Dictionary of dialect and obsolete words for the student. Dialectisms in the literary language

All-Russian Festival

"The Russian language is a national heritage of the peoples of the Russian Federation"

Nomination: Scientific research

Research

Dialectisms in the literary language

(on the example of tales).

Saifutdinova Elvina

Sabinsky district, Shemordan village

Supervisor:

and literature

1.Introduction………………………………………………………………………….3

2.Main part:

2.1.The concept of a dialect……………………………………………………...5

2.2. Dialects as part of the vocabulary of the national Russian language ...... 6

2.3. Types of dialects. Classification of dialectisms………………… .6

2.4. Features of the dialects of the Ural Cossacks……………………….11

2.5. Dialectisms in the literary language (on the example of tales)………………………………………………………………………..19

3.Conclusion………………………………………………………………………25

List of used literature………………………………………….26

Appendix…………………………………………………………………….28

Introduction.

The relevance of this study is determined by the fact that the dialectological sphere of the language, having direct access to ethnoculturology, still arouses a keen interest of linguists. In conditions when Russian folk dialects are disappearing, and with them the unique facts of the history of the language and the culture of the Russian people as a whole are disappearing, the significance of such works can hardly be overestimated, and over time it will only increase.

The object of the study was the dialects of the Russian language.

In connection with our object of study, an important question arises about the research boundaries of the object of our study.

As you know, the lexical composition is divided into 2 layers: the first layer is a general language, such lexemes are familiar and used by the entire group of Russian speakers; the second layer is of a lexical-corporate nature, in particular, of a special-scientific nature. This group of lexemes is familiar and used by a limited circle of people. The peculiarity of dialects is that they belong to the vocabulary of limited use. The scope of our analysis included territorial dialects collected by the method of continuous sampling from tales.

Dialects have been repeatedly studied in different languages. The scientific novelty of the study is determined by the fact that for the first time dialects of the Russian language became the object of study in Bazhov's tales from the point of view of typification.

The purpose of our study is to determine how writers find means in dialects for stylization of artistic narration, creating the speech characteristics of characters. This study will be carried out on the example of Bazhov's tales.

Setting this goal led to the choice of the following tasks:

1) define the concept of a dialect;

2) consider dialects as part of the vocabulary of the national Russian language;

3) determine the types of dialects;

4) classify dialectisms;

5) to determine the features of the dialects of the Ural Cossacks;

6) analysis of dialectisms in the literary language (on the example of tales - va).

The structure of the work corresponds to the tasks.

Our material was analyzed on the basis of the following methods: descriptive method, historical method, component analysis method.

Dialects and their influence on literature.

The purpose of this study is to determine how writers find in dialects the means to stylize the artistic narrative, to create the speech characteristics of the characters. This study will be carried out on the example of Bazhov's tales.

2.1. The concept of dialect.

Russian folk dialects, or dialects (gr. dialektos - adverb, dialect), have in their composition a significant number of original folk words known only in a certain area. So, in the south of Russia, a stag is called a grip, a clay pot is called a mahot, a bench is a uslon, etc. Dialectisms exist mainly in the oral speech of the peasant population; in an official setting, dialect speakers usually switch to a common language, the conductors of which are school, radio, television, and literature. The original language of the Russian people was imprinted in the dialects, in certain features of the local dialects, relic forms of Old Russian speech were preserved, which are the most important source for the restoration of historical processes that once affected our language [Rosenthal, 2002: 15].

2.2. Dialects as part of the vocabulary of the national Russian language.

Vocabulary of the Russian language, depending on the nature of its functioning, is divided into two large groups: commonly used and limited to the scope of use. The first group includes words, the use of which is not limited either by the territory of distribution or by the type of activity of people; it forms the basis of the vocabulary of the Russian language. This includes the names of concepts and phenomena from different areas of society: political, economic, cultural, everyday, which gives reason to single out various thematic groups of words in the composition of the national vocabulary. Moreover, all of them are understandable and accessible to every native speaker and can be used in a variety of conditions, without any limitation.

Vocabulary of a limited scope of use is common within a certain area or among a circle of people united by profession, social characteristics, common interests, pastime, etc. Such words are used mainly in oral irregular speech. However, artistic speech does not refuse to use them [Rosenthal, 2002:14].

2.3. Types of dialects. Classification of dialectisms.

In linguistic literature, there is a broad and narrow understanding of dialectism as the main component of dialectology.

1) A broad approach (presented in a linguistic encyclopedia) is characterized by an understanding of dialectisms as linguistic features characteristic of territorial dialects included in literary speech. Dialectisms stand out in the flow of literary speech as deviations from the norm [Yartseva, 1990: 2]

2) A narrow approach (reflected in the monographs of V. G. Vitvitsky, V. N. Prokhorova) consists in the fact that dialectisms are called dialect words or stable word combinations used in the language of fiction, journalistic and other works. [Vitvitsky, 1956: 6] [Prokhorova, 1957: 7]

In our work, based on the object of study, we rely on a narrow approach and under the term dialectisms we understand the phonetic, word-formation, morphological, syntactic, semantic and other features of the language reflected in a work of art, inherent in certain dialects in comparison with the literary language.

In linguistics, the question of dialectisms as part of the language of a work of art is one of the least studied. Separate works of such scientists as V. N. Prokhorov “Dialectisms in the language of fiction”, E. F. Petrishcheva “Extra-literary vocabulary in modern fiction”, “On the issue of artistic reproduction of folk speech”, O. A. Nechaeva “Dialectisms in literature of Siberia" and others. A number of works are devoted to the analysis of dialect vocabulary in specific works of Russian writers of the 19th - 20th centuries: dialectisms in creativity, S. Yesenin, M. Sholokhov, V. Belov, F. Abramov.

In works of fiction, the originality of dialects can be reflected to varying degrees. Depending on what specific features are transmitted in dialect words, they can be classified into four main groups:

1. Words that convey the features of the sound structure of the dialect - phonetic dialectisms.

2. Words that differ in grammatical forms from the words of the literary language are morphological dialectisms.

3. Transmitted in the literary language of a work of art features of the construction of sentences and phrases, characteristic of dialects - syntactic dialectisms.

4. The words used in the language of fiction from the vocabulary of the dialect are lexical dialectisms. Such dialectisms are heterogeneous in composition. Among the dictionary-opposed vocabulary, the following stand out:

a) semantic dialectisms - with the same sound design, such words in the dialect have the opposite literary meaning (homonyms in relation to the literary equivalent);

b) lexical dialectisms with a complete difference in terms of content from the literary word (synonyms in relation to the literary equivalent);

c) lexical dialectisms with a partial difference in the morphemic composition of the word (lexical and derivational dialectisms), in its phonemic and accentological fixation (phonemic and accentological dialectisms).

5. Dictionary words that are the names of local objects and phenomena that do not have absolute synonyms in the literary language and require a detailed definition - the so-called ethnographisms, belong to the vocabulary that is not opposed to vocabulary.

The above classification of the use of dialectisms in the language of a work of art is conditional, since in some cases dialect words can combine the features of two or more groups [Prokhorova, 1957: 6 - 8]

When dialectisms from oral speech come to the writer's disposal, he intersperses them into the language of a literary text, subordinating each dialectal word to the general plan of the work, and this is done not directly, but through the methods of narration.

For the indigenous population of the villages, the dialect (that is, the local dialect) is, first of all, the native language, which a person masters in early childhood and is organically connected with it. Precisely because the articulatory skills of speech are formed naturally, they are very strong in everyone. It is possible to rebuild them, but far from everyone and not in everything. [Kogotkov, 1954: 128]

With the help of dialectological data, it is more understandable to solve the issue of the principles of the selection of dialectisms by the writer, the manifestation of his artistic taste, awareness in the selection of material for creating images of folk-colloquial speech. Dialectological data help to answer the question of what vocabulary of the dialect the artist of the word prefers to use.

Thus, the processes taking place in the sphere of the dialect language as part of the language of a work of art have much in common with the processes characteristic of Russian colloquial speech, an oral variety of the literary language. In this regard, dialectisms are a rich source for identifying the processes and trends of the literary language.

We came to the conclusion that dialects differ from the common national language in various features - phonetic, morphological, special word usage and completely original words unknown to the literary language. This gives grounds to group the dialectisms of the Russian language according to their common characteristics.

Lexical dialectisms are words that are known only to speakers of the dialect and beyond that do not have either phonetic or word-forming variants. For example, in South Russian dialects there are the words buryak (beetroot), tsibulya (onion), gutorit (speak); in the northern ones - a sash (belt), peplum (beautiful), golitsy (mittens). In the common language, these dialectisms have equivalents that name identical objects, concepts. The presence of such synonyms distinguishes lexical dialectisms from other types of dialect words.

Ethnographic dialectisms are words that name objects known only in a certain locality: shanezhki - "pies prepared in a special way", shingles - "special potato pancakes", nardek - "watermelon molasses", manarka - "kind of outerwear", poneva - "a kind of skirt", etc. Ethnographisms do not and cannot have synonyms in the national language, since the objects themselves, designated by these words, have a local distribution. As a rule, these are household items, clothes, food, plants and fruits.

Lexico-semantic dialectisms - words that have an unusual meaning in the dialect: bridge - "floor in the hut", lips - "mushrooms of all varieties except white", shout (someone) - "call", himself - "master, husband" etc. Such dialectisms act as homonyms for common words used with their inherent meaning in the language.

Phonetic dialectisms - words that have received a special phonetic design in the dialect cai (tea), chep (chain) - the consequences of "clatter" and "clatter", characteristic of northern dialects; hverma (farm), paper (paper), passport (passport), zhist (life).

Derivational dialectisms are words that have received a special affixal design in the dialect: song (cock), guska (goose), heifers (calf), strawberry (strawberry), bro (brother), shuryak (brother-in-law), darma (gift), forever (always ), otkul (from where), pokeda (for now), evonny (his), theirs (theirs), etc.

Morphological dialectisms are forms of inflection not characteristic of the literary language: soft endings for verbs in the 3rd person (go, go); ending - am for nouns in the instrumental case of the plural (under the pillars); the ending - e for personal pronouns in the genitive case of the singular: at me, at you, etc. [Rosenthal, 2002: 15].

2.4. Features of the dialects of the Ural Cossacks.

Ural (Yaik) Cossacks inhabit the right-bank regions of the Guryev and Ural regions of present-day Kazakhstan and Pervomaisky, Ilek, Mustaevsky and Tashlinsky regions of the Orenburg region of Russia. Here are transitional, Central Russian dialects. “Although the language of the Ural Cossacks cannot be called a special dialect,” he says, “they have many special expressions and turns, and the dialect is so distinctive that you can recognize the Urals everywhere from the first words.” (“On the dialects of the Russian language”, 1852. Explanatory dictionary of the living Great Russian language, vol. I, p. 65, M., 1955.).

Until recently, the dialect of the Ural Cossacks and their descendants was distinguished by the unity of all its structural elements. Its vocabulary is rich and highly differentiated. This was facilitated by the fact that the descendants of immigrants and fugitives from different dialect regions of tsarist Russia on the banks of the remote Yaik (now the Ural River) formed a large closed “semi-military, semi-fishing community”. They were united here by a community of economic (fishing, animal husbandry), social and legal, national, religious (Old Believers) interests, as well as a life organized in a military way. The people of the Urals were also united by the acutely perceived by them real linguistic consciousness, which developed over time as a result of the reasons noted above.

None of all the Cossack troops of the tsarist time had such distinctive features as the Urals had (the exclusive right to use the riches of the Ural River and the part of the Caspian Sea adjacent to the mouth of the Urals, the hiring, which consisted in the fact that hunters went to serve military service, who cash assistance was paid to the Cossacks who remained at home, and some others). , speaking about the Ural Cossacks, notes: "The Cossack region has its own vibrant history, its own special customs, its own types, its own songs, its own way of life." (“At the Cossacks”, 1900, Poli. sobr. soch., 1914, vol. VI, book 17, p. 220).

The dialect of the Ural Cossacks took shape in the first half of the 19th century. He is of the middle Russian type. (See N. Malech "Ural Cossacks and their dialect", p. 250).

PHONETIC FEATURES

Among the Urals, there is a common "akan" of a literary type and a moderate "yakan" (vyasna - visne). Under stress [a] between soft consonants turns into [e] (apet, kricheli). By analogy, and before hard consonants, [a] turns into [e] (naredny, bidnegu). As a result of the loss of the pronunciation norm, in contrast to the transition of the stressed [a] to [e], the reverse transition of the phoneme is widespread<е>in<а>(lyanta, myah, i.e. tape, fur). The percussive sound [and] is replaced by the sound [e] (pelut, radel house) both in the roots and in the endings (dry firewood). In some cases, the old Russian letter "yat" is pronounced under stress as [i] (vmisti, diva). The initial [o] and [a] in the second pre-stressed syllable turn into [i] (taman, igurtsy, it mine). Being in the absolute beginning in the second pre-stressed syllable, the vowel sound is usually not pronounced (live, mines, straga, Fanasius, smiles). The reduction of vowels [a] and [o] in the second pre-stressed and in the stressed syllables is widely used in the speech of the Urals, as well as in the literary language (dragoy, npishu, gvrt, lavk). After soft consonants, instead of etymological [e] and [a] in the second pre-stressed syllable, one hears [and] (dli mine, biryagu, misaet). There are other less significant differences in the vocalism of the dialect of the Ural Cossacks.

There are many features in the consonant system of the dialect. Here [r] is explosive, solid [d], [t], [n], - apical (above, there)4 or even prepalatal. Soft [s "] and [s"] are pronounced lispingly (s "en, s" ima). In women, the sound [l] is medium (byoa). The loss of intervocalic [v] is common (kopeck piece, give karow, kao). The front-lingual soft [d "] and [t"] are replaced by soft [g"] and [k"] (clay, glya, kela, kech). There is also a reverse replacement: the posterior lingual soft ones are replaced by the anterior lingual soft ones (tino, dihtar, nalodi). This replacement also applies to hard consonants (krikatash, trakhmal, cathars, i.e. knitwear, starch, Tatars). Women are characterized by a soft "clatter" (dotsin "k', cysty). A long hissing dull sound (spelling "u", "sch", "sch") is replaced by a long soft or long lisping [s"]: (vis "s" I, scu or s "s" and, pus "s" yu, i.e. things, cabbage soup, let go). Spelling combinations: “zhzh”, “zzh”, “zhd” are pronounced as a long soft lisping sound [z "] or a long soft [z"] (uiz "z" yat, daz "zi). The permutation of sounds is very common in the dialect of the Urals (kyrk - scream, gyldy - look, prolyfka - wire, rot - clay, etc.).

Describing the sound side of the speech of the Urals, many observers note the "agility", "glibness", patter of their speech, abruptness, conciseness, "leaning" on the initial consonants (rruby, ssama, ggarit, etc.).

MORPHOLOGICAL FEATURES

Noun

In the dialect of the Ural Cossacks there is no neuter gender of nouns, it is replaced by masculine gender, especially often if the inflection is stressed, or feminine (your core, fat meat). These words may be of scientific interest: why one word in the dialect is assigned to m. r., and the other - to f. r., or it is used in two ways: then m. r., then well. R.?

Genus. pad. units hours of nouns I cl. ends in -e (it sister, am mom). In III fold. in the preposition pad. units h. inflection - - e (on pich, on lyshyd), the same in dates. pad. units hours, but less often (to pich). On TV pad. units h. ending - - th (night).

declension patterns for nouns

Masculine Feminine

Singular

(belt) con den sastra wess lost

R. poisu (b) kanya day sistre vessy horse

D. I will search for the day of Sastra Vössi horses

B. search for canya den sastru vessu losht

T. poism cane in the afternoon

Happy sister of the horse

P. On pbis n kanyu

Nj kanyo at the bottom

for days n s "istre on weight" s "and n lyshydё

Plural

I. Pyisya horses the days of the sister of wissa lyshydya

R. pyisyof konif dnef

den sisterf wossif lyshydey

D. Pyisyam to horse days to sisters of vessim lyshydy

V. pyisya kanyoy days sisterf wissa lyshydey

T. pyisyami konimi

for days

daytime sisters

P. N pyisyah horse days sisters vessih lyshydah

In many hours in them. pad. m. inflection - - a (garden, vase) and - (pyis "ya, syrfanya, kus" ya, that is, belts, sundresses, bushes), the ending is also used -, but less often (karmanya). In nouns III cl. in them. pad. pl. h.

In the genus pl. hours in all types of skl. inflection - of, - yf, - if (nazhof, baushkyf, az "oryf, dog" nif).

Of the word-forming elements, the following suffixes can be considered active for nouns: - hayk- for the formation of a diminutive-caress. proper names for men and women (m. - Grinyayka, Minyayka, and so on, f. - Zinayka, Dushaika - Evdokia, etc.); - ak- for the formation of familiarly neglected. proper names of children (Minak, Sanyak, Ulyak, Shuryak); -ja for education neglected. proper names of children, teasing names (m. - Bardzha, Vanjya, Kaldzhya - from the names: Boris, Vanya, Kolya, etc.; f. - Andzhya, Irdzhya, Nindzhya - from the names: Anya, Ira, Nina); - ja - the same, only for the names of girls (Raidja - from Paradise, etc.); - ate (zhidel, gustel, zhestel); - en for the formation of nouns. well. R. with an abstract concept on the basis of (fat, thin, black, blue, fat, cool, etc.); - EC for the formation of noun. m. with the designation of the nation (Bulgarian, Belarusian); - yoshka for neglect. object designations (melon, blouse); - ina with the meaning of an abstract concept on the basis of (yellowness, horshina); - otherness - the same as - other (bolshevnyst, vyshynyst, deep, thinness). The surnames of the Urals Naskovs are characteristic (Azovskov, Sadovskov, Surskov, Piterskoye, Shiryavskov, etc.)

Prefixes: about - - with the meaning of incompleteness of quality (prospil, progorech); raz- (ras-) - with the meaning of quality in superlative degree (hostess, painter, blow-shechka).

Adjective

Adjectives have contracted forms (young, young, young; bile - whiter); the same phenomenon is observed in pronominal adjectives and ordinal numbers (ftara, kakyo, taku). In the preposition pad. units h.m. and wed. R. often there are forms on - th, - to them, - to eat (f thin vidre, f what a reptile, f blue mori), i.e. preposition. pad. matches TV. pad. units h.

In the formation of adjectives, the suffix - ist - with the meaning of a propensity for something (disciplined, arrogant, that is, picky, talkative, prudent) is especially productive. The prefix raz- (ras-) is also productive (for example, kind, disjointed, kind). This prefix has a maximum quality value.

declension patterns for adjectives

Hard version Soft version

Singular

M. r. J. r. M. r. J. r.

I. young young with "yin with" yin

R. young young with "ying with" ying

D. young young with "yinmu with" yin

B. Like I. or R. young as I. or R. blue

T. young young with blue blue

P. young young with blue blue

Plural

I. young (s), young with "ini

R. mkhladeh (s) with "others

D. young (s) with "inim

In as I. or R. as I. or R.

T. young (s) with "others

P. n maladeh (s) with "others

Pronoun

In the genus and wine. pad. units including personal and reflexive pronouns, there are forms with - - I, and with - - e at the end, (minya and mine, t "ibya and tibe, s" bya and s "ibe). In possessive pronouns my, yours, yours , in the interrogative-relative which, whose and in negative pronouns none and nobody in the plural in all the falling forms with - e, and not with - and (mae, yours, svayomi, kakyoi, nikakyokh, draw, etc. .) - the influence of the pronoun that. Along with the demonstrative pronouns that and etut, the following pronouns are widely used: values.

In verb forms 3 l. units and many others. h [t] solid. There is a strong desire to unify the basis (magu, mbgsh; let me go, let me go; I sit, I go). Constricted forms are widespread (know, know, i.e. you know, know; dumsh, i.e. you think; pass "we drink, pass" petit, i.e. we will be in time, you will be in time; vymysh, washed, i.e. you will wash , wash). The indefinite form of verbs with a stem on "g" and "k" ends in - chi, - kchi (lich, s "tirikchi, talchy). , imeil); in folklore they are frequent.

Participles are formed with the help of suffixes - moshy and - fshu (drank, drunk). In past participles they suffer. the pledge is often used suffix - t, instead of the literary - n (wounded, plamatii).

Pov. incl. 2 l. units h .: (bay, palosh, no trok, bagriy, gyl "dy or gyly, vyt" (come out), vytti).

Pov. incl. 2 l. pl. h .: (baiti, pa-lbshti, no trokti, bagriit, gyl "go).

Indefinite form: bat, carried "t and nis" ti, gyl "det, pich, get out, bagrit.

VERB CONJUGATION PATTERNS

Present and future simple tense

Unit number 1 person

2 person bash dumsh umyosh bagrish fictitious frog

3 face bat dumut umet bagrit washed lie down

Mn. number 1 face bam dumm

2 face bati think to be able to bagriti wash lie down

3 persons byyut think they know how bagriyut vymut lie down

SYNTAX FEATURES

Often in the role of a predicate, a gerund participle is used (shaber vypimshi), instead of a reflexive, an irrevocable gerund participle (sitting ademgia) is found. The postpositive particle (ot, tb, ta) is heard very often in the speech of the Urals; it has generic and case forms in it. pad. units hours (bread-from, hut-ma), in wine. pad. units h. R. (hut) and in them. pl. hours (gus "and-ti).

We can say that before the October Revolution of 1917, dialectal speech reigned supreme in the Urals. From 1919 to 1953 - bilingualism (literary and dialectal speech), and since the development of virgin lands (1954), the literary type of the national language apparently predominates in the speech of the Urals. True, dialectal speech continues to reign in many Cossack families to this day. In addition, the Urals are characterized by bilingualism of a different order: many of them are equally fluent in colloquial Russian (dialect or literary, or both) and Kazakh speech, which is especially true for the grassroots Urals Cossacks. This bilingualism of the Ural Cossacks on the Amu Darya (the so-called leavers) was written by a senior researcher at the Miklukho-Maclay Research Institute of Ethnography.

The study of the vocabulary of the people is of great importance. After all, the whole history of the people is captured in words: social relations, the economic basis of life, its cultural development, the originality of the way of life. Outstanding writers take words from the folk language treasury and enrich the Russian literary language with them. However, the vocabulary of folk dialects of the Russian language has not been sufficiently studied.

2.5. Dialectisms in the literary language

(on the example of tales).

There is another unsolved phenomenon: this is the language of Bazhov's tales, which is called simple, colloquial, Ural. It is often added that grandfather Slyshko spoke this language. However, the dual nature of the tale is deceptive: the narration on behalf of a democratic narrator is actually built by a professional writer. Yes, and grandfather Slyshko himself is an author's creation, an artistic image that has absorbed certain features from the life of Vasily Alekseevich Khmelinin, a Polevsk resident of the late 19th century. Neither the conditional nor the real grandfather Slyshko, of course, could have harmonized such diverse resources of the literary language. Bazhov himself determines the expediency and measure in their use in a way imperceptible to the reader.

In the writer's language laboratory, let's single out the simplest: lexical categories. Let us name the individual functions of the Russian verb, which Bazhov serves as a means of conveying the changing psychological state of the hero. At an unexpected meeting with a boy in whom “greed is not visible”, the successful prospector Nikita Zhabrey in the tale “Zhabreev the walker” “throws” Deniska a whole handful of sweets, and then “several silver rubles”; “surprised” when Deniska did not pick up either one or the other; “got excited”, “roared at other kids”; “He snatched out a wad of big money from his bosom and grabbed it in front of Deniska”; “I lost myself from such words: it’s worth it - staring at Denis. Then he put his hand behind the bootleg, dragged out the rag, turned out the nugget, - five pounds, they say, - and grab this nugget under Denis's feet ”; “I came to my senses, ran up, picked up the money and the nugget”; Nikita is offended that the boy reproached him, but kept silent”; finally, “tells him quietly so that others do not hear”; “they talked like that and parted…” In an expressive form, the verb close to vulgarisms has a satirical function: the fat gentleman blew, apparently, money in San Petersburg”; the German master of decorated weapons smoked a lot and fuikal at everything here.” The “relatively outdated” words, which Bazhov carefully chose, create the impression of temporary remoteness: “since the hitman climbed up to her”; "You've got to go on your own, Semenych"; “I took some soft bread out of my bag and broke it up with slices”; in “Yermakov’s Swans”, where the action dates back to the end of the 16th century, he considers appropriate words denoting objects and occupations that have gone into the past: “plows”, “ringed shirt”, “tsarist armored coats”, “spearman” (a warrior armed with a spear). At the same time, he resolutely does not accept the verbs “let's risk” and “put pressure” proposed by the authors of the script for the film “Yermakov's Swans”. Single lexical dialectisms are natural in the speech of the Ural old-timer: “Heznul health”; “a little girl is sitting on a golbchik by the stove”; “Here Fedyunya put on his coats, tightened his fur coat-wind blower with a hem.”

In a language that is as close as possible to colloquial folk speech, stable folklore and poetic phrases are natural: “and the white day will cheer, and the dark night will light up, and the red sun will make you happy.” In the enumeration of the “inheritance” inherited by Ilya, the rhythms of the raeshnik, a Russian spoken verse, are easily distinguishable: “from the father - hands and shoulders, from the mother teeth and speech, from the grandfather Ignat - a pick and a shovel, from grandmother Lukerya a special commemoration”. Bazhov is free to use industrial vocabulary. The names of minerals, tools, designations of production processes are not driven into the interlinear, but explain the characters and fates of the characters: Danilushka has “the answer to all the questions of the clerk: how to chip a stone, how to saw it, remove the chamfer, than when to glue it, how to bring color, how to sit on copper, as on a tree”; “Then he took a balodka, and how he gasped at the dope flower, it only shrunk.”

Preserving the exact everyday and industrial detail, Bazhov accompanies the "Malachite Box" with the most detailed "Explanation of individual words, concepts and expressions found in tales." But, to be honest, few people look into the author's commentary except for linguists, historians, folklorists, researchers of folk culture. For the reader, everything is explained by the context itself. Let's consider some of them:

Butorovy. Slurring, mumbling. “Vakhonya is a heavy man, a beard to the navel, shoulders exactly with a stalker, a fist - it’s scary to look, a bear’s leg, and a butor’s conversation” (, Sun Stone).

Scream. To repeat, to repeat the same thing, to mumble. “When he’s been babbling for half an hour, and he’s shaking his head, waving his arms” (, Cockroach soap).

Lotus. To mutter, incomprehensibly to others to speak, to chat. “The koltovchika grabbed his shoulder with her hand, patted him slowly, lotus with the gentlemen, but you can’t make out what” (Markov stone).

Idle talk. Empty words. “The mountain authorities, perhaps, did not understand half of that German idle talk, but only savvy to themselves: since this German was sent from the higher authorities, do not contradict him” (, Cockroach soap).

Hear it. Introductory meaning: listen, understand. "Listen, you should have run to Ogafya." The content of the book "The Malachite Box" in the first edition (1939) was based on the poetic stories of an old field worker, nicknamed "Slyshko", for his addiction to this saying.

Snort. Scold, scold, scold. “Running like a scalded man, snorting to himself: “Is this a girl?” (, Malachite Box).

Bad words. Soromskie, obscene words. “I had to observe a similar disguise with “bad words” in a Sysert songwriter-improviser. Usually modest in everyday life and “tempered in language”, he was always deliberately rude in his song improvisations dedicated to the master, factory bosses or priests ”(, At the old mine).

Let's group the dialects used by types:

Ethnographic (“vitushka” - a kind of kalach with ends woven in the middle, “balodka” - a one-handed hammer, “import” - a kind of outbuilding with a wide entrance so that carts, sledges, etc., could be brought there for storage, “plot” - a fence made of poles or logs (single cut) tightly laid between the pillars, a "dam" - a pole or a single cut taken from the fence, "shoes, butes" - a kind of leather shoes; cats);

Lexical (“sleeve” - bracelet, “cufflink, cufflink” - apron, apron, “heater” - a sauna stove, with a pile of stones on top, water is splashed on them, “steam is falling”, “soft stone” is talcum powder);

Phonetic (“artut” - mercury, “golk” - rumble, noise, echo, “diomid” - dynamite, “shoe” - the name of the noun m. r. - shoes);

Derivational (“listvyanka” - larch, “hornbeam” - a robber);

Morphological (“interfering” - interferes, “blows” - blows, “knows” - knows).

In a separate group, we define borrowed dialects:

"Ayda, ayda-ko" - from the Tatar. It was used in factory life quite often in various meanings: 1) come, come; 2) let's go, let's go; 3) go, let's go.

"Ashat" (Bashkir) - to eat, take food.

"Bergal" - alteration of the German bergauer (mining worker). The narrator used this word in the sense of a senior worker, to whom a group of teenage skaters was subordinate.

"Elan, elanka" - a grassy clearing in the forest (probably, from the Bashkir - a clearing, a bare place).

"Kalym" - ransom for the bride (among the Bashkirs).

It is impossible not to single out a group of dialects that reflect the history of the people:

"Azov, Azov-mountain" - in the Middle Urals, 70 kilometers to the south-west. from Sverdlovsk, height 564 meters. The mountain is covered with forest; on top of a large stone, from which the surroundings are clearly visible (25-30 kilometers). There is a cave in the mountain with a collapsed entrance. In the 17th century, here, past Azov, there was a "path" along which "shipping governors" from Turinsk to Ufa, through the Chinese prison, passed.

Bazhov - a "short-word", as they wrote about him back in the 20s, appreciated the completeness and naturalness of Russian speech. He did not recognize the purified literary language, but was wary of unjustified neologisms, which he did not approve even of Leskov; he expelled bureaucracy, from which the Selkor's letters to Krestyanskaya Gazeta had turned him away; did not allow lexical repetitions, looked for a non-standard word in a lively dialogue, in dictionaries, in books. It was truly a piece of jewelry, but almost unexplored by stylists and lexicologists. It remains to add that the language of Bazhov's tales is an unplowed field, where everyone who cherishes the richest Russian speech can find his own corner.

Conclusion

During the study, we came to the following conclusions:

1) in tales, dialectisms reflect the worldview of the people, their national and cultural specifics;

2) the analysis of the dialects of the Russian language can be focused on the reconstruction of the process of interaction between different ethnic cultures;

3) ethnographic analysis showed how the language in different forms of its existence, at different stages of its history reflected and reflects the history of the people;

4) language at all its levels should be considered as an ethnocultural phenomenon.

List of used literature.

1. Avanes dictionary of the Russian language.

2. Avanesov of Russian dialectology. - M., 1949.

3. Bazhov tales. - M .: Pravda, 1988.

4. Blinov's works of art as a source of dialect lexicography. - Tyumen, 1985.

5. Vetvitsky as a means of creating local color in the novel "Quiet Flows the Don". - Leningrad State University, 1956.

6. Ilyinskaya work at the Kamchatka State University named after Vitus Bering // Bulletin of KRAUNC. Humanitarian sciences. -2008-№1.

7. Karpov words, synonyms and expressions used by the Ural Cossacks. - Uralsk, 1913.

8. Karpov. Historical essay. - Uralsk, 1911.

9. Karpov words, synonyms and expressions used by the Ural Cossacks. - Uralsk, 1909.

10. Kasatkin dialectology. – M.: Academy, 2005.

11. Kogotkova about words. – M.: Nauka, 1984.

12. At the Cossacks. Full coll. op. - P., 1914. - T. VI, book 17.

13. Korsunov village in the Urals. - 1959.

14. Prokhorov in the language of fiction. - Moscow, 1957.

15. "Malachite box" in the literature of the 30-40s. – 1998.

16. Slobozhaninova - old testaments. – 2000.

17. Language of works of art. Sat. articles. - Omsk, 1966.

18. Yartsev encyclopedic dictionary. - M.: Soviet Encyclopedia, 1990.

In artistic speech, dialectisms perform important stylistic functions: they help convey local color, the specifics of life, and culture; features of the characters' speech, and finally, dialect vocabulary can be a source of speech expression and a means of satirical coloring.

The use of dialectisms in Russian fiction has its own history. Poetics of the 18th century allowed dialect vocabulary only in low genres, mainly in comedy; dialectisms were a distinctive feature of the non-literary, predominantly peasant speech of the characters. At the same time, dialectal features of various dialects were often mixed in the speech of one hero. Sentimentalist writers, prejudiced against the rude, "muzhik" language, protected their style from the dialect vocabulary. Interest in dialectisms was caused by the desire of realist writers to truthfully reflect the life of the people, to convey the “common folk” flavor. I.A. Krylov, A.S. Pushkin, N.V. Gogol, N.A. Nekrasov, I.S. Turgenev, L.N. Tolstoy and others. In Turgenev, for example, words from the Oryol and Tula dialects are often found (bolshak, gutorit, poneva, potion, wave, doctor, buchilo, etc.). 19th century writers used dialectisms that corresponded to their aesthetic attitudes. Stylistically, the appeal to reduced dialect vocabulary could also be justified. For example: As if on purpose, all the peasants met all shabby (I.S. Turgenev) - here dialectism with negative emotional and expressive coloring in the context is combined with other reduced vocabulary (willows stood like beggars in rags; peasants rode bad nags).

It is necessary to distinguish, on the one hand, the “citation” use of dialectisms when they are present in the context as an element of another style, and, on the other hand, their use on an equal footing with the vocabulary of the literary language, with which dialectisms should stylistically merge. With the "citation" use of dialectisms, it is important to know the measure, to remember that the language of the work must be understandable to the reader. For example: All evenings, and even nights, [the guys] sit by the fires, speaking in the local language, and bake opalikhs, that is, potatoes (V.F. Abramova) - this use of dialectisms is stylistically justified. When evaluating the aesthetic value of dialect vocabulary, one should proceed from its internal motivation and organic nature in the context. In itself, the presence of dialectisms cannot yet testify to a realistic reflection of local color. As rightly emphasized by A.M. Gorky, “life needs to be laid in the foundation, and not stuck on the facade. The local flavor is not in the use of words: taiga, zaimka, shanga - it should stick out from the inside.

A more difficult problem is the use of dialectisms along with literary vocabulary. In this case, the fascination with dialectisms can lead to clogging the language of the work. For example: All wabit, bewitch; Odal Belozor swam; The slope with a twist ants - such an introduction of dialectisms obscures the meaning. When determining the aesthetic value of dialectisms in artistic speech, one should take into account what words the author chooses. Based on the requirement of accessibility, understandability of the text, the use of such dialectisms that do not require additional explanations and are understandable in context is usually noted as proof of the writer's skill. As a result of this approach, dialectisms that have become widespread in fiction often become “all-Russian”, losing touch with a specific folk dialect.

Writers should go beyond "inter-dialect" vocabulary and strive for non-standard use of dialectisms. An example of a creative solution to this problem can be the prose of V.M. Shukshin. There are no incomprehensible dialect words in his works, but the speech of the characters is always original, folk. For example, vivid expression distinguishes dialectisms in the story "How the old man died":

Yegor stood on the stove, slipped his hands under the old man.

Hold on to my neck... That's it! How easy it has become! ..

Got sick... (...)

In the evening I will come and visit. (...)

Don't eat, that's weakness, - the old woman noticed. - Maybe we can chop the trigger - I'll cook the broth? He's a slick, fresh one... Huh? (...)

No need. And we won’t sing, but we’ll decide the trigger. (...)

At least for a while, don’t be flustered! .. He’s standing there with one foot, but isho shakes something. (...) Are you really dying, or what? Maybe isho oklemaissya.(...)

Agnyusha," he said with difficulty, "forgive me... I was a little dim-witted...

For the modern language of fiction, the widespread use of dialectisms is uncharacteristic. This is due to the activation of the process of dissolution of local dialects in the literary Russian language, their convergence with it. This process captures the entire system of speech, but the vocabulary is the most permeable. At the same time, a complex, multi-stage restructuring of dialect vocabulary is observed: from the narrowing of the scope of use of individual dialectisms to their complete disappearance from the vocabulary of dialect due to changes in agricultural methods, the extinction of individual crafts, the replacement or disappearance of many social and everyday realities, and the like.

Dialect words are not uncommon in fiction. Usually they are used by those writers who themselves come from the village, or those who are well acquainted with folk speech: A.S. Pushkin, L.N. Tolstoy, S.T. Aksakov I.S. Turgenev, N.S. Leskov, N.A. Nekrasov, I.A. Bunin, S.A. Yesenin, N.A. Klyuev, M.M. Prishvin, S.G. Pisakhov, F.A. Abramov, V.P. Astafiev, A.I. Solzhenitsyn, V.I. Belov, E.I. Nosov, B.A. Mozhaev, V.G. Rasputin and many others.

A dialectal word, phrase, construction included in a work of art to convey local color when describing village life, to create a speech characteristic of characters, is called dialectism.

More A.M. Gorky said: "In every province and even in many districts we have our own dialects, our own words, but a writer must write in Russian, and not in Vyatka, not in balakhonsky."

No need to understand these words of A.M. Gorky as a complete ban on the use of dialect words and expressions in a literary work. However, you need to know how and when you can and should use dialectisms. At one time, A.S. Pushkin wrote: "True taste does not consist in the unconscious rejection of such and such a word, such and such a turn, but in a sense of proportionality and conformity."

In "Notes of a hunter" I.S. Turgenev, you can find quite a lot of dialectisms, but no one will object to the fact that this book is written in excellent Russian literary language. This is primarily due to the fact that Turgenev did not oversaturate the book with dialectisms, but introduced them prudently and cautiously. For the most part, dialectisms are used by him in the speech of characters, and only occasionally does he introduce them into descriptions. At the same time, using an obscure dialect word, Turgenev always explains it. So, for example, in the story "Biryuk" I.S. Turgenev, after the phrase: “My name is Thomas,” he answered, “and nicknamed Biryuk,” he makes a note: “In the Oryol province, a lonely and gloomy person is called Biryuk.” In the same way, he explains the dialectal meaning of the word "top": "Horseback" is called a ravine in the Oryol province.

Turgenev replaces in the author's speech a number of dialect words with literary ones that have the same meaning: instead of a stump in the meaning of "trunk", the writer introduces a literary trunk, instead of a plant ("breed") - breed, instead of separate ("push apart") - push apart. But in the mouths of the characters there are such words as fershel (instead of "paramedic"), a songwriter, and so on. However, even in the author's speech, all dialectisms are not eliminated. Turgenev retains those that designate objects that have not received an exact name in the literary language (kokoshnik, kichka, paneva, amshannik, greenery, etc.). Moreover, sometimes in later editions he even introduces new dialectisms into the author's speech, trying to increase the figurativeness of the narrative. For example, he replaces the literary "mumbled ... voice" with the dialectal "mumbled ... voice", and this gives the old man's speech a clearly visible, felt character.

How masterfully used dialect words and expressions L.N. Tolstoy to create Akim's speech characteristics in the drama "The Power of Darkness".

In the 50-60s of the XIX century. widely used dialectisms in the works of art by I.S. Nikitin. In his poems, he used dialect vocabulary mainly to reflect the local living conditions and life of the people he wrote about. This circumstance led to the presence among dialect words of most nouns denoting individual objects, phenomena and concepts. Such, for example, according to the study of S.A. Kudryashov, names of household items: gorenka, konik (shop), gamanok (purse), such concepts as izvolok (elevation), adversity (bad weather), buzz (buzz). It can be seen that these dialect words are mainly belonging to the South Great Russian dialect, in particular the Voronezh dialects.

In the works of D.N. Mamin-Sibiryak, belonging to the 80-90s of the XIX century, the dialect vocabulary of the Urals has found its wide reflection. In them, according to the study of V.N. Muravyova, dialectisms are used in the speech of the characters and in the language of the author's narration to create a kind of local color, realistic display of the life of the Ural population, descriptions of agricultural work, hunting, etc. In the speech of the characters, dialectisms are also a means of speech characterization. You can name some of these dialectisms used in the stories of Mamin-Sibiryak: plot - a fence, oak - a type of sundress, a rack - a barn for cattle, feet - shoes, a stomach - a house (as well as an animal), battle - torment.

Perfectly used the dialect vocabulary of the Urals P.P. Bazhov. In his tales "Malachite Box" researchers, such as A.I. Chizhik-Poleiko noted about 1200 dialect words and expressions. All of them perform certain functions in the work: or designate specific objects (povet - a room under a canopy in a peasant yard); or they characterize the narrator as a representative of the local dialect (in these cases, from the synonyms of the literary language and dialectisms, Bazhov chooses dialect words: log - ravine, plot - fence, pimy - felt boots, midges - mosquitoes, juice - slag); or introduced to describe the phenomena of the past (kerzhak - Old Believer); or reflect local detail in the designation of some objects (urema - small forest), etc.

In Soviet literature, all researchers noted the brilliant use of dialectal features of the Don language by M.A. Sholokhov. The speech of the heroes of "The Quiet Flows the Don" and "Virgin Soil Upturned" is extremely colorful and colorful precisely because it is saturated with dialectisms to the right extent. The published chapters from the second book of "Virgin Soil Upturned" once again testify to the skill of M.A. Sholokhov as an artist of the word. It is important for us to note now that in these chapters M.A. Sholokhov introduced a fairly significant number of dialect words and forms that give the speech of the characters a peculiar local flavor. Among the dialectal features noted here, one can also find words unknown in the literary language (provesna - the time before the beginning of spring, cleanup - pasture for livestock, arzhanets - a cereal plant similar to rye, cut - hit, lyta - run away, ogina - carry out time, at once - immediately, etc.), and especially often - the dialect formation of separate forms of various words (nominative, genitive and accusative plural: blood; raise orphans; did not give out murderers; without nit-picking; there were no napkins; there is no evidence; verbal forms: crawling instead of "crawling", moaning instead of "groaning", dragging instead of "dragging", ran instead of "ran", lie down instead of "lie down", get off instead of "get off"; adverbs on foot and top instead of "on foot", "on horseback" etc.), and a reflection of the dialectal pronunciation of individual words (vyunosha - "young man", protchuyu - "other", native, etc.).

In the story “The Pantry of the Sun”, M. Prishvin repeatedly uses the dialect word elan: “Meanwhile, it was precisely here, in this clearing, that the interlacing of plants stopped altogether, there was elan, the same thing as an ice hole in the pond in winter. In an ordinary elani, at least a little bit of water is always visible, covered with large, white, beautiful kupava, water lilies. That is why this spruce was called Blind, because it was impossible to recognize it by its appearance. Not only does the meaning of the dialect word become clear to us from the text, the author, at the first mention of it, gives a footnote-explanation: "Elan is a swampy place in a swamp, it's like a hole in the ice."

Thus, dialectisms in the works of art of Soviet literature, as well as in the literature of the past, are used for various purposes, but they always remain only an auxiliary means for fulfilling the tasks assigned to the writer. They should only be introduced in contexts where they are needed; in this case, dialectisms are an important element of artistic depiction.

However, even in our time, words and forms taken from dialects sometimes penetrate into literary works, the introduction of which into the fabric of artistic narrative does not seem legitimate.

A. Surkov in the poem "Motherland" uses the participial form of the verb to yell (plow): "Not wounded by grandfather's plows", - this is justified by the poet's desire to recreate the distant past of the Russian land in the reader's mind and what is the use of a word formed from a dialect verb, gives the whole line a solemn character, corresponding to the whole character of the poem. But when A. Perventsev in the novel "Matrosy" uses in the author's speech the form of the 3rd person singular of the present tense from the verb "sway" - sways instead of the literary sway, then such an introduction of dialectism is not justified in any way and can only be considered an unnecessary clogging of the literary language.

In order for the word to become clear, no boring explanations or footnotes are needed at all. It's just that this word should be put in such a connection with all neighboring words so that its meaning is clear to the reader immediately, without the author's or editorial remarks. One incomprehensible word can destroy for the reader the most exemplary construction of prose.

It would be absurd to argue that literature exists and acts only as long as it is understood. Incomprehensible deliberately abstruse literature is needed only by its author, but not by the people.

The clearer the air, the brighter the sunlight. The more transparent the prose, the more perfect its beauty and the stronger it resonates in the human heart. Leo Tolstoy expressed this thought briefly and clearly:

"Simplicity is a necessary condition for beauty."

In his essay Dictionaries, Paustovsky writes:

“Of the many local words spoken, for example, in Vladimirskaya

and Ryazan regions, some, of course, is incomprehensible. But there are words that are excellent in their expressiveness. For example, the old word "okoeom" that still exists in these areas is the horizon.

On the high bank of the Oka, from where a wide horizon opens, there is the village of Okoyomovo. From Okoemovo, as the locals say, you can see half of Russia. The horizon is everything that our eye can grasp on earth, or, in the old way, everything that “the eye can see”. Hence the origin of the word "okoe". The word "Stozhary" is also very harmonious - this is how people call star clusters in these areas. This word consonantly evokes the idea of ​​a cold heavenly fire.

“With quick steps I passed a long “area” of bushes, climbed a hill and, instead of the expected familiar plain (...), I saw completely different, unknown places to me” (I. S. Turgenev “Bezhin Meadow”) . Why did Turgenev put the word "square" in quotation marks? Thus, he wanted to emphasize that this word in this sense is alien to the literary language. Where did the author borrow the highlighted word from and what does it mean? The answer is found in another story. “In the Oryol province, the last forests and squares will disappear in five years ...” - says Turgenev in “Khor and Kalinich” and makes the following note: “Squares” are called large continuous masses of bushes in the Oryol province.

Many writers, depicting village life, use the words and set phrases of the folk dialect common in the area (territorial dialect). Dialect words used in literary speech are called dialectisms.

We meet dialectisms in A. S. Pushkin, I. S. Turgenev, N. A. Nekrasov, L. N. Tolstoy, V. A. Sleptsov, F. M. Reshetnikov, A. P. Chekhov, V. G. Korolenko, S. A. Yesenina, M. M. Prishvin, M. A. Sho-lokhova, V. M. Soloukhina, I. V. Abramov, V. I. Belova, V. M. Shukshina, V. G. Rasputin, V. P. Astafiev, A. A. Prokofiev, N. M. Rubtsov and many others.

Dialect words are introduced by the author, first of all, to characterize the character's speech. They indicate both the social position of the speaker (usually belonging to a peasant environment) and his origin from a particular area. “All around are such gullies, ravines, and in the ravines all the cases are found,” the boy Ilyusha says at Turgenev, using

Oryol word for snake. Or from A. Ya. Yashin: “I’m walking along the oseks once, I look, something is moving. Suddenly, I think, a hare? - says the Vologda peasant. Here is the inconsistency c and h, inherent in some northern dialects, as well as the local word "osek" - a fence of poles or brushwood that separates a pasture from a hayfield or village.

Writers who are sensitive to language do not overload the speech of the characters with dialectal features, but convey its local character with a few strokes, introducing either a single word or a phonetic characteristic of the dialect.

(sound), derivational or grammatical form.

Dialectisms can also be used in the author's speech.

Often writers turn to such local words that name objects, phenomena of rural life and do not have correspondences in the literary language. Let us recall Yesenin's poems addressed to his mother: "Don't go on the road so often / In an old-fashioned shabby husk." Shushun is the name of women's clothing such as a jacket worn by Ryazan women. We find similar dialectisms in modern writers. For example-

FEDOR IVANOVICH BUSLAEV (1818-1897)

Already the first major work of Buslaev "On the teaching of the national language" (1844) made his name widely known. It developed a completely new methodological system, which affirmed the close connection between the theory and practice of teaching, the principles of conscious assimilation of the material, and taking into account the age characteristics of students. In the study of the Russian language and its history, Buslaev was the first to use the comparative historical method, which later became the main method of all philological studies. Buslaev's capital work also played an important role in the development of comparative historical linguistics.<0пыт исторической грамматики рус­ского языка» (1858).

The emergence of the so-called mythological school, a special scientific direction, which recognized mythology as the basis of all folk art culture, is associated with the name of Buslaev in Russian literary criticism and folklore. In his numerous works, Buslaev showed the organic unity of language, mythology and folk poetry that existed in antiquity. Poetry was at that distant time, as it were, a single epic tale, from which all the main genres of oral folk art subsequently emerged.

quality. And until now, the scientist argued, our epics, fairy tales, songs, proverbs, sayings and riddles retain their ancient mythological basis. The mythological traditions of the Indo-European family of peoples were common. This explains the similarity of plots, motifs and images in folklore. these peoples. Mythology, Buslaev emphasized, is not only the basis of poetic creativity. It contains data on folk philosophy and on the laws of thought in general, it is necessary to look for the beginnings of knowledge, character and ancient rites in it. Exploring mythology, Buslaev sought to determine the folk origins of culture, to reveal the essence of the folk worldview.

Buslaev made a great contribution to the formation and development of other scientific areas. He was one of the first to show the importance of the historical communication of peoples in enriching national cultures, in the transition of poetic works from East to West, including Russia. Buslaev, independently of Western European scientists, substantiated the possibility of spontaneous generation of folklore plots and motifs among different peoples. He did a lot for the establishment in Russian folklore of the historical study of oral folk art. Buslaev's works on folk poetry, Old Russian literature and Old Russian art are collected in the collections Historical Essays on Russian Folk Literature and Art (two volumes, 1861),<еМои досуги» (два тома. 1886) и «Народная поэзия» (1887).

measures, at Rasputin:<Из всего класса в чир­ках ходил только я». В Сибири чирки - ко­жаная легкая обувь обычно без голенищ, с опушкой и завязками. Употребление таких слов помогает более точно воспроизвести быт деревни.

Writers use dialect words when depicting a landscape, which gives the description a local flavor. So, V. G. Korolenko, drawing a harsh path down the Lena, writes: “Across its entire width, “hummocks” stuck out in different directions, which the angry fast river threw at each other in the fall in the fight against the terrible Siberian frost.” And further: “For a whole week I have been looking at a strip of pale sky between high banks, at white slopes with a mourning border, at “padi” (gorges) mysteriously creeping out from somewhere in the Tunguska deserts ... "

The reason for the use of dialectism may also be its expressiveness. Drawing the sound that the reeds being moved apart, I. S. Turgenev writes: “... the reeds ... rustled, as we say” (meaning the Oryol province). In our time, the verb "rustle" is a commonly used word of the literary language, the modern reader would not have guessed about its dialectal origin if it were not for this note of the writer. But for the time of Turgenev, this is dialectism, which attracted the author with its onomatopoeic character.

Different ways of presenting dialectisms in the author's speech are also associated with the difference in artistic tasks. Turgenev, Korolenko usually single them out and give them an explanation. In their speech, dialectisms are like inlays. Belov, Rasputin, Abramov introduce dialect words on equal terms with literary ones. In their works, both are intertwined like different threads in a single fabric. This reflects the inseparable connection of these authors with their heroes - the people of their native land, the fate of which they write about. So dialectisms help to reveal the ideological content of the work.

Literature, including fiction, serves as one of the conductors of dialect words into the literary language. We have already seen this with the example of the verb "to rustle". Here's another example. The word "tyrant", well known to all of us, entered the literary language from the comedies of A. N. Ostrovsky. In the dictionaries of that time, it was interpreted as "stubborn" and appeared with territorial marks: Pskov, tas/?(skoe), ostash(kovskoe). The entry of dialectism into the literary

(normalized) language is a lengthy process. Replenishment of the literary language at the expense of dialect vocabulary continues in our time.

DIARY

^ Diary - literary work in ^,

the form of daily entries (most often dated), contemporary to the events described. Like many other literary forms (letters, memoirs), he moved into literature from real life. Literature has long appreciated the advantages that the diary has: already J. Swift in "The Diary for Stella" and D. Defoe in "Robinson Crusoe" used the ability of the diary to create the impression of authenticity, vitality. The diary initially assumes complete frankness, sincerity of thoughts and feelings of the writer. These properties give the diary an intimacy, lyricism, passionate intonation, which are difficult to compare with other, more objective genres.

There are at least three variations in the use of the diary as a genre in literature. The first is a purely literary, entirely fictional diary, which is either the work itself (“Diary of an Extra Man” by I. S. Turgenev, “Notes of a Madman” by N. V. Gogol, “My Brother Plays the Clarinet” by A. G. Aleksin), or a significant part of it ("Pechorin's Journal" in "A Hero of Our Time" by M. Yu. Lermontov, Onegin's album, which remained in the drafts of Pushkin's "Eugene Onegin").

The second variety is the real diaries of writers, either pre-designed for publication (The Diary of a Writer by F. M. Dostoevsky), or kept for themselves (the diary of L. N. Tolstoy).

In both cases, the degree of literary completeness of the diaries is different; as a rule, they include heterogeneous material, not limited by the momentary interests of their authors. The diaries of writers, scientists, artists, and other figures of culture and art, not even intended for publication, nevertheless are very expressive, rich in thoughts, feelings, ideas, and their artistic value often competes with specially created diaries of literary heroes. The reader's attitude to the diary as an unconditionally reliable historical document

Encyclopedic Dictionary of a Young Literary Critic

Illustrations by N. Kuzmin to N. V. Gogol's story to Notes of a madman.

that allows you to successfully use a fictional diary in a historical narrative about a real person.

The third variety is the diaries of ordinary people - simply dated entries about various feelings and events that worried the author. When such a diary belongs to a gifted person, it can become an extraordinary phenomenon of the so-called documentary literature. So he entered the world fund of works on the fight against fascism "The Diary of Anne Frank". Sounded no less strongly in the "Blockade Book"

A. M. Adamovich and D. A. Granin diary of a twelve-year-old Leningrader Yura Ryabinkin. The ingenuous notes of this boy, full of either hope, or despair, or almost adult courage, are combined in the Blockade Book with the diary of the secretary of the Academy of Sciences G. A. Knyazhev, a man mature in years and wise by experience, and the diary of a mother wholly absorbed in saving her children from starvation.

The strength of the impression made by a diary depends to a large extent on its context, historical and literary. Therefore, the lines written by the hand of Tanya Savicheva, who died in Leningrad, are so shocking. That is why the diaries of Leo Tolstoy are so permanently attracted to them. Therefore, the loss of the diaries of A. S. Pushkin, destroyed by himself, is so irreplaceable.

The diary is a testament to time. It is not for nothing that historians, archivists, writers, filmmakers consider the diaries of ordinary people who have not done anything special to be precious finds. It was in these diaries that the spirit of the time was most forcefully captured.

The literary significance of the diary goes far beyond the works written in its form. The diary can be called "Letters of a Russian traveler", like N. M. Karamzin, "Not a day without a line", like Yu. K. Olesha, "Notes of a young doctor", like M. A. Bulgakov, or not have a name -

HOW TO KEEP A LITERARY DIARY

In order to better remember the contents of the books read. You can keep a literary diary. It will help you in preparing for exams, reports, speeches. Working with a diary develops the ability to independently formulate thoughts about what you have read.

Primary school students usually write down brief information about the book in a diary: the name of the author, the title, the names of the main characters of the book, and sometimes summarize the content.

High school records are more difficult. In addition to the author and title, it is necessary to indicate the imprint of the book: place of publication, publisher, year. This will help you later find it faster in the library. The diary notes the time of writing the work, as well as the time referred to in the book.

After describing the theme of the work, outline its content in general terms, and then formulate for yourself the idea of ​​the book. Then write down the general impression of what you read.

thoughts that arose in the process of reading, reasoning about the heroes of the story, dwell on those places that made a particularly strong impression on you, express critical remarks. In the diary you can speculate about the features; artistic form - about composition, author's style; compare this work with others< прочитанными произведениями тог(же автора или других писателей Hi аналогичную тему.

The form of keeping a diary is free. You can go back to what you have already written, or talk about events related to reading, about disputes over a book, about the opinions of friends. You keep a literary diary) only for yourself. Keeping a diary; develops the skill of independent thinking. In addition, later re-reading it will be interesting and useful.

niya - all the same, he retains the freshness and honesty of his view of the world and himself. True, there is an area of ​​literature in which falsity and hypocrisy, narrow-mindedness and hypocrisy, captured in diary entries, only help to create a revealing image of their author - this is the area satire. It was for this purpose that A. N. Ostrovsky introduced Glumov’s diary into his play “Enough Stupidity for Every Wise Man”.

The diary is one of the most democratic literary genres. Keeping a diary is available to every literate person, and the benefits it brings are enormous: daily entries, albeit small, in a few lines, teach attention to yourself and others, develop introspection skills, cultivate sincerity, observation, the ability to control yourself, develop discipline, taste to a word, an exact judgment, a strict phrase. Rereading past entries can help the author to see himself as if from the outside, to be ashamed of a hasty condemnation or unreasonable enthusiasm, to be surprised at foresight, to rejoice at insight, or to be upset by myopia in relations with people. At-

the habit of keeping a diary can help a person out in difficult moments of life, when he is left alone in the face of grief or an insoluble conflict, loss or choice. Even without becoming a literary event, the diary is still a cultural phenomenon.

In Russian classical verse, originating from M.V. Lomonosov and V.K. Trediakovsky, strict laws of metrics and rhythm dominated, five syllabo-tonic meters dominated: iambic, trochee, dactyl, anapaest, amphibrach. Almost until the beginning of the 20th century. poetry mastered the syllabo-tonic verse (cf. versification).

But at the same time, one could not help but feel that these meters and rhythms do not exhaust the richness of the sound of poetic speech, that there are possibilities in it that remain outside the scope of syllabotonics. For the strict philologists Lomonosov and Trediakovsky, for the receptive A.P. Sumarokov and the experimenter A.A. Rzhevsky, the main task was to fix the inviolability of the laws of metrics and rhythm in the minds of readers. Poets with a heightened sense of the living language, the natural sound of poetic speech, could not help but feel next to them the presence of completely different laws of the organization of verse - above all, the laws of folk song. From here come the rhythmic experiments of G. R. Derzhavin. So far, on a very small scale, on very limited material, the classical metric began to “shake”, new rhythms appeared.

The first approaches to "non-classical" metrics, apparently, should be considered the appearance of various "liberties" in the metrics of classical combinations of different three-syllable meters within the same poem, the appearance of strong non-metric stresses in the chorea.

To an even greater extent, the so-called logaeds are removed from syllabotonics - verses in which stresses are distributed according to a predetermined scheme that does not coincide with any syllabo-tonic meter:

You swore to be faithful forever, You gave me the goddess of burden as a guarantee, The cold North blew once stronger - The oath disappeared. (A. N. Radishchev)

In these "Safic stanzas" the stress falls in the first three verses of each stanza on the 1st, 3.5, 8, 10th syllables, and in the fourth - on the 1st and 4th. Most often, logaeds were imitations of ancient sizes. Logaeds appeared much less frequently, reflecting the poet's natural sense of rhythm:

On that familiar mountain I come a hundred times a day; I stand, leaning on the staff, And I look into the valley from the top. (V. A. Zhukovsky, from I. V. Aunt)

They loved each other so long and tenderly. With deep longing and insanely rebellious passion! (M. Yu. Lermontov, from G. Heine)

In the first example, in all verses the stress falls on the 2nd, 4th and 7th syllables, in the second - on the 2nd, 4th, 7th, 9th and 11th syllables.

The next degree of "liberation" was dolnik - a meter in which, subject to a different number of strong points within a verse, the number of weak points (unstressed syllables) between them fluctuates, sometimes one or two, and predict in advance how many of these syllables will be in the next verse, impossible:

A dark-skinned youth wandered along the alleys, By the lake shores he was sad, And for a century we cherish the Barely audible rustle of steps. (A. A. Akhmatova)

The first two verses give us the inertia of the three-foot anapaest, we are ready to hear the same meter in the third verse, but instead we hear the stresses on the 3rd, 6th and 8th (and not the 9th!) syllables. And in the next verse - another variation: the stress is 3, b and 8th syllable. These two verses are not an anapaest, but neither are they a trochee, nor are they any of the other syllabo-tonic meters. This is a dolnik.

The example from Akhmatova gives us the simplest pattern, most similar to any of the classic sizes. But the dolnik has forms that are no longer at all similar to silla botonics:

I enter dark temples, Perform a poor rite. There I wait for the Beautiful Lady In the flickering of red lamps.

(A. A. Blok)

The only regularity of such a verse is that it has three stresses (that is why it is called a three-stressed or three-ict dolnik), but the number of unstressed syllables between them (and up to the first stressed one) fluctuates freely within 1-2 syllables. In the Blok verses cited, these

syllables are distributed along the lines as follows: 1-, 1-2, 2-1-2, 1-2-1 and 1-1-2 syllables.

It is not by chance that we say that strong places, and not stressed syllables, are a constant element in the dolnik. As in the syllabo-tonic meters, in the dolnik not necessarily all strong places have accents:

As simple courtesy dictates, He came up to me, smiled, Half affectionately, half lazily Touched my hand with a kiss ... (A. A. Akhmatova)

In the third verse there are not three stresses, as it should be according to theory, but only two. One stress is "missed", and the inter-stress interval increases to 5 syllables. However, rhythmic inertia gives us the opportunity to hear that there is no “retreat” here, that we have the same three-ict dolnik in which one of the strong points (on the 6th syllable) is not filled with stress.

Inside one meter - dolnik - we find a significant number of rhythmic variations, sometimes bringing it closer to some more regulated verse (to the classical meter or logaed), sometimes more free. For example, in the early poems of M. I. Tsvetaeva, the dolnik often ossifies into logaed:

You step heavily and drink hard, And a passer-by is in a hurry from you. Wasn't Rogozhin clutching a garden knife in such fingers.

The combination of a four- and two-ict dolnik of the same forms (with strong places on the 3rd, 5th, 8th and 10th syllables for a four-ict one, on the 3rd and 5th for a two-ict one) will be repeated throughout the entire poem.

However, the intervals between strong places may not be limited to 1-2 syllables, but vary for different forms in the range of 0-1-2 or 1-2-3 syllables. Such a verse is called a tactician:

Valkyries fly, bows sing. The cumbersome opera is coming to an end. Haiduks with heavy fur coats On the marble stairs are waiting for gentlemen.

Already the curtain is ready to fall tightly, The fool still applauds in the district, Cabbers dance around the fires. Such and such a card! Departure. End. (O. E. Mandelstam)

This is an example of a well-regulated tak-tovik that comes down to two forms: with strong places on the 2nd, 5th, 9th and 11th syllables (lines 1, 2, 5 and 8) and on the 2nd, 5th, 8th and 10th syllables (lines 3, 4, 6 and 7, and only in

verse 3 has no emphasis on the strong point). Tak-tovik can also be much freer:

A black man was running around the city. He extinguished the lanterns, climbing the stairs. Slow, white dawn approached, Together with the man climbed the stairs.

(A. A. Blok)

A peculiar form of tactician is the verse of Russian epics, historical songs and literary imitations of them. S. Yesenin, Y. Smelyakov, E. Yevtushenko and many others often turned to the dolnik in their work.

Drama (from the Greek drama - "action") - a kind of literature, one of three, along with epic and lyrics. The basis of the drama, as the original meaning of the word indicates, is action. In this, the drama is close to the epic: in both cases, there is an objective image of life - through events, actions, clashes of heroes, struggle, that is, through the phenomena that make up the outside world. But what is described in the epic as an accomplished event (or system of events), in the drama appears as a living action unfolding in the present time (before the eyes of the viewer!) Shown through conflicts and in the form of a dialogue.

From the noted differences, one should not conclude that one literary type is superior to another, although the superiority of an epic work covering a wider range of events may seem obvious at first glance. Drama achieves emotional and aesthetic impact with its own artistic means, inherent only to it. Having no other opportunity than remarks, to speak<Јot себя», драматург переносит центр тяже­сти на изображение самого процесса дейст­вия, делая зрителя (или читателя) живым свидетелем происходящего.

The position of the playwright is manifested in the very principle of selecting the phenomena of life for stage action.

A drama has a particularly strong emotional impact if it is staged in a theatre, where the actors, with their art, give the dramatic characters the appearance of living people. Life itself appears before the viewer, only the events taking place on the stage do not happen, but are played out. A theatrical performance combines a wide variety of art forms: poetic word and music, painting and architecture, dance and facial expressions, etc. It is the result of the joint creative efforts of a playwright, actor, director, graphic designer, musician, up to the stage engineer. The fact that the drama reveals the huge possibilities of emotional and aesthetic impact inherent in it only

so-forms: I-m layer-8 and 10-m only in

Encyclopedic Dictionary of a Young Literary Critic

Illustration by D. Bisgi for the drama by A. N. Ostrovsky “Gro-

in synthesis with other types of art, is its most important feature as a literary genre. The tension and concentration of the

matic characters require from the dramaturg special rigor in the conduct of the plot. the action in a drama must be purposeful, as well as the behavior of its characters, coherent and harmonious both in the main parts, and in the smallest details. This requirement for a dramatic plot has been called "unity of action." V. G. Belinsky pointed out: “The action of the drama should be focused on one interest and be alien to secondary interests ^ ..) everything in it should be directed towards one goal, one intention.”

The classicists insisted most decisively on the unity of action, elevating it, along with the unity of place and time, into the famous rule of three unities (cf. Classicism). But the unity of action in a drama is not only its logicality, harmony, as the classicists believed, it is - more broadly - its concentration, tension, no matter what means they are achieved, in accordance with the laws of the stage. That is why the three-term development of the plot is most consistently traced in the drama: the plot - the development of the action (including the climax) - the denouement. Most often, the external expression of the sequence of the course of a dramatic action is the division of the drama into acts, each of which captures some phase of the unfolding conflict.

ARTISTIC WORD

Usually such a circle is organized for children of middle school age. In his classes, they learn expressive reading. The work is useful for those who want to participate in drama or literary circles. However, the artistic word circle has its own task: by mastering the skills of expressive reading, to discover the word and its music in a new way.

Try to clearly, slowly, loudly read aloud Pushkin's lines from The Bronze Horseman about Eugene, who ... runs and hears behind him As if thunder rumbles, Heavy-zeon galloping On the shocked pavement ... Not only alliteration of consonants, but also the sound stressed vowels convey the roar, heaviness, formidable majesty of the Bronze Horseman. The amazing sonority of these lines is both perceived and conveyed best through reading aloud. Artistic reading reveals the hidden possibilities not only of poetic

nogo, but also prosaic text. It is easy to verify this by listening to the recordings of such masters of the artistic word as V. I. Kachalov, V. Yakhontov, V. Aksenov, D. Zhuravlev, S. Yursky and others. Listening to recordings is an indispensable element of classes. But, of course, someone else's performance is not an example to follow. Everyone must learn to read in their own way.

The choice of a prose or poetic text for reading is determined by the capabilities of the performer and his tastes, which may be imperfect. so that the advice of the leader of the circle and comrades often turns out to be very useful.

After the text is selected, it is analyzed in class: they analyze the content, meaning, and also the psychological basis on which the reader will have to rely. After all, he will have to convey the feelings and thoughts of the characters in reading, and this requires a detailed understanding of the passage.

There are difficulties in the performance of both poetry and prose. Poems require extremely careful attention.

"T from the drama of the plot: the purpose of the heroes, the connection with the parts, the same requirement taught the name." Belinsky

Nstve action-1 leading him to-enn in the banner-t (see. class in the drama - harmony, - wider - 1ryazhennost, achieved, &J. Here is an honorable pro-tion of the plot:

The unity of action does not necessarily imply a sharp intrigue, a rapidly developing plot; there are many dramas, especially in the literature of the 20th century, in which there is neither one nor the other. The founder of this line in dramaturgy is considered to be A.P. Chekhov, who updated the dramatic plot with his plays "The Seagull", "Uncle Vanya", "Three Sisters", "The Cherry Orchard". But also in those dramas where. it seems that “nothing is happening”, the unity of action is observed, and it is created by the unity of mood, feelings, by which the characters live. The subtext plays the most important role in this (a dialogue constructed in a special way, where the most important and significant is hushed up, and the speech emphasizes the secondary and insignificant; thus, the omissions carry a greater poetic and semantic load than the “spoken”, expressed in words).

Dramaturgy of the Chekhov type convincingly reveals the role of the word in drama as the most important, along with action, visual means. The dramatic word, organized in dialogues, is especially active in the form of replicas, a kind of mutual verbal blows, which are exchanged at lightning speed by the characters conducting the dialogue on the stage. The drama uses both poetry and prose. Until the 18th century, as in the entire artistic line, to melody, to semantic and rhythmic pauses, to rhythmic interruptions, to alliterations - all this must be conveyed in reading. Not as easy as it might seem, and reading prose. After all, gesture, facial expressions, acting, which are absolutely necessary for the reader, must be united by a common tone, a single intonation of performance.

Being engaged in a circle of artistic reading, you will learn not only to hear and convey the music of the word, but also to place complex logical stresses in the text. In the process of preparing a passage, your understanding of the content of a literary work as a whole will deepen. Classes in the circle will help you master the basics of stage speech, which includes working on pronunciation, correcting speech shortcomings.

Young readers will be able to work on literary montages, small dramatizations, hold reading competitions in a circle, in a class or at school.

literature, the poetic form prevailed in the drama. Contemporary drama equally uses both forms, although prose undoubtedly predominates in it.

The noted features of the drama are among its most general, generic features that distinguish drama from epic and lyrical works. Drama is divided into a number of major varieties, ljf^ Depending on the nature of the conflicts, ^PJ^ goals of the struggle that the characters are waging, on the feelings arising from the viewer or reader, dramatic works are divided into tragedy, comedy, drama(in the narrow sense of the word). In the process of long historical development, each of these dramatic types is divided into a number of specific genres: in comedy - farce, vaudeville, satirical, lyrical comedy, etc. Tragedy shows the greatest genre stability, since the subject of its depiction is not a specific reality in all its diversity, but general problems of being, morality, important for mankind in all epochs.

A special type of dramatic action is carnival, which represents the most important link in folk culture: the direct play of the crowd during a street carnival, the reincarnation of its participants in traditional roles. The original carnival scenes had the meaning of rituals, then they acquired a purely theatrical, playful character. Carnival characters usually clearly reflect the types created by the creative imagination of the people, and the plots - the people's attitude to certain phenomena of life. Especially rich in genre varieties is modern drama, which has found a tendency to merge opposite dramatic types (tragifarces, tragicomedies). dramas and epics (various chronicles, scenes, etc.), dramas and lyrics. Modern playwrights strive for individual genre originality of their plays, so it is not possible to take a general look at the whole variety of genres of modern dramaturgy. It is noteworthy that, along with the traditional, theatrical drama, whole new branches arise in it: film, television, and radio dramaturgy.

Drama in the narrow sense of the word is a play with a sharp conflict, which, however, unlike the tragic, is not so elevated, more mundane, ordinary and somehow resolved. Drama combines the tragic and comic beginnings, which is why it is often called the middle genre. She

nikla in the 18th century. in educational dramaturgy (Didro, Beaumarchais, Lessing) as a genre that sought to overcome the one-sidedness of classic tragedy and comedy. The drama received a special flourishing in the heyday of realism in the 19th century.

In Russian literature, outstanding works in the genre of drama belong to A. S. Pushkin (“Mermaid”), M. Yu. Lermontov (“Strange Man”, “Masquerade”), A. N. Ostrovsky (“Thunderstorm”, “Guilty Without Guilt ”), N. V. Gogol (“Players”), A. V. Sukhovo-Kobylin (“Krechinsky’s Wedding”, “Deed”, “Death of Tarelkin”), L. N. Tolstoy (“The Living Corpse”) , M. Gorky (“The Petty Bourgeois”, “At the Bottom”, “Enemies”), B. A. Lavrenev (“The Break”), A. E. Korneych-ku (“Platon Krechet”, “Front”), K. M. Simonov (“Russian People”), A. N. Arbuzov (“Tanya”, “City at Dawn”), V. S. Rozov (“Forever Alive”, “Capercaillie Nest”), M. F. Shatrov ( “Bolsheviks”, “Sixth of July”, “So we will win!”), A. I. Gelman (“Minutes of one meeting”, “Alone with everyone”) and others.

OLD RUSSIAN LITERATURE

The concept of "Old Russian literature" includes literary works of the XI-XVII centuries. The literary monuments of this period include not only literary works proper, but also historical works (chronicles and chronicle stories), descriptions of travels (they were called walks), teachings, lives (stories about the life of people ranked by the church as a host of saints), messages, essays of the oratorical genre, some texts of a business nature. In all these monuments there are elements of artistic creativity, an emotional reflection of modern life.

The vast majority of ancient Russian literary works did not retain the names of their creators. Old Russian literature, as a rule, is anonymous, and in this respect it is similar to oral folk art. The literature of Ancient Russia was handwritten: the works were distributed by copying texts. In the course of the manuscript existence of works for centuries, texts were not only copied, but often reworked due to changes in literary tastes, the socio-political situation, in connection with personal

passions and literary abilities of scribes. This explains the existence of various editions and variants of the same monument in the manuscript lists. Comparative textual analysis (see. Textology) editions and variants allows researchers to restore the literary history of the work and decide which text is closest to the original, author's, how it changed over time. Only in the rarest cases do we have the author's lists of monuments, and very often in later lists texts come to us that are closer to the author's than in the lists of earlier ones. Therefore, the study of ancient Russian literature is based on an exhaustive study of all lists of the studied work. Collections of ancient Russian manuscripts are available in major libraries in various cities of the USSR, in archives and museums. Many works have been preserved in a large number of lists, many in a very limited number. There are works represented by a single list: Vladimir Monomakh's "Teaching"; G.

A characteristic feature of Old Russian literature is the repetition in different works of different times of certain situations, characteristics, comparisons, epithets, metaphors. The literature of Ancient Russia is characterized by "etiquette": the hero acts and behaves as he should, according to the concepts of that time, act, behave in given circumstances; specific events (for example, a battle) are depicted using constant images and forms, everything has a certain ceremoniality. Old Russian literature is solemn, majestic, traditional. But over the seven hundred years of its existence, it has gone through a difficult path of development, and within the framework of its unity, we observe a variety of themes and forms, a change in old and the creation of new genres, a close connection between the development of literature and the historical destinies of the country. All the time there was a kind of struggle between living reality, the creative individuality of the authors and the requirements of the literary canon.

The emergence of Russian literature dates back to the end of the 10th century, when, with the adoption of Christianity in Russia as the state religion, service and historical-narrative texts in Church Slavonic were to appear. Ancient Russia

through Bulgaria, from where these texts mainly came, she immediately joined the highly developed Byzantine literature and the literature of the southern Slavs. The interests of the developing Kievan feudal state demanded the creation of their own, original works and new genres. Literature was called upon to instill a sense of patriotism, to affirm the historical and political unity of the ancient Russian people and the unity of the family of ancient Russian princes, and to expose princely feuds.

Tasks and themes of literature in the 11th - early 13th centuries. (questions of Russian history in its connection with world history, the history of the emergence of Russia, the struggle against external enemies - the Pechenegs and Polovtsians, the struggle of princes for the throne of Kiev) determined the general character of the style of this time, called by Academician D.S. Likhachev the style of monumental historicism. The emergence of Russian chronicle writing is connected with the beginning of Russian literature. As part of later Russian chronicles, the Tale of Bygone Years has come down to us - a chronicle compiled by the ancient Russian historian and publicist monk Nestor around 1113. At the heart of the Tale of Bygone Years, which includes both a story about world history and records by year about events in Russia, and legendary legends, and narrations about princely strife, and laudatory characteristics of individual princes, and philippics condemning them, and copies of documentary materials, lie even earlier chronicles that have not come down to us. The study of lists of Old Russian texts makes it possible to restore the lost names of the literary history of Old Russian works. 11th century dated and the first Russian

"Apostles. The first Russian Fedorov book printed by Ivan Slavzell

life (princes Boris and Gleb, abbot of the Kiev-Pechersk monastery Theodosius). These lives are distinguished by literary perfection, attention to the pressing problems of our time, and the vitality of many episodes. The maturity of political thought, patriotism, publicism, and high literary skill are also characteristic of the monuments of oratorical eloquence Ilarion’s “Sermon on Law and Grace” (1st half of the 11th century), the words and teachings of Cyril of Turov (IZO-1182). The "Instruction" of the great Kiev prince Vladimir Monomakh (1053-1125) is imbued with concern for the fate of the country, with deep humanity.

In the 80s. 12th century an author unknown to us creates the most brilliant work of ancient Russian literature - ^ The Tale of Igor's Campaign. The specific topic to which the "Word" is devoted is the unsuccessful campaign in 1185 to the Polovtsian steppe of the Novgorod-Seversky prince Igor Svyatoslavich. But the author is concerned about the fate of the entire Russian land, he recalls the events of the distant past and the present. and the true hero of his work is not Igor, not the Grand Duke of Kiev Svyatoslav Vsevolodovich, to whom much attention is paid in the Lay, but the Russian people, the Russian land. In many ways, the “Word” is associated with the literary traditions of its time, but, as a work of genius, it is distinguished by a number of features that are unique to it: the originality of the processing of etiquette techniques, the richness of the language, the refinement of the rhythmic construction of the text, the nationality of its very essence and the creative rethinking of oral techniques. folk art, special lyricism, high civic pathos. According to K. Marx, the main idea is

Encyclopedic Dictionary of a Young Literary Critic

The real essence of the “Word ...” is the call of the Russian princes to unity just before the invasion ... of the Mongol hordes (Marx K., Engels F. Soch. Vol. 29. P. 16).

The main theme of the literature of the period of the Horde yoke (1243 of the 13th century - the end of the 15th century) is national-patriotic. The monumental-historical style takes on an expressive tone: the works created at that time bear a tragic imprint and are distinguished by lyrical elation. The idea of ​​strong princely power acquires great significance in literature. Both in the annals and in separate stories (“The Tale of the Devastation of Ryazan by Batu”), written by eyewitnesses and going back to oral tradition, it tells about the horrors of the enemy invasion and the infinitely heroic struggle of the people against the enslavers. The image of an ideal prince - a warrior and a statesman, a defender of the Russian land - was most clearly reflected in the Tale of the Life of Alexander Nevsky (70s of the XIII century). A poetic picture of the greatness of the Russian land, Russian nature, the former power of the Russian princes appears in the “Word about the destruction of the Russian land” - in an excerpt from a work that has not come down completely, dedicated to the tragic events of the Horde yoke (1st half of the 13th century).

Literature of the 14th century - 50s 15th century reflects the events and ideology of the time of the unification of the principalities of northeastern Russia around Moscow, the formation of the Russian people and the gradual formation of the Russian centralized state. During this period, ancient Russian literature began to show interest in the psychology of an individual, in his spiritual world (though still within the bounds of religious consciousness), which led to the growth of the subjective principle. An expressive-emotional style arises, characterized by verbal sophistication, ornamental prose (the so-called "weaving of words"). All this reflects the desire to depict human feelings. In the 2nd half of the 15th - early 16th century. stories appear, the plot of which goes back to oral stories of a novelistic nature (“The Tale of Peter, the Prince of the Horde”, “The Tale of Dracula”, “The Tale of the Merchant Basarga and his son Borzosmysl”). The number of translated monuments of a fictional nature is significantly increasing, and the genre of political legendary works (“The Tale of the Princes of Vladimir”) is becoming widespread.

In the middle of the XVI century. Old Russian writer and publicist Yermolai-Erasmus creates

The Tale of the Life of Alexander Boische. Miniature of the Face-Nevsky. Ice arch. 16th century

"The Tale of Peter and Fevronia" is one of the most remarkable works of literature of Ancient Russia. The story is written in the traditions of an expressive-emotional style, it is built on the legendary legend about how a peasant girl, thanks to her mind, became a princess. The author widely used fairy-tale techniques, at the same time, social motives sound sharply in the story. "The Tale of Peter and Fevronia" is largely connected with the literary traditions of its time and the previous period, but at the same time it is ahead of modern literature, it is distinguished by artistic perfection and bright individuality.

In the XVI century. the official character of literature is enhanced, its distinctive feature is pomp and solemnity. Works of a generalizing nature, the purpose of which is to regulate the spiritual, political, legal and everyday life, are widely disseminated. The "Great Menaions of the Chetya" are being created - a 12-volume set of texts intended for everyday reading for each month. At the same time, “Domostroy” was written, which sets out the rules of human behavior in the family, detailed tips for housekeeping, rules for the relationship between

Old Russian literature

KPovvst about Peter and Favronius of Murom. Fevronia for

weaving. Detail of an icon from the end of the 16th - machalda of the 15th 11th century.

people. In literary works, the individual style of the author is more noticeable, which is especially clearly reflected in the messages of Ivan the Terrible. Fiction is increasingly penetrating into historical narratives, giving the narrative a greater plot of interest. This is inherent in the "History of the Grand Duke of Moscow" by Andrei Kurbsky, and is reflected in the "Kazan History" - an extensive plot-historical narrative about the history of the Kazan kingdom and the struggle for Kazan by Ivan the Terrible.

In the 17th century the process of transforming medieval literature into modern literature begins. New purely literary genres are emerging, the process of democratization of literature is underway, and its subject matter is expanding significantly. Events of the Time of Troubles and the Peasant War of the late 16th - early 17th centuries. change the view of history and the role of an individual in it, which leads to the liberation of literature from church influence. The writers of the Time of Troubles (Avraamiy Palitsyn, I.M. Katyrev-Rostovsky, Ivan Timofeev, etc.) try to explain the deeds of Ivan the Terrible, Boris Godunov, False Dmitry, Vasily Shuisky not only as a manifestation of divine will, but also

the value of these acts from the person himself, his personal characteristics. In literature, there is an idea of ​​the formation, change and development of a human character under the influence of external circumstances. A wider circle of people began to engage in literary work. The so-called posad literature is born, which is created and exists in a democratic environment. A genre of democratic satire arises, in which state and church orders are ridiculed: legal proceedings are parodied (“The Tale of the Shemyakin Court”), church service (“Service to the Tavern”), sacred writing (“The Tale of the Peasant son"), clerical practice (^ The Tale of Yersh Ershovich", "Ka-lyazinsky petition"). The nature of the lives is also changing, which are increasingly becoming real biographies. The most remarkable work of this genre in the XVII century. is the autobiographical "Life" of Archpriest Avvakum (1620-1682), written by him in 1672-1673. It is remarkable not only for its lively and vivid story about the harsh and courageous life path of the author, but also for its equally vivid and passionate depiction of the social and ideological struggle of his time, deep psychologism, preaching pathos, combined with full revelation of confession. And all this is written in a lively, juicy language, sometimes high bookish, sometimes bright colloquial and everyday.

The rapprochement of literature with everyday life, the appearance of a love affair in the narrative, psychological motivations for the hero's behavior are inherent in a number of stories of the 17th century. (“The Tale of Grief-Misfortune”, “The Tale of Savva Grud-tsyn”, “The Tale of Frol Skobeev”, etc.). Translated collections of a short story character appear, with short edifying, but at the same time anecdotally entertaining stories, translated chivalric novels (“The Tale of Bove the King Wich”, “The Tale of Yeruslan Lazarevich”, etc.). The latter, on Russian soil, acquired the character of original, “their own” monuments and eventually entered popular popular literature. In the 17th century poetry develops (Simeon Polotsky, Sylvester Medvedev, Karion Istomin and others). In the 17th century the history of great ancient Russian literature ended as a phenomenon that was characterized by common principles, which, however, underwent certain changes. Old Russian literature, with its entire development, prepared the Russian literature of modern times.

GENRE

A genre is a historically developing and developing type of work of art.

The spiritual and creative activity of a person, culture, writing are invariably clothed in stable genre forms. Everything that we write: a diary, a letter, a school essay, a report, an article in a wall newspaper - all these are certain genres with their own laws and requirements. It is simply impossible to write any text outside the genre. Let's say you take a blank sheet of paper and put on it a few phrases that capture your impressions or thoughts. You didn’t think about any genres at that moment, you didn’t set any special literary tasks for yourself, but this fragmentary record, against your will, has something to do with a certain genre - a prose fragment (it was widely represented among German romantics, and in our time it is found in the book of the Soviet writer Yu. K. Olesha<Ни дня без строчки») . Отсюда, конечно, вовсе не следует, что ваша фрагментарная запись - литера­турное произведение. У фрагмента как худо­жественного жанра свобода и глубина суж­дения должны сочетаться с виртуозной отто­ченностью выражения. Дело в другом - в цепкости и властности жанровых тради­ций: они дают возможность каждому, кто берется за перо, выбрать подходящий угол зрения, и в то же время они предъявляют к каждому автору строгий счет, напоминая ему о высоких образцах, о примере предше­ственников.

The word "genre" in French means "genus", but in the old days genres were called epic, lyric and drama which today it is customary to consider categories as generic (cf. Genera and types of literature). The concept of "genre" has become identical with the concept of "kind" (cf. Genera and types of literature). In some literary periods, writers attach heightened importance to the problems of the genre, and genre theory goes hand in hand with practice: this was the case, for example, in the era classicism with its strict hierarchy of literary types and a system of creative instructions for each of them. In other times

Genres are thought and talked about less, although their development does not stop and does not slow down.

The two most important conditions for the existence of a genre are its long, strong literary memory and its continuous historical evolution. It would seem that there is little external similarity between The Bronze Horseman by A. S. Pushkin, Nightingale Garden by A. A. Blok and Vasily Terkin by A. T. Tvardovsky, but there is a connection between these works in the very method of construction, in the way reflections and refractions of reality, since they belong to the same genre ~ poem. There are unexpected genre overlaps, connecting threads that are not immediately noticeable, but nevertheless strong. So, novel N. G. Chernyshevsky "What to do?", Projecting the future ideal society (description of the workshops, the fourth dream of Vera Pavlovna), historically goes back to the tradition of the utopian novel of the Renaissance ("Utopia" by T. Mora, "City of the Sun" by T. Campanella, etc. .). And the satirical chapters of the novel are very reminiscent of Renaissance pamphlets: it is not for nothing that Chernyshevsky called one of the chapters “Eulogy to Marya Alekseevna” by analogy with Erasmus of Rotterdam’s “Praise of Stupidity”. Genre ode, seemingly completely abandoned by Russian poetry at the beginning of the 19th century, it is being revived by V. V. Mayakovsky, one of whose poems is called “Ode to the Revolution”. And the point here is not so much in the subjective intentions of the authors, but in the objectively existing "memory of the genre" (an expression of the Soviet literary critic M. M. Bakhtin). Genres do not die, they never go into the past irrevocably, they can only retreat, go to a siding, and the possibility of returning is always open for them - if time requires it, the logic of literary development will require it.

Each genre is a living, developing organism, a continuously evolving system (Yu. N. Tynyanov pointed this out in his works). All literary genres together form an integral system that demonstrates the richness of the possibilities of the artistic word in the creative re-creation of reality. In this system, every link is irreplaceable. Therefore, it is impossible to elevate some genres over others, and world literature gradually abandoned the hierarchies of genres, from dividing them into "high" and "low". Voltaire's half-joking aphorism, "All kinds of poetry are good, except the boring," apparently, will forever remain true for

culture.

Genres participate in a kind of exchange of creative experience. This is both natural and fruitful for literature. Many works combine the features of different genres, the boundaries between literary types are sometimes made mobile, open, but the center of each of them can be found at any time.

The process of interaction of genres is revived during periods of renewal of all literature. So it was, for example, at the time of the formation and flourishing of the Russian realism XIX century, when A. S. Pushkin creates a work of an unusual, experimental genre - a novel in verse, when in prose there are no rigid boundaries between a story and a story, between a story and a novel. L. N. Tolstoy wrote: “Starting from“ Dead souls" by Gogol and to "The House of the Dead" by F. M. Dostoevsky, in a new

period of Russian literature there is not a single artistic prose work, a little out of mediocrity, which would fit perfectly into the form of a novel, poem or short story. For this reason, the author of "War and Peace" refused to attribute his work to any traditional genre: "This is not a novel, still less a poem, still less a historical chronicle."

Nevertheless, "War and Peace" did not at all remain outside the system of genres, l Tolstoy himself later said that it was "like the Iliad", feeling the involvement of his work in the ancient tradition of the epic. Over time, scientists came to the conclusion about the two-genre nature of this work and defined it as an epic novel: this turned out to be possible also because the “non-standard” “War and Peace” marked the beginning of a new

Similar information.

Every native speaker of the Russian language knows and uses commonly used words in speech. These words are familiar to everyone, and determining their meaning is not difficult. Every linguist knows that dialects are part of a language. They are territorially limited. And the meaning of this or that dialectism is not always clear. From the article you will learn what words are called dialectisms and their types, as well as examples of sentences from speech and literary texts with dialectisms.

Before giving an explanation of dialectism, it is necessary to say about the type of vocabulary to which these words belong. In other words, dialect vocabulary is regional words that are limited in use on a territorial basis.

Among dialectisms there are subspecies:

1. Dialect words according to the phonetic feature: fresh meat (should be fresh), do (should be doing). They are distinguished by a special phonetic design.
2. Dialect words on a grammatical basis: along (along). These words are distinguished by a combination of a root with an unusual or.
3. Lexical: wire rod (felt boots). They always have a synonymous word in the literary language with a different root.

All lexical dialectisms can be conditionally divided into several subgroups:

• Actually dialect language units. They have words equivalent in meaning in the literary language, but not the same root. Example: shulyushka (broth).
• Semantic. This group consists of lexemes that have a different meaning in the literary language. For example, greedy for work (diligent, diligent).
• Ethnographic. That is, used in everyday life of the area: razletayka (light jacket).
• Phraseologisms. These are indivisible phrases. For example: "There is a mind - there is not enough darkness."

Examples of lexical dialectisms:

No. p / p	dialectism	interpretation
1.	goose	Goose
2.	pokeda	Bye
3.	bonfire	to scold
4.	promise	promise
5.	square	Mass of bushes
6.	go down	cool down
7.	roam	rage
8.	get busy	to contact
9.	Lavitsa	the street
10.	petun	rooster
11.	barkan	carrot
12.	clean	sober
13.	stumble	sit back
14.	whale	earring
15.	tippyatok	boiling water
16.	Vanka	Vania
17.	paneva	skirt
18.	cats	sandals
19.	guess	recognize by sight
20.	wild rosemary	Dahurian rhododendron
21.	plow	sweep
22.	dark	very much
23	fail	side
24.	nor	Nora
25.	wonderful	lot
26.	dozhzhok	rain

Dialectisms of artistic speech

As already noted, dialect words are used as words known to a certain circle of people. For this reason, a natural question arises as to how dialectisms can be used in artistic speech.

The answer to the question will be the works themselves. The author uses dialect words for various artistic purposes. They can emphasize the theme of the story or novel, the typical character traits and worldview of the protagonist, the skill of the writer:

• Kokoshnik, kichka, paneva, amshannik, greenery, trunk, push apart, proshamshil - in the works of I. Turgenev.
• Gorenka, Konik, Gamanok, Izvolok, Gudoven - in the works of I. Nikitin
• Seal, dubas, stance, feet, belly, battle - in the works of D. Mamin-Sibiryak.
• Povet, log, pimy, midge, juice, kerzhak, urema - in the works of P. Bazhov.
• Elan - "Pantry of the sun" M. Prishvin.
• Okoyom - from the "Meshcherskaya Side" by K. Paustovsky.
• Shouting - from the poem "Motherland" by A. Surkov.

For example, he uses dialect words to convey the peculiarities of peasant speech. Sometimes in his texts dialectisms belong to the author's speech. This is done in order to emphasize the aesthetics and originality of the language of Lev Nikolayevich.

Uses dialectisms to show the area of ​​their use. It is noteworthy that in the works of Turgenev all such words are provided with an interpretation. Thus, Ivan Sergeevich is trying to show that dialectisms are not part of the vocabulary of the Russian literary language.

Konstantin Paustovsky uses dialect words in his own works in order to individualize his characters. Using them, Konstantin Paustovsky achieves ethnographic authenticity and artistic persuasiveness in his works.

Modern writers also use dialect words everywhere. They do this in order to create some kind of allusion to the text. Moreover, they do not give interpretations to such words.

In modern journalism, the use of dialect words is often enough to emphasize local features, as well as the features of the speech of the hero of the essay.

Worth remembering! Publicism should strive for a careful selection of language means, so the use of dialect words should always be justified to the maximum.

Sentences with dialect words:

• Peter cooked porridge-slivukha on the fire.
• The frog always screams for good reason.
• Nadys I spent the night with my aunt.
• Boiled a pot of potatoes.
• The food is boring, it's sweet.
• Stood on the side of the market square.
• Friends treated him like a jerk.
• Grandma could not cope with the grip in any way.
• Voice songs were sung in the evenings by girls.
• Lush shangi lay on a towel.
• You need to run faster so that the storm does not catch you.
• The dog ran along the mound along the veksha.
• Chupaha-chuapahoy.
• I'll cut it right away.
• Lithovka needs to be knocked out so that it will sharpen up already.
• Kochet walks around the yard.

Dialectisms in Literature:

No. p / p	Example	Author
1.	They stuffed the oskom ... blueberries ripened ...	N. Nekrasov
2.	It smells of loose dragons ...	S. Yesenin
3.	And there are goats in the ravines.	I. Turgenev
4.	Along the oseks something chevelichchya.	A. Yashin
5.	In an old fashioned…. shushune.	S. Yesenin
6.	I look at the pale sky, at the fall ...	V.Rasputin
7.	Her teals were completely torn.	V.Rasputin
8.	The hummock was thrown by a formidable river, struggling with the Siberian frosts.	V. Rasputin
9.	In a bowl of kvass…	S. Yesenin
10.	Grumbling, grandfather put on malachai.	V. Shishkin
11.	Yarnik is growing more and more according to wishes.	V.Rasputin
12.	Yegor stood on the stove, stretched out his hands ...	K. Sedykh
13.	Enough to freak out.	K. Sedykh
14.	I was a little zapoloshnoy, forgive the fool.	V.Rasputin
15.	It is necessary to dig up Burakov.	V.Rasputin

Dictionary of dialect words

Dialect words are a rather interesting phenomenon in the lexical system of a language. In order not to lose them, special dictionaries are created.

The collection of dialect words began in the 19th century. The Explanatory Dictionary of the Living Great Russian Language, edited by V.I. Dahl included a great many dialect words and phraseological units.

In the 20th century, a dictionary by D. Ushakov was published. It also has a lot of dialectisms.

After that, there was a systematization of quotation cards from the works of domestic writers and poets. As a result of this painstaking work, the Dictionary of the Modern Russian Literary Language was created.

Note! At the present time, the Dictionary of Russian Folk Dialects has withstood 13 editions.

In ZABGU, Chita, the “Dictionary of Dialects of Transbaikalia” was published under the editorship of V.A. Pashchenko.

Dialect words in "Quiet Don"

Perhaps the most striking in terms of the use of dialectisms is M. Sholokhov's epic novel "". The Drofa publishing house in 2003 released a dictionary of dialect words found in the Quiet Don.

Consider quotes from this work:

• Gutara about him on the farm wonderful.
• What are you, you bastard.
• Evdokeya, prepare a snack.
• At the imperial review.
• What weapons went.
• The forehead is covered in blood.
• For their Natalia.
• Might go to the ground.
• Don't be afraid to break up.
• Catfish thumped on the water.
• Until Cherkassky does not stir.
• We will drive your grandmother into the ground.
• Gnawing a chicken deer.
• Gregory came out with empty hands.
• The sky is blue in autumn.
• I was not a sick woman.
• Order Grishka to come today.
• She winds up like that during the day.
• I went to visit Mokhova.
• With a cucumber, which women leave for seeds.
• Did Mishatka beat you?

This article talks about dialectisms. The definition of this concept is given. Examples of individual dialectisms and sentences with such words are given.

In general, speaking of dialect vocabulary, it is worth remembering that it is an adornment of living Russian speech.

Today, in the school course of literature and history, regional dialectisms are included for study. This is done in order to preserve and pass on to the descendants of the heritage of the language of the people.

Useful video

Summing up

In conclusion, I would like to quote lines from a poem by the Transbaikal poetess G.P. Zharkova:

But as before, quiet and pleasant,
Heard like a summer breeze
Distinctive from all, incredible,
Transbaikalians of our sayings.
“Boy, listen, I can smell the storm today,
Maybe we’ll wait for the mowing today,
Let's start later. Let's spend the night
But tomorrow will be, we'll see.