping eyes, lay for a long time in her mother's bed. Now she told her how he praised her, then how he said that he would go abroad, then how he asked where they would live this summer, then how he asked her about Boris.
“But this, this… has never happened to me!” she said. “Only I’m scared around him, I’m always scared around him, what does that mean?” So it's real, right? Mom, are you sleeping?
“No, my soul, I myself am afraid,” answered the mother. - Go.
“I won’t sleep anyway. What's wrong with sleeping? Mommy, mommy, this has never happened to me! she said with astonishment and fear before the feeling that she was aware of in herself. - And could we think! ...
It seemed to Natasha that even when she first saw Prince Andrei in Otradnoye, she fell in love with him. She seemed to be frightened by this strange, unexpected happiness that the one whom she had chosen back then (she was firmly convinced of this), that the same one had now met her again, and, as it seems, was not indifferent to her. “And it was necessary for him, now that we are here, to come to Petersburg on purpose. And we should have met at this ball. All this is fate. It is clear that this is fate, that all this was led to this. Even then, as soon as I saw him, I felt something special.
What else did he tell you? What verses are these? Read it ... - thoughtfully said the mother, asking about the poems that Prince Andrei wrote in Natasha's album.
- Mom, is it not a shame that he is a widower?
- That's it, Natasha. Pray to God. Les Marieiages se font dans les cieux. [Marriages are made in heaven.]
“Darling, mother, how I love you, how good it is for me!” Natasha shouted, crying tears of happiness and excitement and hugging her mother.
At the same time, Prince Andrei was sitting with Pierre and telling him about his love for Natasha and about his firm intention to marry her.

On that day, Countess Elena Vasilievna had a reception, there was a French envoy, there was a prince, who had recently become a frequent visitor to the countess's house, and many brilliant ladies and men. Pierre was downstairs, walked through the halls, and struck all the guests with his concentrated, absent-minded and gloomy look.
From the time of the ball, Pierre felt the approach of fits of hypochondria in himself and with a desperate effort tried to fight against them. From the time of the prince’s rapprochement with his wife, Pierre was unexpectedly granted a chamberlain, and from that time on he began to feel heaviness and shame in a large society, and more often the same gloomy thoughts about the futility of everything human began to come to him. At the same time, the feeling he noticed between Natasha, who was patronized by him, and Prince Andrei, his opposition between his position and the position of his friend, further strengthened this gloomy mood. He equally tried to avoid thoughts about his wife and about Natasha and Prince Andrei. Again everything seemed to him insignificant in comparison with eternity, again the question presented itself: “what for?”. And he forced himself day and night to work on the Masonic works, hoping to drive away the approach of the evil spirit. Pierre at 12 o'clock, leaving the countess's chambers, was sitting upstairs in a smoky, low room, in a worn dressing gown in front of the table and copying genuine Scottish acts, when someone entered his room. It was Prince Andrew.
“Ah, it’s you,” said Pierre with an absent-minded and displeased look. “But I’m working,” he said, pointing to a notebook with that kind of salvation from the hardships of life with which unhappy people look at their work.
Prince Andrei, with a beaming, enthusiastic face, renewed to life, stopped in front of Pierre and, not noticing his sad face, smiled at him with egoism of happiness.
“Well, my soul,” he said, “yesterday I wanted to tell you and today I came to you for this. Never experienced anything like it. I'm in love my friend.
Pierre suddenly sighed heavily and sank down with his heavy body on the sofa, next to Prince Andrei.
- To Natasha Rostov, right? - he said.
- Yes, yes, in whom? I would never believe it, but this feeling is stronger than me. Yesterday I suffered, suffered, but I will not give up this torment for anything in the world. I haven't lived before. Now only I live, but I can't live without her. But can she love me?... I'm old for her... What don't you say?...
- I? I? What did I tell you, - Pierre suddenly said, getting up and starting to walk around the room. - I always thought this ... This girl is such a treasure, such ... This is a rare girl ... Dear friend, I ask you, do not think, do not hesitate, marry, marry and marry ... And I am sure that no one will be happier than you.
- But she!
- She loves you.
“Don’t talk nonsense ...” said Prince Andrei, smiling and looking into Pierre’s eyes.
“He loves, I know,” Pierre shouted angrily.
“No, listen,” said Prince Andrei, stopping him by the hand. Do you know what position I'm in? I need to tell everything to someone.
“Well, well, say, I’m very glad,” Pierre said, and indeed his face changed, the wrinkle smoothed out, and he joyfully listened to Prince Andrei. Prince Andrei seemed and was a completely different, new person. Where was his anguish, his contempt for life, his disappointment? Pierre was the only person before whom he dared to speak out; but on the other hand, he told him everything that was in his soul. Either he easily and boldly made plans for a long future, talked about how he could not sacrifice his happiness for the whim of his father, how he would force his father to agree to this marriage and love her or do without his consent, then he was surprised how on something strange, alien, independent of him, against the feeling that possessed him.
“I would not believe someone who would tell me that I can love like that,” said Prince Andrei. “It's not the same feeling I had before. The whole world is divided for me into two halves: one is she and there is all the happiness of hope, light; the other half - everything where it is not there, there is all despondency and darkness ...
“Darkness and gloom,” Pierre repeated, “yes, yes, I understand that.
“I can't help but love the light, it's not my fault. And I am very happy. You understand me? I know that you are happy for me.
“Yes, yes,” Pierre confirmed, looking at his friend with touching and sad eyes. The brighter the fate of Prince Andrei seemed to him, the darker his own seemed.

For marriage, the consent of the father was needed, and for this, the next day, Prince Andrei went to his father.
The father, with outward calm, but inward malice, received his son's message. He could not understand that someone wanted to change life, to bring something new into it, when life was already ending for him. “They would only let me live the way I want, and then they would do what they wanted,” the old man said to himself. With his son, however, he used the diplomacy he used on important occasions. Assuming a calm tone, he discussed the whole matter.
Firstly, the marriage was not brilliant in relation to kinship, wealth and nobility. Secondly, Prince Andrei was not the first youth and was in poor health (the old man especially leaned on this), and she was very young. Thirdly, there was a son whom it was a pity to give to a girl. Fourthly, finally, - said the father, looking mockingly at his son, - I ask you, put the matter aside for a year, go abroad, take medical treatment, find, as you like, a German, for Prince Nikolai, and then, if it’s love, passion, stubbornness, whatever you want, so great, then get married.
“And this is my last word, you know, the last ...” the prince finished in such a tone that he showed that nothing would make him change his mind.
Prince Andrei clearly saw that the old man hoped that the feeling of his or his future bride would not stand the test of the year, or that he himself, the old prince, would die by this time, and decided to fulfill his father's will: to propose and postpone the wedding for a year.
Three weeks after his last evening at the Rostovs, Prince Andrei returned to Petersburg.

The next day after her explanation with her mother, Natasha waited all day for Bolkonsky, but he did not arrive. The next day, the third day, it was the same. Pierre also did not come, and Natasha, not knowing that Prince Andrei had gone to her father, could not explain his absence to herself.
So three weeks passed. Natasha did not want to go anywhere, and like a shadow, idle and despondent, she walked around the rooms, in the evening she secretly cried from everyone and did not appear in the evenings to her mother. She was constantly blushing and irritated. It seemed to her that everyone knew about her disappointment, laughed and regretted her. With all the strength of inner grief, this vainglorious grief increased her misfortune.
One day she came to the countess, wanted to say something to her, and suddenly burst into tears. Her tears were the tears of an offended child who himself does not know why he is being punished.
The Countess began to reassure Natasha. Natasha, who at first listened to her mother's words, suddenly interrupted her:
- Stop it, mom, I don’t think, and I don’t want to think! So, I traveled and stopped, and stopped ...
Her voice trembled, she almost burst into tears, but she recovered herself and calmly continued: “And I don’t want to get married at all. And I'm afraid of him; I am now completely, completely, calmed down ...
The next day after this conversation, Natasha put on that old dress, which she was especially aware of for the cheerfulness it delivered in the morning, and in the morning she began her former way of life, from which she lagged behind after the ball. After drinking tea, she went to the hall, which she especially loved for its strong resonance, and began to sing her solfeji (singing exercises). Having finished the first lesson, she stopped in the middle of the hall and repeated one musical phrase that she especially liked. She listened joyfully to that (as if unexpected for her) charm with which these sounds, shimmering, filled the entire emptiness of the hall and slowly died away, and she suddenly became cheerful. “Why think about it so much and so well,” she said to herself, and began to walk up and down the hall, stepping not with simple steps on the resonant parquet, but at every step stepping from heel (she was wearing new, favorite shoes) to toe, and just as joyfully as to the sounds of his voice, listening to this measured clatter of heels and the creaking of socks. Passing by a mirror, she looked into it. - "Here I am!" as if the expression on her face at the sight of herself spoke. “Well, that's good. And I don't need anyone."
The footman wanted to come in to clean up something in the hall, but she did not let him in, again shutting the door behind him, and continued her walk. She returned that morning again to her beloved state of self-love and admiration for herself. - “What a charm this Natasha is!” she said again to herself in the words of some third, collective, masculine face. - "Good, voice, young, and she does not interfere with anyone, just leave her alone." But no matter how much they left her alone, she could no longer be at peace, and immediately felt it.
In the front door the entrance door opened, someone asked: are you at home? and someone's footsteps were heard. Natasha looked in the mirror, but she did not see herself. She listened to the sounds in the hallway. When she saw herself, her face was pale. It was he. She knew this for sure, although she barely heard the sound of his voice from the closed doors.
Natasha, pale and frightened, ran into the living room.
- Mom, Bolkonsky has arrived! - she said. - Mom, this is terrible, this is unbearable! “I don’t want to… suffer!” What should I do?…
The countess had not yet had time to answer her, when Prince Andrei entered the drawing room with an anxious and serious face. As soon as he saw Natasha, his face lit up. He kissed the hand of the countess and Natasha and sat down beside the sofa.
“For a long time we have not had pleasure ...” the countess began, but Prince Andrei interrupted her, answering her question and obviously in a hurry to say what he needed.
- I have not been with you all this time, because I was with my father: I needed to talk to him about a very important matter. I just got back last night,” he said, looking at Natasha. “I need to talk to you, Countess,” he added after a moment's silence.
The Countess sighed heavily and lowered her eyes.
“I am at your service,” she said.
Natasha knew that she had to leave, but she could not do it: something was squeezing her throat, and she looked impolitely, directly, with open eyes at Prince Andrei.
"Now? This minute!… No, it can't be!” she thought.
He looked at her again, and this look convinced her that she had not been mistaken. - Yes, now, this very minute her fate was being decided.
“Come, Natasha, I will call you,” said the countess in a whisper.
Natasha looked with frightened, pleading eyes at Prince Andrei and at her mother, and went out.
“I have come, Countess, to ask for the hand of your daughter,” said Prince Andrei. The countess's face flushed, but she said nothing.
“Your suggestion…” the Countess began sedately. He remained silent, looking into her eyes. - Your offer ... (she was embarrassed) we are pleased, and ... I accept your offer, I'm glad. And my husband ... I hope ... but it will depend on her ...
- I will tell her when I have your consent ... do you give it to me? - said Prince Andrew.
“Yes,” said the Countess, and held out her hand to him, and with a mixture of aloofness and tenderness pressed her lips to his forehead as he leaned over her hand. She wanted to love him like a son; but she felt that he was a stranger and a terrible person for her. “I'm sure my husband will agree,” said the countess, “but your father ...
- My father, to whom I informed my plans, made it an indispensable condition for consent that the wedding should not be earlier than a year. And this is what I wanted to tell you, - said Prince Andrei.
- It is true that Natasha is still young, but so long.
“It could not be otherwise,” Prince Andrei said with a sigh.
“I will send it to you,” said the countess, and left the room.
“Lord, have mercy on us,” she repeated, looking for her daughter. Sonya said that Natasha was in the bedroom. Natasha sat on her bed, pale, with dry eyes, looked at the icons and, quickly making the sign of the cross, whispered something. Seeing her mother, she jumped up and rushed to her.
- What? Mom?… What?
- Go, go to him. He asks for your hand, - said the countess coldly, as it seemed to Natasha ... - Go ... go, - the mother said with sadness and reproach after her daughter, who was running away, and sighed heavily.
Natasha did not remember how she entered the living room. When she entered the door and saw him, she stopped. “Is this stranger really become my everything now?” she asked herself and instantly answered: “Yes, everything: he alone is now dearer to me than everything in the world.” Prince Andrei went up to her, lowering his eyes.
“I fell in love with you from the moment I saw you. Can I hope?
He looked at her, and the earnest passion of her countenance struck him. Her face said: “Why ask? Why doubt that which is impossible not to know? Why talk when you can’t express what you feel in words.
She approached him and stopped. He took her hand and kissed it.
– Do you love me?
“Yes, yes,” Natasha said as if with annoyance, sighed loudly, another time, more and more often, and sobbed.
– About what? What's wrong with you?
“Oh, I’m so happy,” she answered, smiled through her tears, leaned closer to him, thought for a second, as if asking herself if it was possible, and kissed him.
Prince Andrei held her hands, looked into her eyes, and did not find in his soul the former love for her. Something suddenly turned in his soul: there was no former poetic and mysterious charm of desire, but there was pity for her feminine and childish weakness, there was fear of her devotion and gullibility, a heavy and at the same time joyful consciousness of the duty that forever connected him with her. The real feeling, although it was not as light and poetic as the former, was more serious and stronger.

Engaged in meteorology, and long-term variations - climatology.

The thickness of the atmosphere is 1500 km from the Earth's surface. The total mass of air, that is, a mixture of gases that make up the atmosphere, is 5.1-5.3 * 10 ^ 15 tons. The molecular weight of clean dry air is 29. The pressure at 0 ° C at sea level is 101,325 Pa, or 760 mm. rt. Art.; critical temperature - 140.7 °C; critical pressure 3.7 MPa. The solubility of air in water at 0 ° C is 0.036%, at 25 ° C - 0.22%.

The physical state of the atmosphere is determined. The main parameters of the atmosphere: air density, pressure, temperature and composition. As altitude increases, air density decreases. The temperature also changes with the change in altitude. Vertical is characterized by different temperature and electrical properties, different air conditions. Depending on the temperature in the atmosphere, the following main layers are distinguished: troposphere, stratosphere, mesosphere, thermosphere, exosphere (scattering sphere). The transitional regions of the atmosphere between adjacent shells are called the tropopause, stratopause, etc., respectively.

Troposphere- lower, main, most studied, with a height in the polar regions of 8-10 km, in temperate latitudes up to 10-12 km, at the equator - 16-18 km. Approximately 80-90% of the total mass of the atmosphere and almost all water vapor are concentrated in the troposphere. When rising every 100 m, the temperature in the troposphere decreases by an average of 0.65 ° C and reaches -53 ° C in the upper part. This upper layer of the troposphere is called the tropopause. In the troposphere, turbulence and convection are highly developed, the predominant part is concentrated, clouds arise, develop.

Stratosphere- layer of the atmosphere, located at an altitude of 11-50 km. A slight change in temperature in the 11-25 km layer (the lower layer of the stratosphere) and its increase in the 25-40 km layer from -56.5 to 0.8 °C (the upper layer of the stratosphere or the inversion region) are typical. Having reached a value of 273 K (0 °C) at an altitude of about 40 km, the temperature remains constant up to an altitude of 55 km. This region of constant temperature is called the stratopause and is the boundary between the stratosphere and the mesosphere.

It is in the stratosphere that the layer is located ozonosphere("ozone layer", at an altitude of 15-20 to 55-60 km), which determines the upper limit of life in. An important component of the stratosphere and mesosphere is ozone, which is formed as a result of photochemical reactions most intensively at an altitude of 30 km. The total mass of ozone at normal pressure would be a layer 1.7-4 mm thick, but even this is enough to absorb ultraviolet, which is harmful to life. The destruction of ozone occurs when it interacts with free radicals, nitric oxide, halogen-containing compounds (including "freons"). Ozone - an allotropy of oxygen, is formed as a result of the following chemical reaction, usually after rain, when the resulting compound rises to the upper layers of the troposphere; ozone has a specific smell.

Most of the short-wavelength part of ultraviolet radiation (180-200 nm) is retained in the stratosphere and the energy of short waves is transformed. Under the influence of these rays, magnetic fields change, molecules break up, ionization, new formation of gases and other chemical compounds occur. These processes can be observed in the form of northern lights, lightning, and other glows. There is almost no water vapor in the stratosphere.

Mesosphere starts at an altitude of 50 km and extends up to 80-90 km. to a height of 75-85 km it drops to -88 °С. The upper boundary of the mesosphere is the mesopause.

Thermosphere(another name is the ionosphere) - the layer of the atmosphere following the mesosphere - begins at an altitude of 80-90 km and extends up to 800 km. The air temperature in the thermosphere rapidly and steadily increases and reaches several hundred and even thousands of degrees.

Exosphere- scattering zone, the outer part of the thermosphere, located above 800 km. The gas in the exosphere is highly rarefied, and hence its particles leak into interplanetary space (dissipation).
Up to a height of 100 km, the atmosphere is a homogeneous (single-phase), well-mixed mixture of gases. In higher layers, the distribution of gases in height depends on their molecular weights, the concentration of heavier gases decreases faster with distance from the Earth's surface. Due to the decrease in gas density, the temperature drops from 0 °C in the stratosphere to -110 °C in the mesosphere. However, the kinetic energy of individual particles at altitudes of 200-250 km corresponds to a temperature of approximately 1500 °C. Above 200 km, significant fluctuations in temperature and gas density are observed in time and space.

At an altitude of about 2000-3000 km, the exosphere gradually passes into the so-called near space vacuum, which is filled with highly rarefied particles of interplanetary gas, mainly hydrogen atoms. But this gas is only part of the interplanetary matter. The other part is composed of dust-like particles of cometary and meteoric origin. In addition to these extremely rarefied particles, electromagnetic and corpuscular radiation of solar and galactic origin penetrates into this space.

The troposphere accounts for about 80% of the mass of the atmosphere, the stratosphere accounts for about 20%; the mass of the mesosphere is no more than 0.3%, the thermosphere is less than 0.05% of the total mass of the atmosphere. Based on the electrical properties in the atmosphere, the neutrosphere and ionosphere are distinguished. It is currently believed that the atmosphere extends to an altitude of 2000-3000 km.

Depending on the composition of the gas in the atmosphere, homosphere and heterosphere are distinguished. heterosphere- this is the area where gravity affects the separation of gases, because. their mixing at this height is negligible. Hence follows the variable composition of the heterosphere. Below it lies a well-mixed, homogeneous part of the atmosphere called the homosphere. The boundary between these layers is called the turbopause and lies at an altitude of about 120 km.

Atmospheric pressure - the pressure of atmospheric air on the objects in it and the earth's surface. Normal atmospheric pressure is 760 mm Hg. Art. (101 325 Pa). For each kilometer increase in altitude, the pressure drops by 100 mm.

Composition of the atmosphere

The air shell of the Earth, consisting mainly of gases and various impurities (dust, water drops, ice crystals, sea salts, combustion products), the amount of which is not constant. The main gases are nitrogen (78%), oxygen (21%) and argon (0.93%). The concentration of gases that make up the atmosphere is almost constant, with the exception of carbon dioxide CO2 (0.03%).

The atmosphere also contains SO2, CH4, NH3, CO, hydrocarbons, HC1, HF, Hg vapor, I2, as well as NO and many other gases in small quantities. In the troposphere there is constantly a large amount of suspended solid and liquid particles (aerosol).

Earth's atmosphere

Atmosphere(from. other Greekἀτμός - steam and σφαῖρα - ball) - gas shell ( geosphere) surrounding the planet Earth. Its inner surface is covered hydrosphere and partially bark, the outer one borders on the near-Earth part of outer space.

The totality of sections of physics and chemistry that study the atmosphere is commonly called atmospheric physics. The atmosphere determines weather on the surface of the Earth, is engaged in the study of weather meteorology, and long-term variations climate - climatology.

The structure of the atmosphere

The structure of the atmosphere

Troposphere

Its upper limit is at an altitude of 8-10 km in polar, 10-12 km in temperate and 16-18 km in tropical latitudes; lower in winter than in summer. The lower, main layer of the atmosphere. It contains more than 80% of the total mass of atmospheric air and about 90% of all water vapor present in the atmosphere. highly developed in the troposphere turbulence and convection, arise clouds, develop cyclones and anticyclones. The temperature decreases with increasing height with an average vertical gradient 0.65°/100 m

For "normal conditions" at the Earth's surface are taken: density 1.2 kg/m3, barometric pressure 101.35 kPa, temperature plus 20 °C and relative humidity 50%. These conditional indicators have a purely engineering value.

Stratosphere

The layer of the atmosphere located at an altitude of 11 to 50 km. Characterized by a slight change in temperature in the 11-25 km layer (lower layer of the stratosphere) and its increase in the 25-40 km layer from -56.5 to 0.8 ° With(upper stratosphere or region inversions). Having reached a value of about 273 K (almost 0 ° C) at an altitude of about 40 km, the temperature remains constant up to an altitude of about 55 km. This region of constant temperature is called stratopause and is the boundary between the stratosphere and mesosphere.

Stratopause

The boundary layer of the atmosphere between the stratosphere and the mesosphere. There is a maximum in the vertical temperature distribution (about 0 °C).

Mesosphere

Earth's atmosphere

Mesosphere starts at an altitude of 50 km and extends up to 80-90 km. The temperature decreases with height with an average vertical gradient of (0.25-0.3)°/100 m. The main energy process is radiant heat transfer. Complex photochemical processes involving free radicals, vibrationally excited molecules, etc., determine the glow of the atmosphere.

Mesopause

Transitional layer between mesosphere and thermosphere. There is a minimum in the vertical temperature distribution (about -90 °C).

Karman Line

Altitude above sea level, which is conventionally accepted as the boundary between the Earth's atmosphere and space.

Thermosphere

Main article: Thermosphere

The upper limit is about 800 km. The temperature rises to altitudes of 200-300 km, where it reaches values of the order of 1500 K, after which it remains almost constant up to high altitudes. Under the influence of ultraviolet and x-ray solar radiation and cosmic radiation, air ionization occurs (" auroras”) - main areas ionosphere lie inside the thermosphere. At altitudes above 300 km, atomic oxygen predominates.

Atmospheric layers up to a height of 120 km

Exosphere (scattering sphere)

Exosphere- scattering zone, the outer part of the thermosphere, located above 700 km. The gas in the exosphere is very rarefied, and hence its particles leak into interplanetary space ( dissipation).

Up to a height of 100 km, the atmosphere is a homogeneous, well-mixed mixture of gases. In higher layers, the distribution of gases in height depends on their molecular masses, the concentration of heavier gases decreases faster with distance from the Earth's surface. Due to the decrease in gas density, the temperature drops from 0 °C in the stratosphere to −110 °C in the mesosphere. However, the kinetic energy of individual particles at altitudes of 200–250 km corresponds to a temperature of ~1500 °C. Above 200 km, significant fluctuations in temperature and gas density are observed in time and space.

At an altitude of about 2000-3000 km, the exosphere gradually passes into the so-called near space vacuum, which is filled with highly rarefied particles of interplanetary gas, mainly hydrogen atoms. But this gas is only part of the interplanetary matter. The other part is composed of dust-like particles of cometary and meteoric origin. In addition to extremely rarefied dust-like particles, electromagnetic and corpuscular radiation of solar and galactic origin penetrates into this space.

Depending on the composition of the gas in the atmosphere, they emit homosphere and heterosphere. heterosphere - this is an area where gravity affects the separation of gases, since their mixing at such a height is negligible. Hence follows the variable composition of the heterosphere. Below it lies a well-mixed, homogeneous part of the atmosphere, called homosphere. The boundary between these layers is called turbopause, it lies at an altitude of about 120 km.

Physical properties

The thickness of the atmosphere is approximately 2000 - 3000 km from the Earth's surface. Total mass air- (5.1-5.3) × 10 18 kg. Molar mass clean dry air is 28.966. Pressure at 0 °C at sea level 101.325 kPa; critical temperature-140.7 °C; critical pressure 3.7 MPa; C p 1.0048×10 3 J/(kg K)(at 0°C), C v 0.7159×10 3 J/(kg K) (at 0 °C). Solubility of air in water at 0 °C - 0.036%, at 25 °C - 0.22%.

Physiological and other properties of the atmosphere

Already at an altitude of 5 km above sea level, an untrained person develops oxygen starvation and without adaptation, human performance is significantly reduced. This is where the physiological zone of the atmosphere ends. Human breathing becomes impossible at an altitude of 15 km, although up to about 115 km the atmosphere contains oxygen.

The human lungs constantly contain about 3 liters of alveolar air. Partial pressure oxygen in the alveolar air at normal atmospheric pressure is 110 mm Hg. Art., pressure of carbon dioxide - 40 mm Hg. Art., and water vapor - 47 mm Hg. Art. With increasing altitude, the oxygen pressure drops, and the total pressure of water vapor and carbon dioxide in the lungs remains almost constant - about 87 mm Hg. Art. The flow of oxygen into the lungs will completely stop when the pressure of the surrounding air becomes equal to this value.

At an altitude of about 19-20 km, the atmospheric pressure drops to 47 mm Hg. Art. Therefore, at this height, water and interstitial fluid begin to boil in the human body. Outside the pressurized cabin at these altitudes, death occurs almost instantly. Thus, from the point of view of human physiology, "space" begins already at an altitude of 15-19 km.

Dense layers of air - the troposphere and stratosphere - protect us from the damaging effects of radiation. With sufficient rarefaction of air, at altitudes of more than 36 km, an intense effect on the body is exerted by ionizing radiation- primary cosmic rays; at altitudes of more than 40 km, the ultraviolet part of the solar spectrum, which is dangerous for humans, operates.

As we rise to an ever greater height above the Earth's surface, gradually weaken, and then completely disappear, such phenomena familiar to us observed in the lower layers of the atmosphere, such as the propagation of sound, the emergence of aerodynamic lifting force and resistance, heat transfer convection and etc.

In rarefied layers of air, propagation sound turns out to be impossible. Up to altitudes of 60-90 km, it is still possible to use air resistance and lift for controlled aerodynamic flight. But starting from altitudes of 100-130 km, concepts familiar to every pilot numbers M and sound barrier lose their meaning, there passes the conditional Karman Line beyond which begins the sphere of purely ballistic flight, which can be controlled only by using reactive forces.

At altitudes above 100 km, the atmosphere is also deprived of another remarkable property - the ability to absorb, conduct and transfer thermal energy by convection (i.e., by means of air mixing). This means that various elements of equipment, equipment of the orbital space station will not be able to be cooled from the outside in the way it is usually done on an airplane - with the help of air jets and air radiators. At such a height, as in space in general, the only way to transfer heat is thermal radiation.

Composition of the atmosphere

Composition of dry air

The Earth's atmosphere consists mainly of gases and various impurities (dust, water drops, ice crystals, sea salts, combustion products).

The concentration of gases that make up the atmosphere is almost constant, with the exception of water (H 2 O) and carbon dioxide (CO 2).

Composition of dry air

Nitrogen
Oxygen
Argon
Water
Carbon dioxide
Neon
Helium
Methane
Krypton
Hydrogen
Xenon
Nitrous oxide

In addition to the gases indicated in the table, the atmosphere contains SO 2, NH 3, CO, ozone, hydrocarbons, HCl, HF, couples hg, I 2 , and NO and many other gases in minor quantities. The troposphere constantly contains a large number of suspended solid and liquid particles ( spray can).

History of the formation of the atmosphere

According to the most common theory, the Earth's atmosphere has been in four different compositions over time. Initially, it consisted of light gases ( hydrogen and helium) captured from interplanetary space. This so-called primary atmosphere(about four billion years ago). At the next stage, active volcanic activity led to the saturation of the atmosphere with gases other than hydrogen (carbon dioxide, ammonia, steam). This is how secondary atmosphere(about three billion years before our days). This atmosphere was restorative. Further, the process of formation of the atmosphere was determined by the following factors:

leakage of light gases (hydrogen and helium) into interplanetary space;

chemical reactions occurring in the atmosphere under the influence of ultraviolet radiation, lightning discharges and some other factors.

Nitrogen

The formation of a large amount of N 2 is due to the oxidation of the ammonia-hydrogen atmosphere by molecular O 2, which began to come from the surface of the planet as a result of photosynthesis, starting from 3 billion years ago. N 2 is also released into the atmosphere as a result of the denitrification of nitrates and other nitrogen-containing compounds. Nitrogen is oxidized by ozone to NO in the upper atmosphere.

Nitrogen N 2 enters into reactions only under specific conditions (for example, during a lightning discharge). Oxidation of molecular nitrogen by ozone during electrical discharges is used in the industrial production of nitrogen fertilizers. It can be oxidized with low energy consumption and converted into a biologically active form cyanobacteria (blue-green algae) and nodule bacteria that form the rhizobial symbiosis with legumes plants, so-called. green manure.

Oxygen

The composition of the atmosphere began to change radically with the advent of living organisms, as a result photosynthesis accompanied by the release of oxygen and the absorption of carbon dioxide. Initially, oxygen was spent on the oxidation of reduced compounds - ammonia, hydrocarbons, oxide form gland contained in the oceans, etc. At the end of this stage, the oxygen content in the atmosphere began to grow. Gradually, a modern atmosphere with oxidizing properties formed. Since this caused serious and abrupt changes in many processes occurring in atmosphere, lithosphere and biosphere, this event is called Oxygen catastrophe.

During Phanerozoic the composition of the atmosphere and the oxygen content underwent changes. They correlated primarily with the rate of deposition of organic sedimentary rocks. So, during the periods of coal accumulation, the oxygen content in the atmosphere, apparently, noticeably exceeded the modern level.

Carbon dioxide

The content of CO 2 in the atmosphere depends on volcanic activity and chemical processes in the earth's shells, but most of all - on the intensity of biosynthesis and decomposition of organic matter in biosphere Earth. Almost the entire current biomass of the planet (about 2.4 × 10 12 tons ) is formed due to carbon dioxide, nitrogen and water vapor contained in the atmospheric air. Buried in ocean, in swamps and in forests organic matter becomes coal, oil and natural gas. (cm. Geochemical cycle of carbon)

noble gases

Source of inert gases - argon, helium and krypton- volcanic eruptions and decay of radioactive elements. The earth as a whole and the atmosphere in particular are depleted in inert gases compared to space. It is believed that the reason for this lies in the continuous leakage of gases into interplanetary space.

Air pollution

Recently, the evolution of the atmosphere began to be influenced by Human. The result of his activities was a constant significant increase in the content of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere due to the combustion of hydrocarbon fuels accumulated in previous geological epochs. Huge amounts of CO 2 are consumed during photosynthesis and absorbed by the world's oceans. This gas enters the atmosphere due to the decomposition of carbonate rocks and organic substances of plant and animal origin, as well as due to volcanism and human production activities. Over the past 100 years, the content of CO 2 in the atmosphere has increased by 10%, with the main part (360 billion tons) coming from fuel combustion. If the growth rate of fuel combustion continues, then in the next 50 - 60 years the amount of CO 2 in the atmosphere will double and may lead to global climate change.

Fuel combustion is the main source of both pollutant gases ( SO, NO, SO 2 ). Sulfur dioxide is oxidized by atmospheric oxygen to SO 3 in the upper atmosphere, which in turn interacts with water vapor and ammonia, and the resulting sulfuric acid (H 2 SO 4 ) and ammonium sulfate ((NH 4 ) 2 SO 4 ) return to the surface of the Earth in the form of a so-called. acid rain. Usage internal combustion engines leads to significant air pollution with nitrogen oxides, hydrocarbons and lead compounds ( tetraethyl lead Pb(CH 3 CH 2 ) 4 ) ).

The atmosphere is the gaseous shell of our planet that rotates with the Earth. The gas in the atmosphere is called air. The atmosphere is in contact with the hydrosphere and partially covers the lithosphere. But it is difficult to determine the upper bounds. Conventionally, it is assumed that the atmosphere extends upwards for about three thousand kilometers. There it flows smoothly into the airless space.

The chemical composition of the Earth's atmosphere

The formation of the chemical composition of the atmosphere began about four billion years ago. Initially, the atmosphere consisted only of light gases - helium and hydrogen. According to scientists, the initial prerequisites for the creation of a gas shell around the Earth were volcanic eruptions, which, together with lava, emitted a huge amount of gases. Subsequently, gas exchange began with water spaces, with living organisms, with the products of their activity. The composition of the air gradually changed and in its present form was fixed several million years ago.

The main components of the atmosphere are nitrogen (about 79%) and oxygen (20%). The remaining percentage (1%) is accounted for by the following gases: argon, neon, helium, methane, carbon dioxide, hydrogen, krypton, xenon, ozone, ammonia, sulfur dioxide and nitrogen, nitrous oxide and carbon monoxide included in this one percent.

In addition, the air contains water vapor and particulate matter (plant pollen, dust, salt crystals, aerosol impurities).

Recently, scientists have noted not a qualitative, but a quantitative change in some air ingredients. And the reason for this is the person and his activity. Only in the last 100 years, the content of carbon dioxide has increased significantly! This is fraught with many problems, the most global of which is climate change.

Formation of weather and climate

The atmosphere plays a vital role in shaping the climate and weather on Earth. A lot depends on the amount of sunlight, on the nature of the underlying surface and atmospheric circulation.

Let's look at the factors in order.

1. The atmosphere transmits the heat of the sun's rays and absorbs harmful radiation. The ancient Greeks knew that the rays of the Sun fall on different parts of the Earth at different angles. The very word "climate" in translation from ancient Greek means "slope". So, at the equator, the sun's rays fall almost vertically, because it is very hot here. The closer to the poles, the greater the angle of inclination. And the temperature is dropping.

2. Due to the uneven heating of the Earth, air currents are formed in the atmosphere. They are classified according to their size. The smallest (tens and hundreds of meters) are local winds. This is followed by monsoons and trade winds, cyclones and anticyclones, planetary frontal zones.

All these air masses are constantly moving. Some of them are quite static. For example, the trade winds that blow from the subtropics towards the equator. The movement of others is largely dependent on atmospheric pressure.

3. Atmospheric pressure is another factor influencing climate formation. This is the air pressure on the earth's surface. As you know, air masses move from an area with high atmospheric pressure towards an area where this pressure is lower.

There are 7 zones in total. The equator is a low pressure zone. Further, on both sides of the equator up to the thirtieth latitudes - an area of high pressure. From 30° to 60° - again low pressure. And from 60° to the poles - a zone of high pressure. Air masses circulate between these zones. Those that go from the sea to land bring rain and bad weather, and those that blow from the continents bring clear and dry weather. In places where air currents collide, atmospheric front zones are formed, which are characterized by precipitation and inclement, windy weather.

Scientists have proven that even a person's well-being depends on atmospheric pressure. According to international standards, normal atmospheric pressure is 760 mm Hg. column at 0°C. This figure is calculated for those areas of land that are almost flush with sea level. The pressure decreases with altitude. Therefore, for example, for St. Petersburg 760 mm Hg. - is the norm. But for Moscow, which is located higher, the normal pressure is 748 mm Hg.

The pressure changes not only vertically, but also horizontally. This is especially felt during the passage of cyclones.

The structure of the atmosphere

The atmosphere is like a layer cake. And each layer has its own characteristics.

. Troposphere is the layer closest to the Earth. The "thickness" of this layer changes as you move away from the equator. Above the equator, the layer extends upwards for 16-18 km, in temperate zones - for 10-12 km, at the poles - for 8-10 km.

It is here that 80% of the total mass of air and 90% of water vapor are contained. Clouds form here, cyclones and anticyclones arise. The air temperature depends on the altitude of the area. On average, it drops by 0.65°C for every 100 meters.

. tropopause- transitional layer of the atmosphere. Its height is from several hundred meters to 1-2 km. The air temperature in summer is higher than in winter. So, for example, over the poles in winter -65 ° C. And over the equator at any time of the year it is -70 ° C.

. Stratosphere- this is a layer, the upper boundary of which runs at an altitude of 50-55 kilometers. Turbulence is low here, water vapor content in the air is negligible. But a lot of ozone. Its maximum concentration is at an altitude of 20-25 km. In the stratosphere, the air temperature begins to rise and reaches +0.8 ° C. This is due to the fact that the ozone layer interacts with ultraviolet radiation.

. Stratopause- a low intermediate layer between the stratosphere and the mesosphere following it.

. Mesosphere- the upper boundary of this layer is 80-85 kilometers. Here complex photochemical processes involving free radicals take place. It is they who provide that gentle blue glow of our planet, which is seen from space.

Most comets and meteorites burn up in the mesosphere.

. Mesopause- the next intermediate layer, the air temperature in which is at least -90 °.

. Thermosphere- the lower boundary begins at an altitude of 80 - 90 km, and the upper boundary of the layer passes approximately at the mark of 800 km. The air temperature is rising. It can vary from +500° C to +1000° C. During the day, temperature fluctuations amount to hundreds of degrees! But the air here is so rarefied that the understanding of the term "temperature" as we imagine it is not appropriate here.

. Ionosphere- unites mesosphere, mesopause and thermosphere. The air here consists mainly of oxygen and nitrogen molecules, as well as quasi-neutral plasma. The sun's rays, falling into the ionosphere, strongly ionize air molecules. In the lower layer (up to 90 km), the degree of ionization is low. The higher, the more ionization. So, at an altitude of 100-110 km, electrons are concentrated. This contributes to the reflection of short and medium radio waves.

The most important layer of the ionosphere is the upper one, which is located at an altitude of 150-400 km. Its peculiarity is that it reflects radio waves, and this contributes to the transmission of radio signals over long distances.

It is in the ionosphere that such a phenomenon as aurora occurs.

. Exosphere- consists of oxygen, helium and hydrogen atoms. The gas in this layer is very rarefied, and often hydrogen atoms escape into outer space. Therefore, this layer is called the "scattering zone".

The first scientist who suggested that our atmosphere has weight was the Italian E. Torricelli. Ostap Bender, for example, in the novel "The Golden Calf" lamented that each person was pressed by an air column weighing 14 kg! But the great strategist was a little mistaken. An adult person experiences pressure of 13-15 tons! But we do not feel this heaviness, because atmospheric pressure is balanced by the internal pressure of a person. The weight of our atmosphere is 5,300,000,000,000,000 tons. The figure is colossal, although it is only a millionth of the weight of our planet.

The atmosphere is a mixture of various gases. It extends from the surface of the Earth to a height of up to 900 km, protecting the planet from the harmful spectrum of solar radiation, and contains gases necessary for all life on the planet. The atmosphere traps the heat of the sun, warming near the earth's surface and creating a favorable climate.

Composition of the atmosphere

The Earth's atmosphere consists mainly of two gases - nitrogen (78%) and oxygen (21%). In addition, it contains impurities of carbon dioxide and other gases. in the atmosphere exists in the form of vapor, drops of moisture in clouds and ice crystals.

Layers of the atmosphere

The atmosphere consists of many layers, between which there are no clear boundaries. The temperatures of different layers differ markedly from each other.

airless magnetosphere. Most of the Earth's satellites fly here outside the Earth's atmosphere. Exosphere (450-500 km from the surface). Almost does not contain gases. Some weather satellites fly in the exosphere. The thermosphere (80-450 km) is characterized by high temperatures reaching 1700°C in the upper layer. Mesosphere (50-80 km). In this sphere, the temperature drops as the altitude increases. It is here that most of the meteorites (fragments of space rocks) that enter the atmosphere burn down. Stratosphere (15-50 km). Contains an ozone layer, i.e. a layer of ozone that absorbs ultraviolet radiation from the sun. This leads to an increase in temperature near the Earth's surface. Jet planes usually fly here, as visibility in this layer is very good and there is almost no interference caused by weather conditions. Troposphere. The height varies from 8 to 15 km from the earth's surface. It is here that the weather of the planet is formed, since in this layer contains the most water vapor, dust and winds. The temperature decreases with distance from the earth's surface.

Atmosphere pressure

Although we do not feel it, the layers of the atmosphere exert pressure on the surface of the Earth. The highest is near the surface, and as you move away from it, it gradually decreases. It depends on the temperature difference between land and ocean, and therefore in areas located at the same height above sea level, there is often a different pressure. Low pressure brings wet weather, while high pressure usually sets clear weather.

The movement of air masses in the atmosphere

And the pressures cause the lower atmosphere to mix. This creates winds that blow from areas of high pressure to areas of low pressure. In many regions, local winds also occur, caused by differences in land and sea temperatures. Mountains also have a significant influence on the direction of the winds.

the greenhouse effect

Carbon dioxide and other gases in the earth's atmosphere trap the sun's heat. This process is commonly called the greenhouse effect, as it is in many ways similar to the circulation of heat in greenhouses. The greenhouse effect causes global warming on the planet. In areas of high pressure - anticyclones - a clear solar one is established. In areas of low pressure - cyclones - the weather is usually unstable. Heat and light entering the atmosphere. The gases trap the heat reflected from the earth's surface, thereby causing the temperature on the earth to rise.

There is a special ozone layer in the stratosphere. Ozone blocks most of the ultraviolet radiation from the Sun, protecting the Earth and all life on it from it. Scientists have found that the cause of the destruction of the ozone layer are special chlorofluorocarbon dioxide gases contained in some aerosols and refrigeration equipment. Over the Arctic and Antarctica, huge holes have been found in the ozone layer, contributing to an increase in the amount of ultraviolet radiation affecting the Earth's surface.

Ozone is formed in the lower atmosphere as a result between solar radiation and various exhaust fumes and gases. Usually it disperses through the atmosphere, but if a closed layer of cold air forms under a layer of warm air, ozone concentrates and smog occurs. Unfortunately, this cannot make up for the loss of ozone in the ozone holes.

The satellite image clearly shows a hole in the ozone layer over Antarctica. The size of the hole varies, but scientists believe that it is constantly increasing. Attempts are being made to reduce the level of exhaust gases in the atmosphere. Reduce air pollution and use smokeless fuels in cities. Smog causes eye irritation and choking in many people.

The emergence and evolution of the Earth's atmosphere

The modern atmosphere of the Earth is the result of a long evolutionary development. It arose as a result of the joint action of geological factors and the vital activity of organisms. Throughout geological history, the earth's atmosphere has gone through several profound rearrangements. On the basis of geological data and theoretical (prerequisites), the primordial atmosphere of the young Earth, which existed about 4 billion years ago, could consist of a mixture of inert and noble gases with a small addition of passive nitrogen (N. A. Yasamanov, 1985; A. S. Monin, 1987; O. G. Sorokhtin, S. A. Ushakov, 1991, 1993. At present, the view on the composition and structure of the early atmosphere has somewhat changed. The primary atmosphere (protoatmosphere) is at the earliest protoplanetary stage. 4.2 billion years, could consist of a mixture of methane, ammonia and carbon dioxide.As a result of the degassing of the mantle and active weathering processes occurring on the earth's surface, water vapor, carbon compounds in the form of CO 2 and CO, sulfur and its compounds began to enter the atmosphere , as well as strong halogen acids - HCI, HF, HI and boric acid, which were supplemented by methane, ammonia, hydrogen, argon and some other noble gases in the atmosphere.This primary atmosphere was through extremely thin. Therefore, the temperature near the earth's surface was close to the temperature of radiative equilibrium (AS Monin, 1977).

Over time, the gas composition of the primary atmosphere began to transform under the influence of the weathering of rocks that protruded on the earth's surface, the vital activity of cyanobacteria and blue-green algae, volcanic processes and the action of sunlight. This led to the decomposition of methane into and carbon dioxide, ammonia - into nitrogen and hydrogen; carbon dioxide began to accumulate in the secondary atmosphere, which slowly descended to the earth's surface, and nitrogen. Thanks to the vital activity of blue-green algae, oxygen began to be produced in the process of photosynthesis, which, however, at the beginning was mainly spent on “oxidizing atmospheric gases, and then rocks. At the same time, ammonia, oxidized to molecular nitrogen, began to intensively accumulate in the atmosphere. It is assumed that a significant part of the nitrogen in the modern atmosphere is relict. Methane and carbon monoxide were oxidized to carbon dioxide. Sulfur and hydrogen sulfide were oxidized to SO 2 and SO 3, which, due to their high mobility and lightness, were quickly removed from the atmosphere. Thus, the atmosphere from a reducing one, as it was in the Archean and early Proterozoic, gradually turned into an oxidizing one.

Carbon dioxide entered the atmosphere both as a result of methane oxidation and as a result of degassing of the mantle and weathering of rocks. In the event that all the carbon dioxide released over the entire history of the Earth remained in the atmosphere, its partial pressure could now become the same as on Venus (O. Sorokhtin, S. A. Ushakov, 1991). But on Earth, the process was reversed. A significant part of carbon dioxide from the atmosphere was dissolved in the hydrosphere, in which it was used by aquatic organisms to build their shells and biogenically converted into carbonates. Subsequently, the most powerful strata of chemogenic and organogenic carbonates were formed from them.

Oxygen was supplied to the atmosphere from three sources. For a long time, starting from the moment of the formation of the Earth, it was released during the degassing of the mantle and was mainly spent on oxidative processes. Another source of oxygen was the photodissociation of water vapor by hard ultraviolet solar radiation. appearances; free oxygen in the atmosphere led to the death of most of the prokaryotes that lived in reducing conditions. Prokaryotic organisms have changed their habitats. They left the surface of the Earth to its depths and regions where reducing conditions were still preserved. They were replaced by eukaryotes, which began to vigorously process carbon dioxide into oxygen.

During the Archean and a significant part of the Proterozoic, almost all oxygen, arising both abiogenically and biogenically, was mainly spent on the oxidation of iron and sulfur. By the end of the Proterozoic, all the metallic divalent iron that was on the earth's surface either oxidized or moved into the earth's core. This led to the fact that the partial pressure of oxygen in the early Proterozoic atmosphere changed.

In the middle of the Proterozoic, the concentration of oxygen in the atmosphere reached the Urey point and amounted to 0.01% of the current level. Starting from that time, oxygen began to accumulate in the atmosphere and, probably, already at the end of the Riphean, its content reached the Pasteur point (0.1% of the current level). It is possible that the ozone layer arose in the Vendian period and that time it never disappeared.

The appearance of free oxygen in the earth's atmosphere stimulated the evolution of life and led to the emergence of new forms with a more perfect metabolism. If earlier eukaryotic unicellular algae and cyanides, which appeared at the beginning of the Proterozoic, required an oxygen content in water of only 10 -3 of its modern concentration, then with the emergence of non-skeletal Metazoa at the end of the Early Vendian, i.e., about 650 million years ago, the oxygen concentration in the atmosphere should have been much higher. After all, Metazoa used oxygen respiration and this required that the partial pressure of oxygen reach a critical level - the Pasteur point. In this case, the anaerobic fermentation process was replaced by an energetically more promising and progressive oxygen metabolism.

After that, the further accumulation of oxygen in the earth's atmosphere occurred rather rapidly. The progressive increase in the volume of blue-green algae contributed to the achievement in the atmosphere of the oxygen level necessary for the life support of the animal world. A certain stabilization of the oxygen content in the atmosphere has occurred since the moment when the plants came to land - about 450 million years ago. The emergence of plants on land, which occurred in the Silurian period, led to the final stabilization of the level of oxygen in the atmosphere. Since that time, its concentration began to fluctuate within rather narrow limits, never going beyond the existence of life. The concentration of oxygen in the atmosphere has completely stabilized since the appearance of flowering plants. This event took place in the middle of the Cretaceous period, i.e. about 100 million years ago.

The bulk of nitrogen was formed in the early stages of the Earth's development, mainly due to the decomposition of ammonia. With the advent of organisms, the process of binding atmospheric nitrogen into organic matter and burying it in marine sediments began. After the release of organisms on land, nitrogen began to be buried in continental sediments. The processes of processing free nitrogen were especially intensified with the advent of terrestrial plants.

At the turn of the Cryptozoic and Phanerozoic, i.e., about 650 million years ago, the carbon dioxide content in the atmosphere decreased to tenths of a percent, and it reached a content close to the current level only quite recently, about 10-20 million years ago.

Thus, the gas composition of the atmosphere not only provided living space for organisms, but also determined the characteristics of their vital activity, promoted settlement and evolution. The resulting failures in the distribution of the gas composition of the atmosphere favorable for organisms, both due to cosmic and planetary causes, led to mass extinctions of the organic world, which repeatedly occurred during the Cryptozoic and at certain milestones of the Phanerozoic history.

Ethnospheric functions of the atmosphere

The Earth's atmosphere provides the necessary substance, energy and determines the direction and speed of metabolic processes. The gas composition of the modern atmosphere is optimal for the existence and development of life. As an area of weather and climate formation, the atmosphere must create comfortable conditions for the life of people, animals and vegetation. Deviations in one direction or another in the quality of atmospheric air and weather conditions create extreme conditions for the life of the animal and plant world, including humans.

The atmosphere of the Earth not only provides the conditions for the existence of mankind, being the main factor in the evolution of the ethnosphere. At the same time, it turns out to be an energy and raw material resource for production. In general, the atmosphere is a factor that preserves human health, and some areas, due to physical and geographical conditions and atmospheric air quality, serve as recreational areas and are areas intended for sanatorium treatment and recreation for people. Thus, the atmosphere is a factor of aesthetic and emotional impact.

The ethnospheric and technospheric functions of the atmosphere, determined quite recently (E. D. Nikitin, N. A. Yasamanov, 2001), need an independent and in-depth study. Thus, the study of atmospheric energy functions is very relevant both from the point of view of the occurrence and operation of processes that damage the environment, and from the point of view of the impact on human health and well-being. In this case, we are talking about the energy of cyclones and anticyclones, atmospheric vortices, atmospheric pressure and other extreme atmospheric phenomena, the effective use of which will contribute to the successful solution of the problem of obtaining alternative energy sources that do not pollute the environment. After all, the air environment, especially that part of it that is located above the World Ocean, is an area for the release of a colossal amount of free energy.

For example, it has been established that tropical cyclones of average strength release energy equivalent to the energy of 500,000 atomic bombs dropped on Hiroshima and Nagasaki in just a day. For 10 days of the existence of such a cyclone, enough energy is released to meet all the energy needs of a country like the United States for 600 years.

In recent years, a large number of works by natural scientists have been published, to some extent related to various aspects of activity and the influence of the atmosphere on earth processes, which indicates the intensification of interdisciplinary interactions in modern natural science. At the same time, the integrating role of certain of its directions is manifested, among which it is necessary to note the functional-ecological direction in geoecology.

This direction stimulates the analysis and theoretical generalization of the ecological functions and the planetary role of various geospheres, and this, in turn, is an important prerequisite for the development of methodology and scientific foundations for a holistic study of our planet, the rational use and protection of its natural resources.

The Earth's atmosphere consists of several layers: troposphere, stratosphere, mesosphere, thermosphere, ionosphere and exosphere. In the upper part of the troposphere and the lower part of the stratosphere there is a layer enriched with ozone, called the ozone layer. Certain (daily, seasonal, annual, etc.) regularities in the distribution of ozone have been established. Since its inception, the atmosphere has influenced the course of planetary processes. The primary composition of the atmosphere was completely different than at present, but over time the proportion and role of molecular nitrogen steadily increased, about 650 million years ago free oxygen appeared, the amount of which continuously increased, but the concentration of carbon dioxide correspondingly decreased. The high mobility of the atmosphere, its gas composition and the presence of aerosols determine its outstanding role and active participation in various geological and biospheric processes. The role of the atmosphere in the redistribution of solar energy and the development of catastrophic natural phenomena and disasters is great. Atmospheric whirlwinds - tornadoes (tornadoes), hurricanes, typhoons, cyclones and other phenomena have a negative impact on the organic world and natural systems. The main sources of pollution, along with natural factors, are various forms of human economic activity. Anthropogenic impacts on the atmosphere are expressed not only in the appearance of various aerosols and greenhouse gases, but also in an increase in the amount of water vapor, and manifest themselves in the form of smog and acid rain. Greenhouse gases change the temperature regime of the earth's surface, emissions of certain gases reduce the volume of the ozone screen and contribute to the formation of ozone holes. The ethnospheric role of the Earth's atmosphere is great.

The role of the atmosphere in natural processes

The surface atmosphere in its intermediate state between the lithosphere and outer space and its gas composition creates conditions for the life of organisms. At the same time, the weathering and intensity of destruction of rocks, the transfer and accumulation of detrital material depend on the amount, nature and frequency of precipitation, on the frequency and strength of winds, and especially on air temperature. The atmosphere is the central component of the climate system. Air temperature and humidity, cloudiness and precipitation, wind - all this characterizes the weather, that is, the continuously changing state of the atmosphere. At the same time, these same components also characterize the climate, i.e., the average long-term weather regime.

The composition of gases, the presence of clouds and various impurities, which are called aerosol particles (ash, dust, particles of water vapor), determine the characteristics of the passage of solar radiation through the atmosphere and prevent the escape of the Earth's thermal radiation into outer space.

The Earth's atmosphere is very mobile. The processes arising in it and changes in its gas composition, thickness, cloudiness, transparency and the presence of various aerosol particles in it affect both the weather and the climate.

The action and direction of natural processes, as well as life and activity on Earth, are determined by solar radiation. It gives 99.98% of the heat coming to the earth's surface. Annually it makes 134*1019 kcal. This amount of heat can be obtained by burning 200 billion tons of coal. The reserves of hydrogen, which creates this flow of thermonuclear energy in the mass of the Sun, will be enough for at least another 10 billion years, i.e., for a period twice as long as our planet itself exists.

About 1/3 of the total amount of solar energy entering the upper boundary of the atmosphere is reflected back into the world space, 13% is absorbed by the ozone layer (including almost all ultraviolet radiation). 7% - the rest of the atmosphere and only 44% reaches the earth's surface. The total solar radiation reaching the Earth in a day is equal to the energy that humanity has received as a result of burning all types of fuel over the past millennium.

The amount and nature of the distribution of solar radiation on the earth's surface are closely dependent on the cloudiness and transparency of the atmosphere. The amount of scattered radiation is affected by the height of the Sun above the horizon, the transparency of the atmosphere, the content of water vapor, dust, the total amount of carbon dioxide, etc.

The maximum amount of scattered radiation falls into the polar regions. The lower the Sun is above the horizon, the less heat enters a given area.

Atmospheric transparency and cloudiness are of great importance. On a cloudy summer day, it is usually colder than on a clear one, since daytime clouds prevent the earth's surface from heating.

The dust content of the atmosphere plays an important role in the distribution of heat. The finely dispersed solid particles of dust and ash in it, which affect its transparency, adversely affect the distribution of solar radiation, most of which is reflected. Fine particles enter the atmosphere in two ways: either ashes thrown out during volcanic eruptions, or desert dust carried by winds from arid tropical and subtropical regions. Especially a lot of such dust is formed during droughts, when it is carried into the upper layers of the atmosphere by streams of warm air and can stay there for a long time. After the eruption of the Krakatoa volcano in 1883, dust thrown tens of kilometers into the atmosphere remained in the stratosphere for about 3 years. As a result of the 1985 eruption of the El Chichon volcano (Mexico), dust reached Europe, and therefore there was a slight decrease in surface temperatures.

The Earth's atmosphere contains a variable amount of water vapor. In absolute terms, by weight or volume, its amount ranges from 2 to 5%.

Water vapor, like carbon dioxide, enhances the greenhouse effect. In the clouds and fogs that arise in the atmosphere, peculiar physicochemical processes take place.

The primary source of water vapor in the atmosphere is the surface of the oceans. A layer of water 95 to 110 cm thick annually evaporates from it. Part of the moisture returns to the ocean after condensation, and the other is directed towards the continents by air currents. In regions with a variable-humid climate, precipitation moistens the soil, and in humid regions it creates groundwater reserves. Thus, the atmosphere is an accumulator of humidity and a reservoir of precipitation. and fogs that form in the atmosphere provide moisture to the soil cover and thus play a decisive role in the development of the animal and plant world.

Atmospheric moisture is distributed over the earth's surface due to the mobility of the atmosphere. It has a very complex system of winds and pressure distribution. Due to the fact that the atmosphere is in continuous motion, the nature and extent of the distribution of wind flows and pressure are constantly changing. The scales of circulation vary from micrometeorological, with a size of only a few hundred meters, to a global one, with a size of several tens of thousands of kilometers. Huge atmospheric vortices are involved in the creation of systems of large-scale air currents and determine the general circulation of the atmosphere. In addition, they are sources of catastrophic atmospheric phenomena.

The distribution of weather and climatic conditions and the functioning of living matter depend on atmospheric pressure. In the event that atmospheric pressure fluctuates within small limits, it does not play a decisive role in the well-being of people and the behavior of animals and does not affect the physiological functions of plants. As a rule, frontal phenomena and weather changes are associated with pressure changes.

Atmospheric pressure is of fundamental importance for the formation of wind, which, being a relief-forming factor, has the strongest effect on flora and fauna.

The wind is able to suppress the growth of plants and at the same time promotes the transfer of seeds. The role of the wind in the formation of weather and climatic conditions is great. He also acts as a regulator of sea currents. Wind as one of the exogenous factors contributes to the erosion and deflation of weathered material over long distances.

Ecological and geological role of atmospheric processes

The decrease in the transparency of the atmosphere due to the appearance of aerosol particles and solid dust in it affects the distribution of solar radiation, increasing the albedo or reflectivity. Various chemical reactions lead to the same result, causing the decomposition of ozone and the generation of "pearl" clouds, consisting of water vapor. Global change in reflectivity, as well as changes in the gas composition of the atmosphere, mainly greenhouse gases, are the cause of climate change.

Uneven heating, which causes differences in atmospheric pressure over different parts of the earth's surface, leads to atmospheric circulation, which is the hallmark of the troposphere. When there is a difference in pressure, air rushes from areas of high pressure to areas of low pressure. These movements of air masses, together with humidity and temperature, determine the main ecological and geological features of atmospheric processes.

Depending on the speed, the wind produces various geological work on the earth's surface. At a speed of 10 m/s, it shakes thick branches of trees, picks up and carries dust and fine sand; breaks tree branches at a speed of 20 m/s, carries sand and gravel; at a speed of 30 m/s (storm) tears off the roofs of houses, uproots trees, breaks poles, moves pebbles and carries small gravel, and a hurricane at a speed of 40 m/s destroys houses, breaks and demolishes power line poles, uproots large trees.

Squall storms and tornadoes (tornadoes) have a great negative environmental impact with catastrophic consequences - atmospheric vortices that occur in the warm season on powerful atmospheric fronts with a speed of up to 100 m/s. Squalls are horizontal whirlwinds with hurricane wind speeds (up to 60-80 m/s). They are often accompanied by heavy showers and thunderstorms lasting from a few minutes to half an hour. The squalls cover areas up to 50 km wide and travel a distance of 200-250 km. A heavy storm in Moscow and the Moscow region in 1998 damaged the roofs of many houses and knocked down trees.

Tornadoes, called tornadoes in North America, are powerful funnel-shaped atmospheric eddies often associated with thunderclouds. These are columns of air narrowing in the middle with a diameter of several tens to hundreds of meters. The tornado has the appearance of a funnel, very similar to an elephant's trunk, descending from the clouds or rising from the surface of the earth. Possessing a strong rarefaction and high rotation speed, the tornado travels up to several hundred kilometers, drawing in dust, water from reservoirs and various objects. Powerful tornadoes are accompanied by thunderstorms, rain and have great destructive power.

Tornadoes rarely occur in subpolar or equatorial regions, where it is constantly cold or hot. Few tornadoes in the open ocean. Tornadoes occur in Europe, Japan, Australia, the USA, and in Russia they are especially frequent in the Central Black Earth region, in the Moscow, Yaroslavl, Nizhny Novgorod and Ivanovo regions.

Tornadoes lift and move cars, houses, wagons, bridges. Particularly destructive tornadoes (tornadoes) are observed in the United States. From 450 to 1500 tornadoes are recorded annually, with an average of about 100 victims. Tornadoes are fast-acting catastrophic atmospheric processes. They are formed in just 20-30 minutes, and their existence time is 30 minutes. Therefore, it is almost impossible to predict the time and place of occurrence of tornadoes.

Other destructive, but long-term atmospheric vortices are cyclones. They are formed due to a pressure drop, which, under certain conditions, contributes to the occurrence of a circular movement of air currents. Atmospheric vortices originate around powerful ascending currents of humid warm air and rotate at high speed clockwise in the southern hemisphere and counterclockwise in the northern hemisphere. Cyclones, unlike tornadoes, originate over the oceans and produce their destructive actions over the continents. The main destructive factors are strong winds, intense precipitation in the form of snowfall, downpours, hail and surge floods. Winds with speeds of 19 - 30 m / s form a storm, 30 - 35 m / s - a storm, and more than 35 m / s - a hurricane.

Tropical cyclones - hurricanes and typhoons - have an average width of several hundred kilometers. The wind speed inside the cyclone reaches hurricane force. Tropical cyclones last from several days to several weeks, moving at a speed of 50 to 200 km/h. Mid-latitude cyclones have a larger diameter. Their transverse dimensions range from a thousand to several thousand kilometers, the wind speed is stormy. They move in the northern hemisphere from the west and are accompanied by hail and snowfall, which are catastrophic. Cyclones and their associated hurricanes and typhoons are the largest natural disasters after floods in terms of the number of victims and damage caused. In densely populated areas of Asia, the number of victims during hurricanes is measured in the thousands. In 1991, in Bangladesh, during a hurricane that caused the formation of sea waves 6 m high, 125 thousand people died. Typhoons cause great damage to the United States. As a result, dozens and hundreds of people die. In Western Europe, hurricanes cause less damage.

Thunderstorms are considered a catastrophic atmospheric phenomenon. They occur when warm, moist air rises very quickly. On the border of the tropical and subtropical zones, thunderstorms occur for 90-100 days a year, in the temperate zone for 10-30 days. In our country, the largest number of thunderstorms occurs in the North Caucasus.

Thunderstorms usually last less than an hour. Intense downpours, hailstorms, lightning strikes, gusts of wind, and vertical air currents pose a particular danger. The hail hazard is determined by the size of the hailstones. In the North Caucasus, the mass of hailstones once reached 0.5 kg, and in India, hailstones weighing 7 kg were noted. The most hazardous areas in our country are located in the North Caucasus. In July 1992, hail damaged 18 aircraft at the Mineralnye Vody airport.

Lightning is a hazardous weather phenomenon. They kill people, livestock, cause fires, damage the power grid. About 10,000 people die every year from thunderstorms and their consequences worldwide. Moreover, in some parts of Africa, in France and the United States, the number of victims from lightning is greater than from other natural phenomena. The annual economic damage from thunderstorms in the United States is at least $700 million.

Droughts are typical for desert, steppe and forest-steppe regions. The lack of precipitation causes drying up of the soil, lowering the level of groundwater and in reservoirs until they dry up completely. Moisture deficiency leads to the death of vegetation and crops. Droughts are especially severe in Africa, the Near and Middle East, Central Asia and southern North America.

Droughts change the conditions of human life, have an adverse impact on the natural environment through processes such as salinization of the soil, dry winds, dust storms, soil erosion and forest fires. Fires are especially strong during drought in taiga regions, tropical and subtropical forests and savannahs.

Droughts are short-term processes that last for one season. When droughts last more than two seasons, there is a threat of starvation and mass mortality. Typically, the effect of drought extends to the territory of one or more countries. Especially often prolonged droughts with tragic consequences occur in the Sahel region of Africa.

Atmospheric phenomena such as snowfalls, intermittent heavy rains and prolonged prolonged rains cause great damage. Snowfalls cause massive avalanches in the mountains, and the rapid melting of the fallen snow and prolonged heavy rains lead to floods. A huge mass of water falling on the earth's surface, especially in treeless areas, causes severe erosion of the soil cover. There is an intensive growth of ravine-beam systems. Floods occur as a result of large floods during a period of heavy precipitation or floods after a sudden warming or spring snowmelt and, therefore, are atmospheric phenomena in origin (they are discussed in the chapter on the ecological role of the hydrosphere).

Anthropogenic changes in the atmosphere

Currently, there are many different sources of anthropogenic nature that cause atmospheric pollution and lead to serious violations of the ecological balance. In terms of scale, two sources have the greatest impact on the atmosphere: transport and industry. On average, transport accounts for about 60% of the total amount of atmospheric pollution, industry - 15%, thermal energy - 15%, technologies for the destruction of household and industrial waste - 10%.

Transport, depending on the fuel used and the types of oxidizing agents, emits into the atmosphere nitrogen oxides, sulfur, oxides and dioxides of carbon, lead and its compounds, soot, benzopyrene (a substance from the group of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, which is a strong carcinogen that causes skin cancer).

Industry emits sulfur dioxide, carbon oxides and dioxides, hydrocarbons, ammonia, hydrogen sulfide, sulfuric acid, phenol, chlorine, fluorine and other compounds and chemicals into the atmosphere. But the dominant position among emissions (up to 85%) is occupied by dust.

As a result of pollution, the transparency of the atmosphere changes, aerosols, smog and acid rains appear in it.

Aerosols are dispersed systems consisting of solid particles or liquid droplets suspended in a gaseous medium. The particle size of the dispersed phase is usually 10 -3 -10 -7 cm Depending on the composition of the dispersed phase, aerosols are divided into two groups. One includes aerosols consisting of solid particles dispersed in a gaseous medium, the second - aerosols, which are a mixture of gaseous and liquid phases. The first are called smokes, and the second - fogs. Condensation centers play an important role in the process of their formation. Volcanic ash, cosmic dust, products of industrial emissions, various bacteria, etc. act as condensation nuclei. The number of possible sources of concentration nuclei is constantly growing. So, for example, when dry grass is destroyed by fire on an area of 4000 m 2, an average of 11 * 10 22 aerosol nuclei is formed.

Aerosols began to form from the moment of the emergence of our planet and influenced natural conditions. However, their number and actions, balanced with the general circulation of substances in nature, did not cause deep ecological changes. Anthropogenic factors of their formation shifted this balance towards significant biospheric overloads. This feature has been especially pronounced since mankind began to use specially created aerosols both in the form of toxic substances and for plant protection.

The most dangerous for vegetation cover are aerosols of sulfur dioxide, hydrogen fluoride and nitrogen. When in contact with a wet leaf surface, they form acids that have a detrimental effect on living things. Acid mists, together with the inhaled air, enter the respiratory organs of animals and humans, and aggressively affect the mucous membranes. Some of them decompose living tissue, and radioactive aerosols cause cancer. Among radioactive isotopes, SG 90 is of particular danger not only because of its carcinogenicity, but also as an analogue of calcium, replacing it in the bones of organisms, causing their decomposition.

During nuclear explosions, radioactive aerosol clouds form in the atmosphere. Small particles with a radius of 1 - 10 microns fall not only into the upper layers of the troposphere, but also into the stratosphere, in which they are able to stay for a long time. Aerosol clouds are also formed during the operation of reactors of industrial plants that produce nuclear fuel, as well as as a result of accidents at nuclear power plants.

Smog is a mixture of aerosols with liquid and solid dispersed phases that form a foggy curtain over industrial areas and large cities.

There are three types of smog: ice, wet and dry. Ice smog is called Alaskan. This is a combination of gaseous pollutants with the addition of dusty particles and ice crystals that occur when fog droplets and steam from heating systems freeze.

Wet smog, or London-type smog, is sometimes called winter smog. It is a mixture of gaseous pollutants (mainly sulfur dioxide), dust particles and fog droplets. The meteorological prerequisite for the appearance of winter smog is calm weather, in which a layer of warm air is located above the surface layer of cold air (below 700 m). At the same time, not only horizontal, but also vertical exchange is absent. Pollutants, which are usually dispersed in high layers, in this case accumulate in the surface layer.

Dry smog occurs during the summer and is often referred to as LA-type smog. It is a mixture of ozone, carbon monoxide, nitrogen oxides and acid vapors. Such smog is formed as a result of the decomposition of pollutants by solar radiation, especially its ultraviolet part. The meteorological prerequisite is atmospheric inversion, which is expressed in the appearance of a layer of cold air above the warm one. Gases and solid particles usually lifted by warm air currents are then dispersed in the upper cold layers, but in this case they accumulate in the inversion layer. In the process of photolysis, nitrogen dioxides formed during the combustion of fuel in car engines decompose:

NO 2 → NO + O

Then ozone synthesis occurs:

O + O 2 + M → O 3 + M

NO + O → NO 2

Photodissociation processes are accompanied by a yellow-green glow.

In addition, reactions occur according to the type: SO 3 + H 2 0 -> H 2 SO 4, i.e. strong sulfuric acid is formed.

With a change in meteorological conditions (the appearance of wind or a change in humidity), the cold air dissipates and the smog disappears.

The presence of carcinogens in smog leads to respiratory failure, irritation of the mucous membranes, circulatory disorders, asthmatic suffocation, and often death. Smog is especially dangerous for young children.

Acid rain is atmospheric precipitation acidified by industrial emissions of sulfur oxides, nitrogen oxides and vapors of perchloric acid and chlorine dissolved in them. In the process of burning coal and gas, most of the sulfur in it, both in the form of oxide and in compounds with iron, in particular in pyrite, pyrrhotite, chalcopyrite, etc., turns into sulfur oxide, which, together with carbon dioxide, is released into atmosphere. When atmospheric nitrogen and technical emissions are combined with oxygen, various nitrogen oxides are formed, and the volume of nitrogen oxides formed depends on the combustion temperature. The bulk of nitrogen oxides occurs during the operation of motor vehicles and diesel locomotives, and a smaller part occurs in the energy sector and industrial enterprises. Sulfur and nitrogen oxides are the main acid formers. When reacting with atmospheric oxygen and the water vapor in it, sulfuric and nitric acids are formed.

It is known that the alkaline-acid balance of the medium is determined by the pH value. A neutral environment has a pH value of 7, an acidic environment has a pH value of 0, and an alkaline environment has a pH value of 14. In the modern era, the pH value of rainwater is 5.6, although in the recent past it was neutral. A decrease in pH value by one corresponds to a tenfold increase in acidity and, therefore, at present, rains with increased acidity fall almost everywhere. The maximum acidity of rains recorded in Western Europe was 4-3.5 pH. It should be taken into account that the pH value equal to 4-4.5 is fatal for most fish.

Acid rains have an aggressive effect on the Earth's vegetation cover, on industrial and residential buildings and contribute to a significant acceleration of the weathering of exposed rocks. An increase in acidity prevents the self-regulation of neutralization of soils in which nutrients are dissolved. In turn, this leads to a sharp decrease in yields and causes degradation of the vegetation cover. The acidity of the soil contributes to the release of heavy, which are in a bound state, which are gradually absorbed by plants, causing serious tissue damage in them and penetrating into the human food chain.

A change in the alkaline-acid potential of sea waters, especially in shallow waters, leads to the cessation of the reproduction of many invertebrates, causes the death of fish and disrupts the ecological balance in the oceans.

As a result of acid rain, the forests of Western Europe, the Baltic States, Karelia, the Urals, Siberia and Canada are under the threat of death.

Layers of the atmosphere in order from the surface of the earth. The size of the earth's atmosphere

The structure of the atmosphere

boundary layer of the atmosphere

Troposphere

tropopause

Stratosphere

Stratopause

Mesosphere

Mesopause

Karman Line

Thermosphere

Thermopause

Exosphere (scattering sphere)

Review

Other properties of the atmosphere and effects on the human body

History of the formation of the atmosphere

Nitrogen

Oxygen

noble gases

Air pollution

see also

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Literature

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An excerpt characterizing the Earth's atmosphere

Composition of the atmosphere

The chemical composition of the Earth's atmosphere

Formation of weather and climate

The structure of the atmosphere

Composition of the atmosphere

Layers of the atmosphere

Atmosphere pressure

The movement of air masses in the atmosphere

the greenhouse effect

The emergence and evolution of the Earth's atmosphere

Ethnospheric functions of the atmosphere

The role of the atmosphere in natural processes

Ecological and geological role of atmospheric processes

Anthropogenic changes in the atmosphere