The combination of consonants in Latin. Phonetic laws of the Latin language

Rules for pronunciation of Latin words

Alphabet

Printed letters	letter names	Reading
aa	a	a
bb	bae	b
CC	ce	c, k *
Dd	de	d
ee	uh	uh*
FF	ef	f
gg	ge	G
hh	Ha	X *
II	and	i, th *
jj	iot	th*
Kk	ka	to *
Ll	ale	l" 1 *
mm	Em	m
Nn	en	n
Oh	about	about
pp	pe	P
Qq	ku	sq. *
Rr	er	R
Ss	es	s, s
Tt	te	t, c *
Uu	at	y, in *
vv	ve	in, at *
xx	X	ks
Yy	upsilon	and, and german 2*
Zz	zeta	h
1. A comma at the top right after the sound symbol means that the sound is soft. 2. A similar sound in the words byuvar [b" ivar], bureau [b" iro "]. * This sign marks sounds, the pronunciation of which requires special attention.

Latin is a dead language, i.e. currently there are no people for whom this language would be native. The living pronunciation of the classical period of the development of the Latin language 1 has not reached us. It is hardly possible to restore the exact Latin pronunciation, in connection with this, every nation that uses the Latin language (in particular, using it in jurisprudence) is guided by the pronunciation of Latin words on the pronunciation of their native language (the English read the Latin word with the English pronunciation, the Russians - with Russian, etc.). Therefore, the letters indicated in the table should be read "as in Russian" (unless their reading is specifically stipulated) [Period I c. BC. Cicero, Caesar and other prominent writers worked in this era; their language is considered an example of Latin. When studying the Latin language, this pattern is not oriented.].

Features of reading Latin vowels

Letter ee reads like [e] 2 (not [ye]!): ego [e "go] I.

Letter II[and] is read except when it stands before a vowel at the beginning of a syllable or word. Then it reads like [th]: ira [and "ra] anger, but ius [yus] right, adiuvo [adyu" in] I help.

In a number of publications, the letter i, which entered the Latin alphabet in the 16th century, is used to denote the sound [th]. It is also used in our guide. So ius = jus etc.

The letter Yy is found in words of Greek origin. It reads like [and] or, more precisely, like the German b: lyra [l "ira], [l" ira].

There are 2 diphthongs in Latin: au and eu. They consist of two elements that are pronounced together, "in one sound", with the stress on the first element (cf. diphthongs in English).

aurum [arum] [The sign of square brackets indicates that they contain exactly the sound, and not the letter (i.e., that we have a transcription). All transcription signs in our manual are Russian (unless otherwise specified).] gold

Europa[eropa] Europe

letter combination ae reads like [e]: aes[es] copper; letter combination oe- like German q [A similar sound will turn out if you pronounce the sound [e], lower the corners of your mouth to the bottom.]: poena[ptsna] punishment.

If in these two combinations the vowels are pronounced separately, then the letter e is placed above - or .. (i.e. _, ё): a_r / aёr[a "er] air, po_ta / poёta poet[poet "that].

Vowel Uu, as a rule, denotes the sound [y]. However, in the words suavis[swa "vis] sweet, nice; suadeo[swa "deo] my advice is ; suesco[swe "sko] I am getting used to and derivatives from them - a combination su reads like [sv].

Group ngu read [ngv]: lingua[l "ingva] language .

Features of reading Latin consonants

Letter Cc before e, ae, oe(i.e. before the sounds [e] and [o]) and i, y(i.e. before the sounds [u] and [b]) is read as [c]: cicero[pica] Cicero. In other cases with reads like [k]: Credo[cre" to] I believe .

Letter hh gives a sound similar to "Ukrainian G"; it is obtained by pronouncing [x] with a voice, and is denoted by the Greek letter i (this sound is present in the words yeah! and God![io "spod" and]).

In words, as a rule, borrowed from the Greek language, there are the following combinations of consonants with the letter h :

ph[f] philosophus[philo" sophus] philosopher

ch[X] charta[ha "mouth] paper

th[t] theatrum[tea "room] theatre

rh[R] arrha[a "rra] deposit

Letter Kk very rarely used: in the word Kalendae and short for it K. (it is also possible to write through with), as well as in the name Kaeso[ke "so] quezon .

Latin Ll softly pronounced: lex[l "ex] law .

Letter Qq used only in combination with the letter u ( qu). This combination reads [kv]: quaestio[que "stio] question .

Letter Ss reads like [s]: saepe[with "epe] often. In a position between vowels, it reads like [з]: case[casus] case, case(in grammar), except for Greek words: philosophus[philo" sophus] philosopher .

Letter Tt read [t]. phrase ti it is read as [qi] if it is followed by a vowel: etiam[etziam] even .

Combination ti reads like [ty]:

a) if a vowel i long in this combination (see below for vowel length): totius[totius] - R. p., unit. hours from totus whole, whole ;

b) if before ti costs s, t or x(i.e. in combinations sti, tti, xti): bestia[bestia] beast ;Attis[a "ttius] Attius(name); mixtio[mixio] mixing .

c) in Greek words: Miltiades[mil "tee" ades] Miltiades .

Longitude and shortness of vowels

Vowel sounds in Latin differed in the duration of pronunciation. There were long and short vowels: a long vowel was pronounced twice as long as a short one.

The length of the sound is indicated by the sign - over the corresponding letter, brevity - with the sign Ш:

+ ("and long") - - ("and short")

_ ("e long") - _ ("e short"), etc.

When reading Latin texts, we pronounce long and short vowels with the same duration, without distinguishing them. However, the rules governing vowel length/shortness need to be known, as :

There are pairs of words that have different meanings, but completely coincide in spelling and pronunciation (homonyms) and differ only in longitude and brevity of the vowel: m_lum evil - m_lum apple ;

Longitude or shortness of a vowel significantly affects the placement of stress in a word.

Placement of stress in a word

The last syllable of a word is not stressed in Latin.

In two-syllable words, the stress falls on the 2nd syllable from the end of the word: sci "-oh I know cu" l-pa wine .

In polysyllabic words, stress is determined by the length (brevity) of the 2nd syllable from the end of the word. It falls:

on the 2nd syllable from the end of the word, if it is long;

on the 3rd syllable from the end of the word, if the 2nd syllable is short.

Long and short syllables

Long syllables are called syllables containing a long vowel, short - a short vowel.

In Latin, as in Russian, syllables are formed with the help of vowels, near which consonants are "grouped".

NB - a diphthong represents one sound and therefore forms only one syllable: ca "u-sa reason, guilt. (NB - Nota bene! Remember well! - Latin for notes.)

Long vowels are:

diphthongs and combinations ae and oe: cen-tau-rus centaur ;

a vowel before a consonant group (except for vowels before a muta cum liquida group (see below): in-stru-m_n-tum instrument .

This is the so-called longitude by position.

o the vowel may be long in nature, i.e. its longitude is not due to any reasons, but is a linguistic fact. Longitude by position is fixed in dictionaries: for-tk "-na fortune.

Short vowels are:

o vowels that come before another vowel (so all words ending in io, ia, ium, uo etc., the stress falls on the 3rd syllable from the end): sci-e "n-tia knowledge ;

o before h: tra-ho i'm dragging.

This is the so-called brevity by position:

o vowels before a combination of one of the consonants: b, p, d, t, c[k], g(the so-called "mute" - muta) - with one of the consonants: r,l(the so-called "liquid" - liquida), i.e. before combinations br, pr, dl etc. ("mute with smooth" - muta cum liquida): te "-n_-brae darkness, darkness ;

o the vowel may be short in nature, i.e. its brevity is not determined by external causes, but is a fact of language. Brevity by position is fixed in dictionaries: fe "-m--na woman .

References

Miroshenkova V.I., Fedorov N.A. Latin textbook. 2nd ed. M., 1985.

Nikiforov V.N. Latin legal phraseology. M., 1979.

Kozarzhevsky A.I. Latin textbook. M., 1948.

Sobolevsky S.I. Grammar of the Latin language. M., 1981.

Rosenthal I.S., Sokolov V.S. Latin textbook. M., 1956.

Applications

Appendix 1

I. Sounds and letters in Latin

1.1. Latin alphabet

Modern scientific Latin nomenclature uses 26 letters (Table 12). Five of them: J, U, W, Y, Z were absent from Classical Latin. J and U were introduced to represent the sounds /th/ and /y/. Previously, these sounds were transmitted by letters, each of which could be (depending on the position) both a vowel and a consonant: I - /i/ or /th/, V - /u/ or /v/. Y and Z met only in words that entered the Latin language from ancient Greek. The letters K and C in ancient times were read the same way - /k/, and the letter "K" was rarely used. At present, the letter "K" is found mainly in names borrowed from modern languages. The letter W is used only in names derived from modern names.

Table 1

1.2.Sounds of the Latin language

Most Latin sounds can be rendered in Russian letters. Only individual sounds of the Latin language are absent in Russian, and special signs have to be used. In this manual, two of them are used (Table 2):

/x/ denotes a breathy sound. In Latin, it corresponds to the letter "h";

/ў/ denotes the sound that corresponds in Latin to the letter "u" in combinations au and eu. This sound occupies an intermediate position between /u/ and /v/ and approximately corresponds to the pronunciation of "u" in the words "pause", "Yauza".

Some combinations of vowels and consonants in Latin denote sounds other than the same letters standing separately.

Latin vowel combinations can be divided into two groups: 1) diagphas - combinations of letters denoting one sound, and 2) diphthongs - combinations of letters denoting two sounds, of which the second is short, not constituting a separate syllable.

Combinations ae and oe belong to diagphas, ai, au, ei, eu, oi, yi belong to diphthongs.

The diphthongs au and eu are of Latin origin, ai, ei, oi and yi are of Greek origin. Of the Greek diphthongs, ei and yi are preserved in Latin transcription, and ai, oi occur only as exceptions, because. usually go into digraphs ae and oe.

In some words (mainly of Greek origin), letter combinations that coincide with Latin diagphs and diphthongs are pronounced separately. In combinations ae and oe, in this case, the sign "diarese" (two dots) is placed above the second vowel: Aёdes / aedes /, Cloёon / cloeon /.

The consonant combinations ch, ph, rh, and th in Latin words of Greek origin reproduce the letters χ (chi), φ (phi), ρ (ro), τ (theta) of the ancient Greek language and are pronounced respectively /x/, /f/, / p/, /t/.

table 2

Pronunciation of letters and their combinations

Continuation of the table. 2

Letters	Pronunciation	Notes	Examples
ch	X	In all cases	Chionea /chionea/ Echium /echium/
D	d	In all cases	Dendrolimus / dendrolimus / Dentaria / dentaria /
E	uh	In most cases	Empetrum /empetrum/ Erebia /erebia/
F	f	In all cases	Forphicula / forficula / Fumaria / fumaria /
G	G	In all cases	Gallium /galium/ Gargara /gargara/
H Ch ph	x Not pronounced x f	In most cases In combinations rh, th In all cases In all cases	Hoplia /hoplia/ Humulus /humulus/ Rhagio /ragio/ Thais /tais/ Chlorops /chlorops/ Sonchus /sonhus/ Phlomis /flomis/ Phosphuga /phosphuga/
I	and th	In most cases After a, e, o, y	Iris
J	th	In all cases	Juniperus /juniperus/ Thuja /thuja/
K	to	In all cases	Kochia /kochia/
L	l	In all cases	Caltha /calta/ Lucilia /lucilia/
M	m	In all cases	Mimulus / mimulus / Monomorium / monomorium /
N	n	In all cases	Antennaria /antennaria/ Sinodendron /sinodendron/
Oh oe	oh uh	In most cases In most cases	Notodonta / notodonta / Orobus / orobus / Oedemera / edemera / Phytoecia / fitetsia /

The end of the table. 2

Letters	Pronunciation	Notes	Examples
P ph	p f	In most cases In all cases	Pipiza /pipiza/ Polypodium /polypodium/ Adenophora /adenophora/ Amorpha /amorpha/
Q	to	Used only in combinations qu	Equisetum / Equisetum / Quercus / Quercus /
R	R	In all cases	Ranatra /ranatra/ Rorippa /rorippa/
S	with	In all cases	Gaenista /genista/ Cialis /Cialis/
T	t	In all cases	Tettigonia /tettigonia/
U	y to ў	In most cases, after q and in combination with ngu before a vowel; sometimes combined su before a vowel after a, e	Curculio /curculio/ Rubus /rubus/ Aquilegia /aquilegia/ Pinguicula /pingvikula/ Suaeda /sveda/ suaveolens /svaveolens/ Braula /braula/ Euphorbia /euphorbia/ Glaucium /glaucium/ Neurotoma /neurotoma/
V	in	In all cases	Vespa /vespa/ Viola /viola/
X	ks	In all cases	Larix /larix/ Sirex /sireks/
Y	and	In all cases	Lytta / litta / Hyoscyamus / hyoscyamus /
Z	h	In all cases	Luzula /luzula/ Zigrona /zigrona/

1.3 Some exceptions to the rules

1. In the following cases, ae does not constitute a diagpha, and each letter denotes a separate sound:

Aedes / aedes /

aёneus, a, um / aeneus, a, mind /

Hippophae /hippophae/

2. It should be remembered that the combination of letters sch does not reflect a separate sound and should be read /sh/, for example Schizandra /schizandra/, Schistocerca /schistocerca/.

3. In the following cases, after a, e, o, the letter i is pronounced / and /:

a) in names containing the elements -eid- and -oid-, for example Coreidae /koreide/, Neides /neides/, Culicoides /kulikoides/;

b) when in compound words the first stem ends in "e", and "i" plays the role of a connecting vowel, for example: cuneifolia /kuneifolia/, griseipennis /griseipennis/, hordeistichos /hordeistikhos/, violaceipes /violaceipes/;

c) in the following names:

briseis /briseis/

tanaiticus / tanaiticus /

Thais /thais/

ucrainicus /ukrainicus/

4. Sometimes the letter J occurs in Latin words of Greek origin (erroneous use of J instead of I); in these cases, J corresponds to the sound /and/: Japyx /iapix/.

5. The letter L is often read softly, but this pronunciation does not correspond to the ancient one.

6. In the following names, oe does not constitute a diagpha, and each letter denotes a separate sound:

Cloeon / cloeon /;

Haploembia /haploembia/;

Hierochloe /hierochloe/;

Isoetes /isoetes/;

Meloё /meloe/.

7. The letter S in ancient times was read in Latin /s/. However, for some cases, especially in the position between vowels, as well as in words of Greek origin and in the position between m, n, r and a vowel, the pronunciation /з/ was established, which, however, is not mandatory; for example: Catabrosa /catabrosa/, Alisma /ism/ etc.

8. The combination ti before a vowel in words of Latin origin is usually read / qi /; this pronunciation is associated with the influence of modern languages ​​​​and does not find confirmation in Latin phonetics.

9. In the endings "um" and "us" the letter "u" always denotes the sound /u/, for example: Hordeum /hordeum/, Spercheus /sperheus/, etc. In addition, "u" is read /y/ in the word praeusta /preusta/.

§ 1. Vowels and consonants.

§ 2. Diphthongs and digraphs.

§ 3. Pronunciation of consonants

§ 4. Features of the pronunciation of individual letters.

§ 5. Longitude and shortness of vowels;

§ 6. General rules for longitude and brevity

§ 7. Stress.

§ 8. The use of capital letters.

§ 9. Syllabification and transfer.

§ 1. The Latin alphabet has the following vowels and consonants

(note that the pronunciation of Latin sounds does not completely coincide with the ancient Roman, and is largely conditional):

Vowels: a, o, u, e, i (in words of Greek origin, y is also found, which can be pronounced like French and (or German Ü), or simple i).

The letters a and o are pronounced like the corresponding Russian letters, and o (unlike Russian) is pronounced the same in all positions.

The letter u is pronounced like the Russian y. See, however, § 4.

The letter e is pronounced like Russian e. For example: neto [nemo] nobody, septem [s′eptem], seven.

The letter i is pronounced like Russian and. For example: ira [ira] anger, vidi [see] I saw, abiit [ábiit] he left.

However, before a vowel at the beginning of a word (or syllable), i is pronounced as a consonant sound й(j). For example: ius [yus] right, iocus [y′okus] joke, adiuvo [′adjuvo] help. In some publications, and especially in dictionaries, such a consonant i is denoted by j (jus, jocus, adjuvo).

§ 2. Diphthongs, that is, monosyllabic two-vowel groups, are relatively rare. This is au, less often eu, ei, ui. In all these diphthongs, the first sound is pronounced fully, that is, it forms a syllable, and the second sound is incomplete, that is, it is non-syllabic (such diphthongs are called descending): cf. au in the word round. For example: aurum [áurum] gold, nauta [nauta] sailor, Europa [eur'opa] Europe, deinde [deinde] then.

Digraphs ae and oe should be distinguished from diphthongs. True, they originated from diphthongs (ai and oi), but later they began to be pronounced as single vowels: ae as e [e], oe as German ö (French eu in the word rhei, English and in the word fur or i in the word birt ). For example: aes [es] copper, roena [pona] punishment.

If in the groups ae and oe each letter must be pronounced separately, then this is indicated by the sign .. over the second of the given pair of letters. For example: аёr [air] air, poёta [poet] poet.

§ 3. All other letters of the Latin alphabet serve to designate consonants (for i as a consonant, see § 1). Most of them are pronounced like the corresponding Russian sounds:

b - b: bene [b′ene] good n - n: nomen [nomen] name

d - d: dare [dare] give r - n: pars [pars] ​​part

f - f: fio [f′io] become r - p: praetor [p′etor] praetor

g - r: ego ['ego] I v - in: vivo [vivo] live

m - m: mitto [m'itto] send x - ks: vox [vox] voice

§ 4. The pronunciation and use of other vowels has the following features:

4.1. c is pronounced as q before e (and equivalent to it ae and oe) and i (y), and in all other cases as those:

Cicero [ts′icero] Cicero, Caesar [ts′ezar] Caesar, cado [kado] I fall, crédo [k′edo] believe, fac [fak] do.

4.2. h is the designation of a light exhalation with which the following vowel should be pronounced: habeo [hábeo] I have, coheres [koh'eres] co-heir.

4.3. Occasionally there are (mainly in words of Greek origin) combinations of h with the preceding c, p, t and r.

The ch group is pronounced like Russian x: charta [harta] paper, letter, pulcher [pýlher] beautiful.

Ph is pronounced like f (f): triumphus [triýmphus] triumph, philosophia [philosophy] philosophy.

Th is pronounced as t (t) thermae [t′erme] terms, warm baths.

Rh is pronounced like r: arrha [árra] deposit.

4.4. The letter k is pronounced like k; it is extremely rare: only in the word Kalendae [kal'ende] Kalendy, the first day of the Roman month, and the name Kaeso [k'ezo] Kezon (which, however, are also written as Calendae and Caeso).

4.5. The letter l is pronounced like a Russian soft le only before i (y): lis [fox] litigation, publicus [publicus] public, lyra [l′ira] lira.

In all other cases, 1 is pronounced like French l (in le) or German l (in halten), that is, as a middle sound between l and l: luna [moon] moon, lex [lex] law, lana [lána] wool, populus [pópulus] people (do not pronounce lu like lu, le like le, etc.).

4.6. The letter s is pronounced like Russian s, but in the position between vowels - like z (this applies to words of native Latin origin): sto [one hundred] I stand, consisto [kons′isto] I consist, but casus [casus] case and Aesopus [Esópus] Aesop (Greek name).

4.7. The letter t is pronounced like the Russian t: totus [tótus] whole, whole, and only in the ti group before vowels is it customary to pronounce it as c: etiam [′etsiam] even, constitutio [konstitýtsio] establishment.

However, in this case, t is pronounced like t:

if the following i is long (see § 5): totius

[tot′ius] of everything, the whole;

if it is preceded by s, t or x: bestia [b′estia] beast, Attius [attius] Attiy (name), mixtio [m′ikstio] mixture;

in Greek words: Spartiates [partiátes] spartiate.

4.8. The letter q occurs only with the subsequent u and in this combination is pronounced as kv: qui [kvi] who, quoque [kvókwe] also, questio [kv′estio] question.

Only in the union quum [kum] when this group is pronounced as k. However, this word (in particular in this textbook) is written cum (as well as the preposition cum c).

4.9. The letter z is pronounced like Russian z. It is used mainly in words of Greek origin.

4.10. The letter and, which in the qu group is pronounced as v (c), is also pronounced in the ngu and su groups, followed by a vowel: lingua [l'ingua] language, suadeo [svádeo] I advise.

§ 5. Latin vowels can be long or short (do not mix short vowels that form a syllable with short ones that are non-syllabic: and in the diphthong ai or Russian й). This property of a vowel sound is called its quantity. In elementary textbooks, dictionaries, etc., longitude is indicated by the sign - ¯(ā,ē,), and brevity - by the sign - ˘(ǎ, ĕ).

In accordance with this, the syllables themselves are long or short: the syllable is long or short, depending on whether the vowel that is part of it is long or short: āu-rŭm (1st syllable is long, 2nd is short), pǒ-rŭ- lŭs (all three syllables are short), mā-lǔs (1st syllable is long, 2nd is short), mǎ-lǔs (both syllables are short).

In modern pronunciation, we do not distinguish between long and short syllables, but it is important for us to know these differences in three respects: for the correct rhythmic reading (scanning) of poetry, for the correct stress in words, and for the correct recognition of certain grammatical forms and even words (see above examples mālǔs apple tree and mǎlǔs bad, as well as: vĕnit comes and vēnit has come; lĕvis light - lēvis smooth; lǎbor labor - lābor I slide, I fall; lǎtus wide - lātus side; lēges laws-lĕges you will read.

§ 6. The number (longitude or shortness) of a vowel is indicated in dictionaries, but in some cases it can be determined by general rules:

1. Diphthongs and digraphs are always debts. . 2. A vowel before a vowel or h is always short: habĕo (e before o), trǎho (a before h). Exceptions: fīo, totīus, diēt and some others.

3. A vowel before two or more consonants becomes long (longitude by position): mors (o before rs). However, before a group of stops with a smooth (I, r), that is, before bl - br, pl-pr, dl-dr, tl-tr, cl-cr, gl-gr (the so-called muta cum liquida), the vowel is usually short : tenĕbrae (e before br).

Because x and z are double consonants, the vowel that precedes them is also long.

4. Certain inflections (the endings of cases, personal forms of verbs, etc.) are characterized by a certain "number" of their constituent vowels; for example, the final a in the ablative singular of nouns of the 1st declension is always long (nominative terră, ablative terrā); in the infinitive endings of all four conjugations, the final e is always short, and the remaining vowels in these endings always have the following numbers: 1st conjugation - rog-āre; 2nd conjugation -mon-ēre; 3rd conjugation - leg-ĕge; 4th conjugation - aud-īre.

§ 7. In two-syllable words, the stress almost always falls on the penultimate syllable: páter, máter, Róma.

In trisyllabic and polysyllabic words, the stress can fall either on the penultimate syllable or on the syllable preceding it (third from the end) in accordance with the following rule: if the penultimate syllable is long, then the stress falls on it, and if it is short, then it is under stress. the syllable preceding it: cecídi (accented -cí-), but cécīdi; infídus (with accent -fí-), but pérfĭdus.

§eight. Currently, Latin words are written with capital letters at the beginning of a sentence (after a dot), as well as proper nouns and adjectives and adverbs derived from them: Latium Latium, Latinus Latin, Latine Latin.

§ 9. When dividing words into syllables for transfer, you must adhere to the following two rules:

1. All consonants that any Latin word may begin with refer to the following syllable: pater, doc-tor (do-ctor is wrong, as there are no Latin words beginning with ct). :

2. Compound words are separated by their elements; con-structio, in-imicus (from in and amicus).

EXERCISES IN READING

Republican nostra. Cives nostri. Athenae. Rome. Lutetia Parisiōrum. Tiberis. Pontus Euximus. Plautus. Terentius. Vergilius. Horatius. Gaius lulius Caesar. Marcus Tullius Cicero. Pomponius. Ulpianus. Modestinus. lustinianus.

Pact convention. Corpus iuris. Ius utendi fruendi. Ius gentium. Iurisprudentia anteiustiniana. Ius praetorium. Bona fides. Lex Iulia de maritandis ordinibus. Leges agrariae. Decemviri legibus scribundis. Leges duodecim tabularum. Res corporales et incorporales.

Nota bene. Prima facie. Muttis mutandis. Et cetera. Quantum satis. Vis major. Tempra mutantur. status quo ante. Mens sana in corpŏre sano.

ALPHABET B. MORPHOLOGY AND SYNTAX OF A SIMPLE SENTENCE

CLASSIFICATION OF SOUNDS: In Latin, sounds are divided into consonants and vowels. Letters correspond to consonants: b, c, d, f, g, h, k, 1, m, n, p, q, r, s, t, v, x, z. Vowels correspond to letters: a, e, i, o, u, y. In addition to vowels and consonants, Latin has stable combinations of vowels - two-vowels (diphthongs): ae, oe, au, eu; combination of consonants - digraphs - ch, ph, rh, th.

Aa, Oo, Uu - pronounced like Russian vowels [a], [o], [u]: caput (kaput) - head opticus (opticus) - visual genu (genu) - her knee - pronounced like a Russian vowel [e]: vertebra (vertebra) - vertebra nervus (nervus) - nerve dens (dens) - tooth

Ii - pronounced like Russian and, but at the beginning of a word before a vowel or in the middle of a word between vowels it is pronounced like Russian [th]: digitus (digitus) - finger iodum (yodum) - iodine maior (major) - big Yy - occurs only in words of Greek origin and is pronounced like a Russian vowel [and]: larynx (lyarinks) - larynx pharynx (pharynx) - pharynx

DIPHTHONGS (Double Vowels) The combination of two vowels that make up one syllable is called a diphthong. There are four diphthongs in Latin: 1. ae - like a Russian vowel [e]: praeparatum (preparatum) - drug laesus (lezus) - damaged aeger (eger) - sick diaeta (diet) - diet

2. oe - like German [o], or like Russian [e]: oedema (oedema) - edema foetus (foetus) - fetus oesophagus (oesophagus) - esophagus amoeba - (amoeba) - amoeba 3. au - as a combination of Russian vowels with a short y: trauma (trauma) - damage auris (auris) - ear aurum (aurum) - gold audio (audio) - listen

4. eu - as a combination of Russian vowels [eu] with a short y: pleura (pleura) - pleura pneumonia (pneumonia) - pneumonia In cases where ae, oe do not constitute a diphthong, i.e. each vowel is pronounced separately, over two dots are put in the second vowel: aёr (air) - air

PRONUNCIATION OF CONSONANTS, DIGRAPHS. Cs - before the vowels e, i, y, and also before the diphthongs ae, oe is pronounced like a Russian consonant [ts]: cerebrum (tserebrum) - brain acidum (acidum) - acid cytus (citus) - cell

In other cases, c is pronounced like a Russian consonant [k]: caput (kaput) - head crista (crista) - crest lac (lyak) - milk Cor (kor) - heart

Ll - pronounced softly, like Russian le, for example: animal (animal) - animal collum (kollum) - neck Qq - occurs only in combination with the vowel u, which is pronounced as a combination of Russian consonants [kv]: aqua (aqua) - water liquor (liquor) - liquid

Ss - pronounced like a Russian consonant [s], but in the position between vowels, as well as between a vowel and consonants m or n, it is pronounced like [з]: septum (septum) - septum scapula (scapula) - scapula basis (basis) - base of plasma (plasma) - plasma mensio (mensio) - measurement

Xx - pronounced as a combination of Russian consonants [ks] (between vowels usually (kz): radix (radix) - root apex (apex) - top exitus (exitus) - outcome Zz - pronounced like Russian [z] in words of Greek origin: zygoma (zygoma) - cheekbone zona (zone) - belt

Zz - In words of non-Greek origin, z is pronounced like Russian [ts]: zincum (zincum) - zinc influenza (influenza) - flu The combination of letters ngu before vowels is pronounced [ngv]: lingua (lingua) - language unguis (ungvis) - nail

The combination of letters ngu before consonants is pronounced [ngu]: ungula (ungul) - hoof angustus (angustus) - narrow The combination of ti before vowels is pronounced [qi]: substantia (substance) - substance operatio (operation) - operation

The combination of ti before vowels, but after consonants s, x is pronounced like [ti]: mixtio (mixtio) - mixing ostium (ostium) - entrance bestia (bestia) - wild animal

DIGRAPHS (DOUBLE CONSONANTS): The following combinations are found in words of Greek origin and are pronounced as one sound: ch - like Russian [x]: chirurgus (surgeon) - surgeon Chamomilla (hamomilla) - chamomile ph - like Russian [f]: encephalon (encephalon ) - brain (head) sphincter (sphincter) - constrictor

Rh - like Russian [r]: rhaphe (rafe) - suture rhythmus (rhythmus) - alternation th - like Russian [t]: thorax (thorax) - chest therapia (therapy) - treatment

PECULIARITIES OF STRESS STATEMENT IN LATIN TERMS. To understand the stress rule in Latin, it is very important to be able to divide words into syllables and determine the duration of syllables. Vowels can be long or short. It is necessary to distinguish between longitude or brevity in a word, since the correct placement of stress depends on the longitude or brevity of a syllable. In Latin, stress (accentus) is not placed on the last syllable. The syllables are counted from the end of the word. The number of syllables is determined by the number of vowels (dif tongs make up one syllable).

SYLLOGICAL DIVISION IN THE LATIN LANGUAGE. In Latin, the syllable division runs between 1) a single vowel and a single consonant: ro|sa. 2) two consonants: ma|gis|ter. NB! How many vowels - so many syllables. There are a number of letter combinations for which there is a separate rule. These are the so-called muta cum liquida "soft with liquid", if literally :), or "silent with smooth" combinations: -bl-, -br-, -bn- -pl-, -pr-, -pn- and others, like them. That is, a combination of consonants with semivowels - the so-called sonants (l, r, n). The syllable section passes before such a combination without separating the consonants inside it: de|cli|na|ti|o.

STRESS IS PUT: 1) on the second syllable from the end, if it is long; 2) on the third syllable from the end, if the second syllable is short (longitude or shortness of the third syllable does not matter): li-ga-men-tum - a bunch; ver-te-bra - vertebra. In disyllabic words, the stress is always on the first syllable: cos-ta - edge, ca-put - head.

NB! Some words of Greek origin with the ending -ia retain the Greek stress on the second short syllable, for example: hypertonia - high blood pressure, pneumonia - inflammation of the lungs. In addition to the words anatomy and words in -logia.

SYLLONAL LONGITUDE RULES: 1. A vowel is considered long before two or more consonants, as well as before x and z: ma-xil-la - upper jaw co-Ium-na - pillar re-fle-xus - reflex gly-cy-rrhi -za - licorice root 2. Diphthongs are naturally long: ae-ger - diseased foe-tus - fruit cau-da - tail pleu-ra - Graecolatini pleura. by - transliteration

RULES FOR SYLL BRIEFITY: 1. The vowel before the vowel and also before h is short: ex tra ho - I extract ti bi a - tibia pter ry go i de us - pterygoid 2. The vowel before combinations ch, th, rh, ph is short : sto ma chus - stomach 3. The vowel is always short before a group of consonants from silent and smooth (bl, br, pl, pr, dl, dr, tl, tr, cl, cr, gl, gr): ver te bra - ce vertebra re brum - brain (head) pal pe bra (eyelid). A vowel before one consonant can be both long and short. In such cases, in the dictionary, a longitude sign () or brevity ("") is placed above the vowel: tu ni sa - shell

NB! The following suffixes of nouns and adjectives are long: ur fiss`ura - gap, tinct`ura - tincture, natura nature in palatinus - palatine, medicina - medicine, gallina - chicken at destilatus - distilled, ut solutus - dissolved os tuberosus - bumpy, necrosis - necrosis ar ulnaris - elbow, al tibialis - tibial

The following suffixes are short: ul pilula - pill, ungula - hoof ol malleolus - ankle, areola - corolla il, bil gracilis - gentle, solubilis - soluble id fluidus - liquid (extract), liquidus - liquid ic toxica - poisons, medicus - doctor

LECTURE No. 3. Morphology is a section of grammar that studies the patterns of existence, formation (structure) and understanding of word forms (word forms) of various parts of speech (noun, adjective, verb, etc.). Grammar categories of a noun:

In Latin, as in Russian, a noun has three genders: genus masculinum(m) - masculine genus femininum(f) - feminine genus neutrum(n) - neuter NB! The gender of the Russian and the gender of the Latin word often do not coincide. Russian language Latin muscle (f. p.) musculus (m. p.) septum (f. p.) septum (cf. p.) rib (s. p.) costa (f. p.)

A sign of the grammatical gender of nouns in Latin is the end of the nominative singular (Nom. sing.). Nom. sing us, er a, es um, on , u masculinum (m) femininum (f) neutrum (n)

These endings can be used to determine the gender of a large group of nouns belonging to the 1st, 2nd, 4th, 5th declension. , sulcus i m - groove; cancer, cri m-cancer; septum, i n partition; vena, ae f- vein; facies, ei f-face; skeleton, i n-skeleton; genu, us n - knee Two numbers: numerus singularis(sing.) - singular numerus pluralis(plur.) - plural

THERE ARE 6 CASES IN LATIN. Nominativus (Nom.) - nominative (who, what?). Genetivus (Gen.) - genitive (of whom, what?). Dativus (Dat.) - dative (to whom, what?). Accusativus (Acc.) - accusative (whom, what?). Ablativus (Abl.) - ablative, creative (by whom, with what?). Vocativus (Voc.) - vocative.

NB! The most important for the assimilation of medical terminology are two: Nominativus (Nom.) - nominative case - who? what? Genetivus (Gen.) - genitive case - whom? what?

DICTIONARY FORM OF NOUNS Nouns are given in the dictionary and learned in dictionary form, which contains three components: 1) the form of the word in it. p. units hours; 2) the end of the genus. p. units hours; 3) gender designation - male, female or middle (abbreviated as one letter: m, f, n. For example: lamina, ae (f) - thin plate; ligamentum, i (n) - ligament; os, is (n) - bone ; articulatio, is (f) joint -, canalis, is (m) - channel; ductus, us (m) - duct; arcus, us (m) - arc, cornu, us, (n) - horn; facies, ei (f)-face.

TYPES OF DECLINES There are five declensions in Latin. The declension is determined by the end of the genitive singular. Genus forms. p. units hours in all declensions are different. A sign of the type of declension of a noun is the ending gender. p. units h., therefore, in dictionaries, the form genus. p. units h. is indicated along with the form of them. p. units hours and they must be memorized only together. Ansae, f

TYPES OF declension Declension Endings Gen. sing. I ae II i III is IV us V ei

DEFINITION OF THE BASIS OF NOUNS A stem is a part of a word without an ending, which contains a lexical meaning. The basis of the noun is Gen. sing. “minus” endings (-ae 1 skl; -i -2 skl; -is -3 skl; -us -4 skl; -ei -5 skl.) For example: nasus, nas- i m - nose base - nas-; glandula, glandulae f - gland base - glandu sternum, stern-i n - sternum base - stern-.

NOUNS Ι AND ΙΙ declension. The first declension includes feminine nouns, which in Gen. sing. have the ending -ae. In Nom. sing. they end in -a. For example: fractura, ae f; ala, ae f. The second declension includes masculine and neuter nouns, which in Gen. sing. have the ending -i. In Nom. sing. masculine nouns end in –us, -er, and neuter nouns in –um, –on. For example: sulcus, i m; magister, trim; acromion, i n; cavum, in.

PARADIGM OF THE DECLECTION OF NOUNS I AND II declension I skl. II fold. Genus f m n Nom. sing. -a clavicul+a -us; -er nerv + us canc + er -um; -on cav+um acromi+on Gen. sing -ae clavicul+ae -i nerv+i cancr+i -i cav+i acromi+i

EXCEPTIONS FROM THE RULES ON THE GENDER OF NOUNS II declension 1. The names of trees and shrubs, as a rule, are feminine. The following nouns belong to the II declension: Malus, i f apple tree; Crataegus, i f hawthorn; Sorbus, i f rowan. . 2. Some nouns of Greek origin with the ending -us also belong to the feminine gender: atomus, if atom, humus, if earth, methodus, if method, periodus, if period. 3. The feminine gender includes the names of countries, cities, islands and peninsulas: Aegyptus, i f Egypt, Rhodus, i f Rhodes. All of these nouns are declined in the same way as masculine nouns ending in -us.

THE MOST IMPORTANT SUFFIXES OF NOUNS OF THE FIRST AND SECOND declension The suffix -i(n)a from the stem of nouns forms the words of the first declension, denoting art, profession, science. For example: herbaria (from herbarium, I n) - botany, chirurgia (from chirurgus, I m) - surgery. The suffix -ur- forms nouns of the first declension from the stem of the supine, denoting an action or the result of an action. For example: mixt-ur-a, and f is a mixture. The suffix -ceae forms nouns denoting botanical families. For example: Fagaceae - beech, Suffixes -ul-, -cul-, -ol-, which are attached to the stem of feminine nouns and form nouns of the first declension with a diminutive meaning. For example: alve-ol-us - cell; ventriculus, I from - stomach, ventricle.

The suffix -ment-, attached to the stem of a present tense verb, forms a neuter noun of the second declension, denoting the means or result of an action. For example: linimentum, in - liquid ointment Suffixes -arium-, -orium- serve to form nouns denoting a room, a place to store something. For example: sanatorium, in - sanatorium (from sanare - to treat), Suffixes -ol-, -in- attached to the stem of a noun form the names of medicines. For example: glycer-in-um, in - glycerin, papaver-in-um, in - papaverine. The suffix -ism-, attached to the stem of a noun, forms masculine nouns with the ending -us, denoting poisoning, a painful condition. For example: alcoholismus, I m - alcoholism. The suffix -i (plural) is used to form nouns denoting zoological families. For example: Colubri (plural) - a family of already-shaped.

III DECLINE OF NOUNS The third declension includes masculine, feminine and neuter nouns, which in gen. sing have an -is ending. This ending is a characteristic feature of the III declension. For example: pulmo, onis m-lung; auris, is f-ear; rete, is n-net. Most nouns have III cl. bases in nom. sing. and gen. sing do not match.

Such words are written in dictionary form with a part of the stem before the ending -is. cortex, icis m-core; radix, icis f-root; ulcus, eris ulcer. For monosyllabic nouns in the dictionary form gen. sing is written in full. ren, renis m-kidney; pars, partis f-part; cor, cordis n heart. Since most nouns do not have the same stems in the nominative and genitive cases, the practical stem must be determined only by gender. case, dropping the ending -is. Base = Gen. sing. - "minus" ending - is

Nouns of the III declension are divided into unequal and equally syllable. Inequisyllabic nouns are those that have the number of syllables in gen. sing, greater than nom. sing. . pes, pe-dis m-foot, leg; cer-vix, cer-vi-cis f-neck, neck. Equosyllabic nouns are called, in which in gen. sing, and nom. sing, the same number of syllables. ca-na-lis, ca-na-lis m-channel. Such nouns in dictionary form in gen. sing, only the -is ending is indicated. For example: canalis, is m - channel

DETERMINATION OF THE GENDER OF NOUNS 3 declension In order to avoid difficulties in determining the gender of nouns of the third declension, you need to know that: nouns ending in N. S. belong to the masculine gender: o, or, os; er; ex; es (unequal). § 62 feminine nouns are nouns ending in N. S. in: as; es (equisyllabic), is (equisyllabic and nonequisyllabic); us- (genus case utis, -udis), x (except for ex); s (with preceding consonant) io, do, go. § 65 the neuter gender includes nouns ending in the nominative singular in: en; us - (genus case -oris, -eris, -uris), ur; ut; ma; l; e; with; al; ar. Section 69

BASIC SUFFIXES OF NOUNS OF THE THIRD declension The suffixes -tor, -sor, attached to the stem of the supine, form nouns that designate an actor, an instrument of production, a device, an apparatus. For example: doct-um, doct-or, -oris m - doctor. There are many words in anatomical terminology with these suffixes. For example: flexor - flexor muscle, dilatator - expanding muscle, adductor - adductor muscle. The suffix -or is used to form nouns denoting a state. For example: cal-or, -oris m - heat, liqu-or, -oris m - liquid, rub-or, -ris m - redness. The suffixes -io, -tio, -sio form feminine nouns denoting abstract concepts that express an action or the result of an action. For example: injectio, -onis f - injection, injection. The suffixes -as, -is form the names of chemical compounds. Such nouns belong to the words of the third declension of the masculine gender. For example: sulfis, -itis m - sulfite.

The suffix -tudo, attached to the stem of a verb or adjective, serves to form abstract nouns. For example: magni-tudo - value. The suffix -I, attached to the stem of the word (the name of the organ), forms a feminine noun denoting an inflammatory process. In Russian, such terms end in -it. For example: stomatitis - stomatitis, dermatitis - dermatitis, mastitis - mastitis (inflammation of the udder). The suffix -ota, attached to the Greek stem of a noun, forms a feminine term denoting a tumor. For example: oste-oma - osteoma, fibr-oma - fibroma. The suffix -osis is used to form feminine nouns denoting diseases of a non-inflammatory nature or a painful condition of the body. In Russian, such terms end in –oz. For example: paradontosis, -is f - paradontosis. Third declension masculine nouns formed with the suffix –or, (-tor, -sor, -xor) are used in anatomical nomenclature to denote muscle functions: abductor muscle - musculus abductor, adductor muscle - musculus adductor, extensor muscle - musculus extensor flexor muscle - musculus flexor, retractor muscle - musculus protractor, rotator muscle - musculus rotator, depressor muscle - musculus depressor, levator muscle - musculus levator, dilatator muscle - musculus dilatators

PREPOSITIONS In Latin, prepositions are combined with two cases: accusativus (accusative) and ablativus (active). Prepositions with the accusative case Ad Contra Per K, at, before, for Ad usum internum - for internal use. Ad usum externum - for Against external use. Contra malariam - against Through, in malaria. Per rectum - through the rectum Per os - through the mouth.

Inter Post Circum Extra Intra Super Between After Around Outside Inside Above than above Inter costas – between ribs Post pneumonia – after pneumonia Circum oculi – around the eye Extra peritonaeum – outside the peritoneum. Intra cranium - inside the skull. Super vulnus - above the wound. Instrumental prepositions Ab Cum Pro Ex Prepositions with Win. And Creator. P. In From C For From Ab ulna - from the ulna. Cum dolore - with pain. Pro narcosi - for anesthesia Ex aqua - from water B, on Sub Under In vitrum nigrum. (Acc.) - (where? Into what?) - into a black bottle. In vitro nigro (Abl) - (where? In what?) - in a black bottle. Sub linguam (Acc) - (where?) - under the tongue. Sub lingua (Abl) - (where?) - under the tongue.

NOUNS OF THE 4th DECLINE. The 4th declension includes masculine and neuter nouns ending in the genitive singular in –us. In the nominative singular, masculine nouns end in -us, and neuter nouns end in -u. Dictionary form of nouns of the 4th declension: spiritus, m - alcohol fructus, m - fruit of genu, us, n - knee cornu, us, n - horn, horn

Exceptions to the rule on the gender of the 4th declension: The noun manus, f - hand, brush is considered feminine as an exception. The noun Quercus, f - oak - is feminine, since all the names of trees in Latin are feminine.

Nouns of the 5th Declension. The 5th declension includes feminine nouns ending in the genitive singular in -ēi. In the nominative singular, these nouns end in -es. Dictionary form of nouns of the 5th declension: facies, -ēi, f - face, surface res, rēi, f - thing, business

NB! 1. Professional expressions: dosis letalis - lethal dose pro dosi - single dose (dosis) pro die - daily dose (dosis) pro cursu - dose per course 2. The word species, ei, f with the meaning "collection" is used in the plural. In recipes, the names of the fees are put in the genitive plural form. For example: breast collection - species pectoräles diuretic collection - species diuretĭcae Take: Diuretic collection 50, 0 - Recipe: Speciērum diureticärum 50, 0 Mix to make a collection - Misce ut fiant species.

INCONSISTENT DEFINITION. Both in Latin and in Russian, two types of definitions are used: - agreed, expressed by him. adj. - inconsistent, expressed by him. noun in the genus n. In Russian, an inconsistent definition is often translated by an adjective. For example: aqua Menthae - mint water or mint water tinctūra Valeriānae - valerian tincture or valerian tincture. With the help of an inconsistent definition, a large number of medical terms are built. In Latin, the definition is placed after the word being defined. NB! The names of chemical elements and plants that are inconsistent definitions are written with a capital letter. When declining a phrase that includes an inconsistent definition, only the noun being defined is declined, and the inconsistent definition always remains unchanged. tincture – nettle tinctūra - Urtīcae (nominative) (genitive)

In pharmaceutical terminology, as a rule, the inconsistent definition is in the genitive singular. herba Chamomilae-chamomile herb Model of an anatomical term with inconsistent definition: Defining word (what?) Inconsistent definition (what?) head caput costae ribs (inconsistent definition)

ADJECTIVE NAME Adjectives in Latin, as well as in Russian, have grammatical categories of gender, number and case. Latin adjectives are declined like Latin nouns of the 1st, 2nd, or 3rd declensions. Depending on the declension, these adjectives are divided into two groups.

DICTIONARY FORM OF THE ADJECTIVE The dictionary form of adjectives represents the following entry: the nominative case of the singular masculine is given in full, then the endings of the feminine and neuter gender are indicated separated by a comma. For example: longus, a, um long, -th, -th; liber, ĕra, ĕrum free, -th, -th; dexter, tra, trum right, -th, -th; articularis, e articular, -th, -th; costalis, e costal, th, th. Depending on the generic endings in Nom. sing. adjectives in Latin are divided into two groups.

Group I includes adjectives declining according to the model of nouns of the 1st and 2nd declensions. I - the group includes adjectives that have three generic endings, that is, each gender has its own special ending: for the masculine -us, -er, for the feminine -a, for the middle -um: profundus, a, um deep, -th , -th; sinister, tra, trum left, th, th. Adjectives in Latin, as in Russian, agree with nouns in gender, number and case, for example. : see & 50 Gorodkov

FREQUENCY SECTIONS Many pharmaceutical terms include frequently repeated structural segments, which are commonly called "frequency segments". A frequency segment is a structural component of a pharmaceutical term that has a fixed spelling and meaning. The spelling of frequency segments is observed only in international generic names of medicines, the spelling of commercial (trade) names is not subject to any rules. Knowing the frequency segments will help you spell many complex pharmaceutical terms correctly, as well as understand the general meaning of some of them. Learn the following frequency

BASIC RULES FOR THE CONSTRUCTION OF A PHARMACEUTICAL TERM 1. Almost all Latin drug names are nouns of the second declension of the middle gender with the ending - um: Ampicillinum. The genitive form of such nouns ends in -i: Ampicillini. The stress in such terms is always placed on the penultimate syllable. The Russian names of these medicines are transliterated names without the ending -um: ampicillin. 2. Some Latin names of medicines of the second declension of the neuter gender end in –ium. They correspond to the Russian names for -forms: chloroform - Chloroformium. The genitive form of such nouns ends in -ii: Chloroformii (the first i is the final vowel of the stem). The stress in such terms is always placed on the third syllable from the end. 3. A small group of imported drugs in a: for example, Levodopa, Methyldopa, are inclined according to the first declension. 3. 1 Russian drug names ending in -za are translated into Latin by neuter nouns: glucose - Glucosum, lidase - Lydasum (but: exceptions - Asperasa, Gelatosa).

MEDICINES Dosage form Drug Tabulettae Ampicillini Suppositorium “Anaesthesolum” Solutio Lidocaini But: Suppositorium rectale “Anusolum” Adjective spirituosa

1. In the verbose names of drugs, the dosage form is written in the first place: solutĭo, unguentum, tinctūra, etc. In the second place, the name of the drug is written in the genitive case with a capital letter: Solutĭo Lidocaīni - lidocaine solution, Unguentum Tetracyclīni - tetracycline ointment (Latin nouns-names of medicinal substances in the genitive case can be translated into Russian as an adjective). 2. Adjectives in the composition of pharmaceutical terms are written at the end of the term: Solutĭo Hexoestrōli oleōsa - oil solution of hexestrol (however, after dosage forms membranulae - films, suppositorium - candle, adjectives are written directly after the name of dosage forms, for example: Suppositorium rectale "Anusolum").

3. Some drugs, which include several medicinal substances in certain doses, have a special commercial name, which is written in quotation marks, for example, Aeron tablets (contain scopolamine and hyoscyamine), Nicoverin tablets (contain nicotinic acid and papaverine) , Pyraminal tablets (contain amidopyrine, caffeine and phenobarbital) and many others. When prescribing them, the dosage form is first indicated, and then the commercial name in the nominative case in quotation marks: Suppositorĭa "Anaesthesōlum" - candles "Anestezol".

MEDICINE WITH MEDICINAL PLANTS Dosage form Parts of a plant in the genus. case Medicine Infusum foliorum Digitalis Tinctura radicis Valerianae

4. In the names of tinctures, infusions, extracts and decoctions, between the designations of dosage forms and the name of the plant, the parts of plants (leaf, root, herb, etc.) are indicated in the genitive case: Infūsum foliōrum Digitālis - infusion of digitalis leaves (Latin genitive case can be translated into Russian by the adjective - Oleum Eucalypti - eucalyptus oil).

BASIC PHARMACEUTICAL CONCEPTS 1. Medicinal substance - a substance that has medicinal properties and is intended for the manufacture of medicines. Medicinal substances can be of natural (mineral, microbial, plant, animal) origin and synthetic (for example: magnesium sulfate, antibiotic kanamycin, hormone insulin). 2. Medicinal product (drug) - a substance or mixture of substances of natural or chemical origin, used for the diagnosis, treatment or prevention of diseases (for example: calcium gluconate, paracetamol).

3. Dosage form - the form given to the medicinal product for the most convenient practical application. Dosage forms are divided into: q liquid (solutions, infusions, decoctions, tinctures, liquid extracts, mucus, emulsions, suspensions, potions, liniments, medicinal oils, medicinal syrups); q soft (ointments, pastes, suppositories, sticks, patches); q solid (tablets, dragees, powders, granules, pills, medicinal preparations). The same drug can be prescribed in different dosage forms.

According to the consistency, four groups of dosage forms are distinguished: q Solid dosage forms. Tabuletta, ae f - Dragées tablet (only plural, no dictionary form) - Capsŭla dragee, ae f - Granŭlum capsule, i n - Pulvis granule, ĕris m - powder

LIQUID DOSAGE FORMS Solutĭo, ōnis f – Infūsum solution, i n – Decoctum infusion, i n – Tinctūra decoction, ae f – tincture

SOFT DOSAGE FORMS Unguentum, i n - ointment Linimentum, i n - liniment, liquid ointment Suppositorĭum, i n - candle, suppository, candle Pasta, ae f - paste

We determine the basis of adjectives by separating the ending from the feminine form, for example. : dexter, tra, trum - base dextrsalūber, bris, bre - base salūbr. The basis of adjectives with one ending is determined by separating the ending - is in Gen. sing. , eg. : par, par - is - the basis of parbiceps, bicipĭt - is - the basis of bicipĭtsimplex, simplĭc - is - the basis of simplĭc-

DICTIONARY FORM OF ADJECTS The dictionary form of an adjective of group I, like that of a noun, consists of 3 components, but for an adjective, all 3 components are given only in Nom. sing. : the form of m.r. is given in full. , then ending w. r and cf. R. : latus, a, um (stem: lat-) medius, a, um (stem: medi-). Most of the adjectives of group II are adjectives with two endings. The dictionary form of these adjectives is also indicated in Nom. sing. and includes 2 components: the same form for masculine and feminine with the ending -is and the ending of the neuter gender -e brevis, e (stem: brev-) frontalis, e (stem: frontal-). NB! Adjectives must be memorized in dictionary form!

DECLECTION OF ADJECTIVES Adjectives of the I group are declined according to the I declension (female) and according to the II declension (m and cf.), and the adjectives of the II group - according to the III declension (m, f. and cf. gender) medius, a, um - middle dexter, tra, trum - right Brevis, e - short group I 2 cl. m II group 1 cl. f 2 cl. n 3 cl m f n Nom. sing. medius dexter media dextra medium dextrum brevis breve Gen. sing. mediae dextrae medii dextri brevis medii dextri

AGREED DEFINITION For a qualitative characteristic of an object (designation of its quality, properties), an adjective is used, consistent with the noun being defined in gender, number and case. This is the agreed definition. To agree is to put an adjective in the same gender, number and case as the noun being defined. When agreeing adjectives with nouns, it should be remembered that the gender of a noun in Russian does not always coincide with the gender of the same noun in Latin. Eg. , “rib” in Russian is neuter, and in Latin “costa” is feminine. This is important to remember when choosing the generic ending of an adjective. costa, ae f - rib; verus, a, um - true costa vera - true rib ocŭlus, i m - eye; dexter, tra, trum - right ocŭlus dexter - right eye ulcus, ěris n - ulcer; durus, a, um - hard ulcus durum - hard ulcer

If a noun and an adjective of the 1st group agreed with it are declined according to one declension, then their case endings coincide. Declension pattern Singularis Pluralis Nom. ocŭlus dexter ocŭl-i dextr-i Gen. ocŭl-i dextr-i ocŭl-ōrum dextr-ōrum Dat. ocŭl-o dextr-o ocŭl-is dextr-is Acc. ocŭl-um dextr-um ocŭl-os dextr-os Abl. ocŭl-o dextr-o ocŭl-is dextr-is : diaměter, tri f – diameter; transversus, a, um - transverse diameter transversa - transverse diameter of ulcus, ěris n - ulcer; durus, a, um - hard ulcus durum - hard ulcer

DECLINE PATTERN Singulāris Plurālis Nom. diamter transversa diamter-i transvers-ae Gen. diamětr-i transvers-ae diametr-ōrum transvers-ārum Dat. diamětr-o transvers-ae diamětr-is transvers-is Acc. diamětr-um transvers-am diamětr-os transvers-as Abl. diamětr-ō transvers-ā diamětr-is transvers-is Nom. ulcus durum ulcěr-a dur-a Gen. ulcěr-is dur-i ulcěr-um dur-ōrum Dat. ulcěr-i dur-o ulcer-ĭbus dur-is Acc. ulcus durum ulcěr-a dur-a Abl. ulcěr-e dur-o ulcer-ĭbus dur-is diaměter transversa - transverse diameter; ulcus durum - hard chancre

LEXICAL MINIMUM OF ADJECTS OF THE FIRST GROUP acūtus, a, um acute aethereus, a, um ethereal aethylĭcus, a, um ethyl albus, a, um white amylaceus, a, um starchy compactus, a, um compact, dense composĭtus, a, um compound destillātus , a, um distilled elastĭcus, a, um elastic gangraenōsus, a, um gangrenous, dead longus, a, um long lucĭdus, a, um shiny, light magnus, a, um large oleōsus, a, um oily optĭcus, a, um visual osseus, a, um bony pathologĭcus, a, um pathological pelvīnus, a, um pelvic piperītus, a, um pepper primarius, a, um primary rotundus, a, um round ruber, bra, brum red sacer, cra, crum sacral spinōsus , a, um spinous spirituōsus, a, um spirituōsus, a, um thick spurius, a, um false squamōsus, a, um scaly, flat (hist.) stratificātus, a, um multilayered thoracĭcus, a, um thoracic transversus, a , um transverse verus, a, um true

SECOND GROUP abdominālis, e abdominal anularis, e ring-like brevis, e short costālis, e costal dorsālis, e dorsal, dorsal duplex, ĭcis double femorālis, e femoral glandularis, e iron, which belongs to the gland intercellularis, e intercellular laterālis, e lateral, lateral marginālis, e marginal medicinālis, e medical mollis, e soft naturālis, e natural pulmonālis, e pulmonary radiālis, e radiant recens, ntis fresh rectālis, e rectal, rectal sacrālis, e sacral segmentālis, e segmental subtĭlis, e small superficialis, e superficial unicellularis, e unicellular vertebrālis, e vertebral, vertebral

Algorithm for constructing a Latin anatomical term with an agreed definition To translate the term “long branch” into Latin, it is necessary: ​​1. Determine the gender of the noun according to the dictionary form: ramus, i m - (m. p) 2. Select an adjective in the appropriate gender from the dictionary form: longus , a, um (longus–m. R.). 3. Form a phrase in them. n. : ramus longus Structure of a Latin anatomical term with agreed and inconsistent definition

App. in them. n. What? agree. def. What? noun in them. p. 2 1 transverse fissura transversa What? noun in them. n. What? adj. in them. n. (according definition) (translation order is reversed) 3 2 1 transverse palatine suture sutura palatina transversa

What? noun in them. n. What? adj. in them. n. (agreed. definition) What? noun in the river n. (inconsistent definition) OR What? noun in them. n. What? noun in the river n. (inconsistent definition) Which one? adj. in them. n. (agree. def.) median sulcus sulcus medianus of tongue linguae OR sulcus medianus linguae

VERB The main grammatical categories of the Latin verb The verb in Latin is characterized by the following grammatical categories: - time (tempus): the Latin verb has six tenses (present, three past and two future); - mood (modus): indicative (indicatīvus), imperative (imperatīvus) and subjunctive (coniunctīvus); - voice (genus): real (actīvum) and passive (passīvum); - number (numĕrus): singular (singulāris) and plural (plurālis); - face: (persona prima, secunda, tertia).

PHONETICS OF THE LATIN LANGUAGE

1. Alphabet

The Latin alphabet, which is used in modern textbooks, reference books and dictionaries, consists of 25 letters.

With a capital letter in Latin, proper names, names of months, peoples, geographical names and adjectives derived from them are written. In pharmaceutical terminology, it is customary to write the names of plants and medicinal substances with a capital letter.

Most letters of the Latin alphabet are pronounced the same as in various Western European languages. Latin orthography is phonetic, it reproduces the actual pronunciation of sounds. Compare: lat. latina [latina], eng. latin - latin.

2. Reading vowels (and consonant j)

In Latin, almost all vowels are always pronounced the same as the corresponding vowels in Russian.

“E e” reads like [e]: vertebra [ve "rtebra] - vertebra. Unlike Russians, no Latin consonants soften before the sound [e]: anterior [ante" rior] - front, arteria [arte" ria] - artery.

"I i" reads like [and]: inferior [infe "rior] - lower, internus [inte" rnus] - internal. At the beginning of a word or syllable, before vowels, i is read as a voiced consonant [th]: maior [ma "yor] - large. In these positions, in modern medical terminology, instead of i, the letter J j is used - yot: jugularis [yugula" rice]. The letter j is not written only in words borrowed from the Greek language, since there was no sound [th] in it: iodum [io "dum] - iodine.

Y y (upsilon) reads like [and]: tympanum [ti "mpanum] - drum. The letter "upsilon" is used only in words of Greek origin. It was introduced by the Romans to convey the letter of the Greek alphabet upsilon, which was read as German [and].

3. Diphthongs (digraphs)

In addition to simple vowels [a], [e], [i], [o], [u], in Latin there were also two-vowel sounds (diphthongs) ae, oe, au, eu.

Digraph ae reads like [e]: vertebrae [ve" rtebre] - vertebrae, peritonaeum [peritone" mind] - peritoneum. The digraph oe reads like [e]: foetor [fetor] - a bad smell. In most cases, the diphthongs ae and oe, found in medical terms, served to render in Latin the Greek diphthongs ai and oi. For example: oedema [ede "ma] - edema, oesophagus [eso" fagus] - esophagus.

If in combinations ae and oe the vowels belong to different syllables, that is, they do not constitute a diphthong, then a separation sign (``) is placed above e and each vowel is pronounced separately: diploё [diploe] - diploe - spongy substance of the flat bones of the skull; aёr [air] - air.

The diphthong au reads like: auris [ay "rice] - ear. The diphthong eu reads like [eu]: ple "ura [ple" ura] - pleura, neurocranium [neurocra" nium] - brain skull.

4. Features of reading consonants

A double reading of the letter "C with" is accepted: as [k] or [c].

How [k] is read before the vowels a, o, and, before all consonants and at the end of the word: caput [ka "put] - head, head of bones and internal organs, clavicula [curse" kula] - collarbone, crista [cree" one hundred ] - comb.

How [c] is read before the vowels e, i, y and the digraphs ae, oe: cervicalis [cervical "fox] - cervical, incisura [incizu" ra] - tenderloin, coccygeus [koktsige "us] - coccygeal, coelia [tse" lia ] - abdomen.

“H h” is read as a Ukrainian sound [g] or German [h] (haben): homo [homo] is a person, humerus [gu "merus] is a humerus.

“K k” is very rare, almost exclusively in words of non-Latin origin, in cases where you need to keep the sound [k] before the sounds [e] or [and]: kyphosis [kypho "zis] - kyphosis, kinetocytus [kine" totsitus ] - kinetocyte - mobile cell (words of Greek origin). Exception: kalium [ka "lium] (Arabic) - potassium and some other words.

"Ss" has a double reading - [s] or [s]. How [s] is read in most cases: os sacrum [os sa "krum] - sacrum, sacrum; dorsum [to" rsum] - back, back, rear.

How [h] is read in a position between vowels: incisura [incizu "ra] - tenderloin, vesica [wezi" ka] - bubble. Doubled s is read as [c]: fossa [fo "csa] - pit, ossa [o" ss] - bones, processus [proce" ssus] - process. In the position between vowels and consonants m, n in words of Greek origin s is read as [h]: chiasma [chia "zma] - cross, platysma [fly "zma] - subcutaneous muscle of the neck.

"X x" is called a double consonant, since it represents the sound combination [ks]: radix [ra "dix] is the root.

"Z z" is found in words of Greek origin and reads like [z]: zygomaticus [zygoma" tykus] - zygomatic, trapezius [trap" zius] - trapezoidal.

5. Pronunciation of letter combinations

The letter "Q q" is found only in combination with "u" before vowels, and this combination is read as [kv]: squama [squa "me] - scales, quadratus [quadra "tus] - square.

The letter combination ngu is read in two ways: before vowels as [ngv], before consonants - [ngu]: lingua [li" ngva] - language, lingula [li" ngulya] - tongue, sanguis [sa" ngvis] - blood, angulus [angu" lux] - angle.

The combination ti before vowels reads like [qi]: rotatio [rota "tsio] - rotation, articulatio [article" tsio] - joint. However, ti before vowels in combinations sti, xti is read as [ti]: ostium [o "stium] - hole, entrance, mouth, mixtio [mi" xtio] - mixture.

6. Digraphs ch, ph, rh, th

In words of Greek origin, there are digraphs ch, ph, rh, th, which are graphic signs for conveying the corresponding sounds of the Greek language. Each digraph is read as one sound:

ch = [x]; ph = [f]; rh = [p]; th \u003d [t]: chorda [chord] - chord, string, phalanx [fa "lyanx] - phalanx; apophysis [apophysis] - apophysis, process; thorax [then" rax] - chest notch, rhaphe [ra" fe] - the seam.

The letter combination sch reads like [cx]: os ischii [os and "schii] - ischium, ischiadicus [ischia" dicus] - ischium. In some terms of non-Latin origin - the names of microorganisms and their derivatives - the phrases sch and sh are read as "sh": Shigella (shige "lla) - Shigella, the causative agent of bacillary dysentery.

7. Rules for setting stress

1. The stress is never placed on the last syllable. In two-syllable words, it is placed on the first syllable.

2. In trisyllabic and polysyllabic words, the stress is placed on the penultimate or third syllable from the end.

The placement of stress depends on the duration of the penultimate syllable. If the penultimate syllable is long, then the stress falls on it, and if it is short, then the stress falls on the third syllable from the end.

Therefore, in order to place stress in words containing more than two syllables, it is necessary to know the rules for longitude or shortness of the penultimate syllable.

8. Two Rules of Longitude

Longitude of the penultimate syllable.

1. The syllable is long if it contains a diphthong: peritona "eum - peritoneum, perona" eus - peroneal (nerve), dia "eta - diet.

2. The syllable is long if the vowel comes before two or more consonants: instrume "ntum (instrume" ntum) - tool, before x and z: comple "xus (complete" xus) - connection.

If the vowel of the penultimate syllable comes before the combination b, c, d, g, p, t with the letters l, r, then such a syllable remains short: ve "rtebra - vertebra, pa" lpebra - eyelid, tri "quetrus - trihedral. Combinations ch , ph, rh, th are considered one sound and do not create the length of the penultimate syllable: chole "dochus - bile.

brevity rule

A vowel before a vowel or h is always short. For example: pa "ries - wall, o" sseus - bone, acro "mion - acromion (shoulder process).

The length of the penultimate syllable is conventionally indicated by the superscript sign ̅, and the brevity by the sign ̆, duodēnum (duodenum), humĕrus (humerus).

In addition, it should be remembered that the adjective suffixes -al-, -ar-, -at-, -in-, -os are always long and, therefore, stressed. For example: orbita "lis - orbital, articula" ris - articular, spino "sus - spinous. The suffix -ic - in adjectives is short and unstressed: ga" stricus - gastric, thora "cicus - chest.