Socio-economic and political structure of Russia. Socio-economic structure of Kievan Rus

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Formation of the Old Russian state - Kievan Rus

The state of Kievan Rus was created at the end of the 9th century.

In the chronicle "The Tale of Bygone Years" (XII century) it is said that the Slavs paid tribute to the Varangians. Then they drove the Varangians across the sea. Rurik began to reign in Novgorod, Sineus on Beloozero, and Truvor - in the city of Izborsk. Two years later, Sineus and Truvor died, and all power passed to Rurik. Two of Rurik's squad, Askold and Dir, went south and began to reign in Kyiv. Rurik died in 879. His relative Oleg began to rule, because the son of Rurik - Igor was still a minor. After 3 years (in 882), Oleg and his retinue seize power in Kyiv. Thus, Kyiv and Novgorod united under the rule of one prince.

Norman theory. (Bayer, Miller, Schlozer, invited under Peter I). They made the assumption that the name of the Russian Empire was of Scandinavian origin, and that the state of Kievan Rus itself was created by the Vikings. “Rus” is translated from Old Swedish as the verb “to row”, Russ are rowers. Perhaps "Rus" is the name of the Varangian tribe, from which Rurik came. At first, the Varangians-druzhinniks were called Rus, and then this word gradually passed to the Slavs. German scientists decided that the Varangians were immigrants from the West, which means that the Germans created the state of Kievan Rus.

Anti-Norman theory. (18th century, with daughter Peter I - Elizabeth Petrovna) She did not like the statement non-German scientists that the Russian state was created by immigrants from the West. She asked Lomonosov to look into this issue. Lomonosov M. V. did not deny the existence of Rurik, but denied his Scandinavian origin. Anti-Norman theory intensified in the 30s of the XX century. When the Nazis came to power in Germany in 1933. Stalin gave the task of refuting the Norman theory. => To the south of Kyiv, on the river Ros, the Ros (Russians) tribe lived. The Ros river flows into the Dnieper and it is from here that the name Rus comes. The anti-Norman theory tries to prove that the state of Kievan Rus was created by the Slavs themselves.

Socio-economic prerequisites for the emergence of the state-va:

A change in the tools of agricultural labor (a plow appeared) and an increase in the productivity of labor, the appearance of a surplus product.

Separation of cattle breeding from agriculture.

Separation of handicraft from agriculture.

Growth of cities and development of trade.

The emergence of private property.

The emergence of property and social. inequalities.

Political background:

Strengthening the power of elders, tribal leaders.

Formation of large unions of tribes.

The need for protection from external enemies - nomads.

Socio-economic and political system of Kievan Rus

Kievan Rus was an early feudal state. It existed from the end of the 9th to the beginning of the 12th century (about 250 years).

The head of state was the Grand Duke - the highest military commander, judge, legislator, recipient of tribute. Conducted foreign policy, declared war, made peace, appointed officials. His power was limited to:

Council under the prince: military nobility, city elders, clergy (since 988).

Veche - the people's assembly: all free. Any questions were discussed.

Specific princes - local tribal nobility.

The first rulers of K.R.: Oleg (882-912), Igor (913-945), Olga - Igor's wife (945-964).

The unification of all East Slavic and part of the Finnish tribes.

Acquisition of overseas markets for Russian trade and protection of trade routes.

Protection of the borders of the Russian land.

The source of income for the prince and the squad is the tribute paid by the conquered tribes. Olga streamlined the collection of tribute and set its size.

The son of Igor and Olga, Prince Svyatoslav, made campaigns against the Danube Bulgaria and Byzantium, and also defeated the Khazar Khaganate.

Under the son of Svyatoslav - Vladimir the Holy in 988, Christianity was adopted in Russia.

Socio-economic structure:

Ch. branch of the economy - arable farming, cattle breeding. Add. industries: fishing, hunting. Russia was a country of cities (more than 300) - in the XII century.

Kievan Rus reached its peak under Yaroslav the Wise (1019-1054). In 1036, he defeated the Pechenegs near Kyiv and ensured the security of the eastern and southern borders of the state. In the Baltic states, he founded the city of Yuryev and established the position of Russia there. Under him, writing and literacy were distributed, schools were opened for the children of the boyars. Higher school - in the Kiev-Pechersk monastery. The largest library is in St. Sophia Cathedral. Under him, the first set of laws in Russia appeared - "Russian Truth", which was in force throughout the 11th-13th centuries.

Society in Kievan Rus was divided into

- free (nobility, warriors, clergy, merchants, artisans, free peasants)

- semi-free (purchases, ryadovichi)

- dependent (slaves: serfs and servants)

The main cell of the feud. the economy was a fiefdom. The votchina consisted of a princely or boyar estate and communities dependent on it. The patrimonial economy was inherited and had a natural character. At the head of the patrimonial administration was fireman.

3. Feudal fragmentation in Russia: its causes and consequences

Feudal fragmentation in Russia was from the beginning of the XII to the end of the XY centuries. (350 years).

Economic reasons:

1. Successes of agriculture

2. The growth of cities as centers of crafts and trade, as centers of individual territories. Craft development. More than 60 craft specialties.

3. Subsistence economy dominated.

Political reasons:

1. The desire to transfer wealth to the son. "Fatherland" - the legacy of the father.

2. As a result of the process of "settlement of the squad on the ground", the military elite turns into landowners-boyars (feudal lords) and strives for the expansion of feudal land ownership and for independence.

3. Immunities are formed. The Kyiv prince transfers a number of rights to the vassals: the right to judge, the right to collect taxes.

4. Tribute turns into a feud. rent. Tribute - to the prince for protection, rent - to the owner of the land.

5. The feudal lords create a squad on the ground, their own apparatus of power.

6. There is an increase in the power of the department. feudal lords and they do not want to obey Kyiv.

7. K ser. XII century. loses its value of the trade route “from the Varangians to the Greeks” -> “amber route”.

8. The principality of Kiev itself fell into decay due to the raids of the nomadic Polovtsians.

V. Monomakh (1113-1125) slowed down the process of disintegration of the country a little. He was the grandson of the Byzantine emperor Constantine Monomakh. V. Monomakh became a prince at the age of 60. His son Mstislav the Great (1125-1132) managed to continue his father's policy and maintain what had been achieved. But immediately after his death, the division of Russia begins. At the beginning of the feud. fragmentation, there were 15 large and small principalities, and in the beginning. 19th century already was the peak of the feud. fragmentation - "250 principalities. There were 3 centers: Vladimir-Suzdal kn-in, Galicia-Volyn kn-in and Novgorod feud. republic.

Mongol campaigns against Russia.

In Mongolia, there was an amalgamation of the Mongolian tribes into a single state. The head of state is Timuchin (Genghis Khan). It was early feudal. state-in., only Mongolian feudalism had features: it was nomadic. This is how a whole empire is formed, which is divided into uluses:

- Vost. part of the ulus - Zap. Siberia - Art. son Jochi - Blue or White Horde;

- Zap. part - Batu - Golden Horde.

In 1227, Jochi died (poisoned), then Genghis Khan (fell from a horse).

In 1236, Batu conquered the Volga Bulgaria.

There are two campaigns of Batu (the grandson of Genghis Khan) to Russia.

1 hike 1237-1238, but Russia was not yet subjugated, although a significant part of northeastern Russia was defeated. paid off by paying tribute 100 miles from the city.

2 hike 1239-1240 The main blow Batu brought down on the southern Russian lands: Galicia-Volyn, Kyiv. Kyiv, Murom, Galich, Chernigov, and others fell. In total, only Novgorod, Pskov, and the Vitebsk principality did not suffer.

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The army of Ancient Russia is the armed forces of Kievan Rus (from the end of the 9th century) and the Russian principalities of the pre-Mongolian period (until the middle of the 13th century).

Like the armed forces of the early medieval Slavs of the 5th-8th centuries, they solved the problems of fighting the nomads of the steppes of the Northern Black Sea region and the Byzantine Empire, but they were fundamentally different from the new supply system (from the first half of the 9th century) and the penetration of the Varangian military nobility into the social elite of the East Slavic society at the end of the 9th century .

The army of Ancient Russia was also used by the princes of the Rurik dynasty for internal political struggle in Russia.

Under the year 375, one of the first military clashes of the ancient Slavs is mentioned. The Antian elder Bozh and with him 70 elders were killed by the Goths.

After the decline of the Hunnic empire by the end of the 5th century, with the beginning of the Middle Ages in Europe, the Slavs returned to the historical arena.

In the 6th-7th centuries, there was an active Slavic colonization of the Balkan Peninsula, which was owned by Byzantium - the most powerful state of the 6th century, which crushed the kingdoms of the Vandals in North Africa, the Ostrogoths in Italy and the Visigoths in Spain and again turned the Mediterranean Sea into a Roman lake.

Many times in direct clashes with the Byzantines, the Slavic troops won victories.

In particular, in 551, the Slavs defeated the Byzantine cavalry and captured its chief Asbad, which indicates the presence of cavalry among the Slavs, and took the city of Toper, luring its garrison away from the fortress with a false retreat and setting up an ambush. In 597, during the siege of Thessalonica, the Slavs used stone-throwing machines, "turtles", iron rams and hooks. In the 7th century, the Slavs successfully operated at sea against Byzantium (siege of Thessalonica in 610, landing on about.

Crete in 623, landing under the walls of Constantinople in 626).

In the next period, associated with the dominance of the Turkic-Bulgarians in the steppes, the Slavs are cut off from the Byzantine borders, but in the 9th century two events occur that immediately chronologically precede the era of Kievan Rus - the Russian-Byzantine war of 830 and the Russian-Byzantine war of 860.

Both expeditions were by sea.

Organization of the army of the IX-XI centuries

With the expansion in the first half of the 9th century of the influence of the Kyiv princes on the tribal unions of the Drevlyans, Dregovichi, Krivichi and Severyans, the establishment of a collection system (carried out by the forces of 100-200 soldiers) and the export of polyudya, the Kyiv princes begin to have the means to maintain a large army in constant combat readiness, which was required to fight the nomads.

Also, the army could stay under the banner for a long time, making long-term campaigns, which was required to defend the interests of foreign trade in the Black and Caspian Seas.

The core of the army was the princely squad, which appeared in the era of military democracy. Among them were professional warriors. The number of senior warriors (excluding their own warriors and servants) can be judged from later data (the Novgorod Republic - 300 "golden belts"; the Battle of Kulikovo more than 500 dead).

A more numerous young squad was made up of gridi (prince's bodyguards - the number of "heroes" in the castle of the Kyiv prince Ibn - Fadlan defines as 400 people under 922), youths (military servants), children (children of older combatants). However, the squad was not numerous and hardly exceeded 2000 people.

The most numerous part of the army was the militia - the warrior. At the turn of the 9th-10th centuries, the militia was tribal.

Archaeological data testify to the property stratification among the Eastern Slavs at the turn of the 8th-9th centuries and the appearance of thousands of manors-choirs of the local nobility, while the tribute was calculated in proportion to the yards, regardless of the wealth of the owners (however, according to one version of the origin of the boyars, the local nobility was prototype of the senior squad). From the middle of the 9th century, when Princess Olga organized the collection of tribute in the Russian North through the system of graveyards (later we see the Kyiv governor in Novgorod, transporting 2/3 of the Novgorod tribute to Kyiv), tribal militias lose their significance.

The sets of wars at the beginning of the reign of Svyatoslav Igorevich or during the formation by Vladimir Svyatoslavich of the garrisons of the fortresses he built on the border with the steppe are one-time in nature, there is no information that this service had a certain period or that the warrior had to come to the service with any equipment .

From the 11th century, the senior squad begins to play a key role in the veche.

On the contrary, in the more numerous part of the veche, historians see in the younger ones not the junior squad of the prince, but the people's militia of the city (merchants, artisans). As for the rural people's militia, according to various versions, smerds participated in campaigns as servants of the convoy, supplied horses for the city militia (Presnyakov A.E.) or served in the cavalry themselves (Rybakov B.A.).

Mercenary troops took a certain part in the wars of Ancient Russia.

Initially, these were the Varangians, which is associated with friendly relations between Russia and Scandinavia. They participated not only as mercenaries. Varangians are also found among the closest associates of the first Kyiv princes. In some campaigns of the 10th century, Russian princes hired Pechenegs and Hungarians. Later, during the period of feudal fragmentation, mercenaries also often participated in internecine wars. Among the peoples who were among the mercenaries, in addition to the Varangians and Pechenegs, there were Polovtsy, Hungarians, Western and Southern Slavs, Finno-Ugric peoples and Balts, Germans and some others.

All of them were armed in their own style.

The total number of troops could be more than 10,000 people.

Christianity
Identification and falsification of goods
Organization of commodity expertise

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The political structure of Kievan Rus

Kievan Rus is an early feudal monarchy. At the head was the Grand Duke of Kyiv. After the adoption of Eastern Christianity, the princes are perceived as persons sanctified by the authority established by God.

The powers of the prince are the collection of taxes; legislative activity; judicial and administrative functions; military functions (the prince was the supreme commander); representation of the state in foreign relations.

Power was inherited by the eldest in the family.

In Kievan Rus there was no difference between the organs of state administration and the organs of administration of the affairs of the Grand Duke.

Often entrusting the court to his deputies "posadniks and tiuns", the prince headed the administration of the principality.

He appointed regional governors - "posadniks". In his activities, the prince relied on the council of elders (princely council). Advice- this is an advisory body, not legally formalized, but having a serious influence on the monarch in solving the most important legislative and religious issues, problems of foreign policy, gathering people.

The council consisted of boyars, city nobility, representatives of the higher clergy. The obligation for the prince to consult with them was affirmed by custom.

Strengthening of the feudal lords in the XI century. brought about the emergence of a new government sleep, i.e. feudal congress. At the congress, issues of inter-princely disputes, war and peace, military campaigns, and division of lands were resolved.

In the Old Russian state there was veche.

A veche is a people's meeting to discuss and resolve important common issues. All free residents of the city and adjacent settlements took part in the veche. The method of convocation was varied: through heralds (biriches), and by ringing a bell (in Novgorod). The veche resolved the issues of taxation, defense of the city and organization of military campaigns. The decisions of the veche were binding on everyone.

Socio-economic structure of Kievan Rus

There were two forms of organization of production:

fiefdom(or fatherland) - paternal possession, inherited from father to son, the owner of the estate was a prince or boyar;
community lands, not yet subject to private feudal lords, they paid tribute to the Grand Duke in favor of the state.

Main population countries were free people who did not know class partitions and divisions.

All the free population enjoyed the same rights, but its various groups differed from each other in their actual position, wealth and social influence.

The upper stratum of the population or the boyars consisted of two elements:

"Zemsky boyars", a local aristocracy that arose before the formation of the Old Russian state.

These were the descendants of tribal elders and tribal princes, large merchants, armed merchants;

"princely men", princely boyars, the highest stratum of combatants.

During the XI-XII centuries. there is a rapprochement and merging of the zemstvo and princely boyars. As a result of this process, the boyars turn into feudal lords.

The middle strata of the population include the rank and file of the prince's combatants and the middle strata of the urban merchant class.

The lower strata - urban and rural common people - "smerds".

They made up the bulk of the population, were personally free and united in territorial communities. Smerdy paid tribute to the prince, economically they were dependent on him and the boyars.

A significant layer of the dependent population were serfs, who lived on the lands of large landowners.

Slavery was of two types: complete and incomplete.

Complete - "servants", slaves, etc.

- cultivated boyar lands, served their yards.

Incomplete - purchases that went into bondage to the prince, since they could not return the loan to him; ryadovichi - who concluded a row (agreement) with the feudal lord; outcast - expelled from the community.

Slavery in Russia had a patriarchal character.

Military organization and military affairs

Old Russian state

The main tasks of the military organization of Russia in the IX - XII centuries.

were: the protection of subject territories and protection from nomadic tribes; support and protection of trade caravans and routes; the conquest of neighboring tribes, the seizure of new lands; maintenance of order in the territory of the state.

At the disposal of the Kyiv princes was a retinue military organization. The squad was the main core of the armed forces. When the prince passed to another inheritance, then the squad also passed with him. The combatants formed a partnership or brotherhood, an alliance of the faithful, on whom the prince could rely at any moment.

Usually they were strong and well-trained professional warriors, connected with the prince by a personal contract of service and loyalty. The princely squad was divided into the highest - princely men and boyars, and the youngest - "rents", "chad", "gridba" later - the court or servants.

The older boyars acted as governors, and the younger ones acted as administrative agents: swordsmen (bailiffs), virniks (fine collectors), etc. The squad came from the environment of the merchants of large cities.

The warriors did not have land holdings and were not connected with the prince by land relations. They lived at the court of the prince and were kept at his expense: they received clothes, food, weapons, horses, and as an additional reward they received a share of tribute and military booty after campaigns.

Subsequently (in the 11th century), most of the combatants settled on the ground, acquired their own combatants, who took part in all the campaigns of the prince. According to various estimates, the quantitative composition of the squads was approx.

700 - 800 people

In the event of large campaigns or attacks by nomads, the zemstvo city army was called up, which was the result of the military organization of trading cities. The trading cities formed an organized regiment (a thousand), which was subdivided into hundreds and tens.

Thousands were commanded by a voivode or thousand, who was chosen by the city, and then appointed by the prince, hundreds and tens were elected sotskys and tenths. These commanders of the “old men of the city” made up the military administration of the city and the region belonging to it. This army included all citizens capable of bearing arms, with the exception of the youngest adult son in each family. Rural residents (smerds) were recruited into the army extremely rarely and in limited numbers.

The warriors went on a campaign with their weapons and equipment or received it from the prince. Depending on their financial situation, the warriors went on a campaign on horseback or on foot. At the end of the campaign, the howls disbanded. The armed forces of the Kyiv princes also included mercenaries from nomadic eastern tribes: Ugrians, Pechenegs, Berendeys, trades, Poles, and later - Polovtsy, who carried out frontier service on the southern borders of Russia.

The army was divided into infantry and cavalry, and the main clan was the infantry, which, according to the armament and nature of the actions, was divided into heavy and light.

The cavalry was of secondary importance.

It consisted mainly of princely and boyar warriors, noble and wealthy people, partly mercenaries. This is due to the need for movement mainly along rivers and seas, as well as the high cost and difficulty of maintaining cavalry troops.

In the tenth century, under Prince Vladimir, due to constant clashes between Russians and Turkic tribes and Ugric peoples who fought on horseback, the number of cavalry began to increase for fast movement and maneuvering.

The main weapon of a professional warrior was a double-edged sword with a heavy and long blade (up to 90 cm).

Since the X century. in Russia, a saber began to be used, more convenient in equestrian combat. In addition, long and short spears for throwing (sulits), axes, horns, maces, knives, and bows were used. Warriors had good protective equipment for that time, which was called armor, and later armor. These were helmets with chain mail mesh, chain mail, large almond-shaped shields.

Versatile and perfect weapons in many ways contributed to the feats of arms and the glory of Russian soldiers who fought against the enemies of the Fatherland.

The basis of the battle order of the ancient Russian army in the IX-XI centuries.

was a "wall" - a tightly closed and deep formation of 10 - 20 lines (a kind of ancient Greek phalanx). Its flanks were covered by cavalry, and light infantry acted in front of the front, which threw arrows and light spears (sulits) at the enemy. Such a battle order was used in numerous battles by Prince Svyatoslav.

The strength of the “wall” was in its solidity and powerful attack, the disadvantage was in the inactivity and vulnerability of the flanks and rear.

Subsequently, the second line of the wall was introduced into the battle order, which played the role of a reserve and protected the flanks and rear from enemy cavalry attacks.

the Russian army lined up for battle in a line consisting of three parts: the central regiment (“brow”), the regiments of the right and left hands (flanks). This battle formation was called "regimental row". It allowed the combined placement of infantry and cavalry, maneuver and strike at the enemy.

The Slavs fortified their cities with wooden walls impregnable for the barbarian peoples, the then neighbors of Russia, surrounded with deep ditches not only fortresses, but also their field camps for security.

Our ancestors knew how to take foreign cities and knew the art of siege earthworks.

The Slavs borrowed the art of navigation from the Varangians.

Warships were propeller-driven with large sails, they could accommodate from 40 to 60 people.

Chapter II. Period of independent feudal states

(XII - first half of the XV centuries)

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State structure of Kievan Rus. Prince and princely council

In the IX-X centuries. the most important formal and legal sign of the early feudal monarchy was formed - the hereditary transfer of the table. Even in the presence of the regency of Oleg under the young Igor and Olga under the young Svyatoslav, the transfer of power through the filial line is an accomplished fact. In the X century. and local tribal princes are replaced by younger members of the Rurik family - the deputies of the great Kyiv prince.

Already the sons of Vladimir Svyatoslavovich, and then the grandchildren, sat down at the local princely tables.

True, the connection between the individual lands, which began to be called "destinies", was still purely mechanical, because a single Russian people in this state did not work out, reliable links not only of an economic nature, but even psychological, moral, had not yet been developed.

Christianity, adopted in 988, spread slowly, conquering positions from paganism, even at the beginning of the 12th century. not all Slavic tribes were baptized (Vyatichi, for example).

Communication was carried out by the princes and their squads, who periodically put things in order where the need arose, as well as representatives of the princely administration, who periodically reported to their sovereign.

Kyiv princes, borrowing from their powerful neighbors - Byzantium and the Khazar Khaganate - the idea of the greatness of royal power, began to call themselves kagans ("khakan-rus"). With the adoption of Christianity, the church, headed by the Greek metropolitans, began to transfer to the Russian prince the Byzantine notions of a sovereign appointed by God.

The functions of the Kyiv princes consisted, firstly, in organizing a squad (or hiring it) and military militias to fight external enemies, internal strife, to collect tribute and foreign trade, to spread power to new tribes.

With the adoption of Christianity, the church began to form among the Russian princes the idea that they were placed not only for the external defense of the country, but also for the establishment and maintenance of internal social order. The regulatory function, aimed at achieving social stability in society, is gradually becoming one of the most important. The princes not only use military force during uprisings, but also try to extinguish conflicts by peaceful means: distributing money to the needy, organizing free "tables", helping orphans and widows, legislatively limiting the willfulness of usurers, etc.

From the time of Vladimir I, sources especially emphasize the importance of the judicial function of the prince.

The prince was the highest court available to the population, the highest justice in society. But he was also the organizer of the entire judicial system, which functioned on the basis of princely legislation (“charters” and “lessons”). The princes imposed fines for misconduct and crimes, in accordance with customary law, set the amount of remuneration for officials, and created a local administration.

Since ancient times, the princes performed another function - the collection of taxes from the subject population.

The ancient method of collecting taxes in Russia was by people, a kind of military expedition, conducted by the princes, as a rule, twice a year - in spring and autumn. However, at first there was no strict order in this matter, and the princes visited for tribute more than twice a year, everything depended on their good will. After the death of Igor, who paid for his greed, Olga streamlined the collection of tribute by establishing graveyards - special places - and established special tax collector officials.

The unit of taxation is the yard (smoke), "stays and traps".

Under the Grand Duke, there was a Council, which consisted of the most influential combatants and representatives of the tribal nobility (the elders of the city). The prince's entourage included thousand, sot and tenths. These names are of military origin, they originate from the decimal system adopted by the Slavs, as, indeed, by other nations, for dividing the tribal army - the militia. These names were then assigned to the heads of garrisons and commanders of units set by the Grand Duke in individual cities - the centers of principalities.

Later, they were transformed into city and local authorities in general; tysyatsky - to the governor, sotsky and tenth - to financial and administrative bodies.

From the end of the X century. serious changes are taking place in the organization of the power of the Grand Duke.

Between him and the princes-governors, who are gaining more and more weight and independence, relations of vassalage are established. At the head of the managerial ladder - the great Kyiv prince - overlord, but he is only the first among equals, he is the oldest owner of the richest table.

The rest of the princes - the young ones - are his vassals, their relations with him are built on the basis of a series of agreements or the so-called "letters of the cross" (from "kiss the cross", take an oath). Vassals are obliged to render special honor to the elder, military assistance, economic support, especially during the war, which was determined by the formula: “be in the will”, “be in obedience”. In turn, the suzerain took upon himself the duty to protect the vassal from insults and harassment by any third party, to endow him with land (fief or feud).

In this video lesson, everyone will get acquainted with the topic "Political, socio-economic development of Kievan Rus." Pupils are waiting for a story about the history of the ancient Russian state, the traditions of government, economic, social and political features. In addition, the teacher will touch upon the main problems of Kievan Rus.

Theme: Ancient Russia

Lesson: Socio-economic and political system of the Old Russian state

We will talk in this lesson about the most ancient events and monuments of Ancient Russia. What is "Yaroslav's Truth"? Who are the dead? What was the social status of the rank and file in ancient Russia?

1. The problem of determining the socio-economic formation of Ancient Russia

The main reason for the existence of this problem is the actual absence of reliable written sources. The only reliable source was and remains the oldest legal code of Kievan Rus - "Russian Truth", consisting of three components: "The Truth of Yaroslav the Wise" (1016/1035), "The Truth of Yaroslavichi" (1070/1072) and the "Charter Vladimir Monomakh" (1113).

In Russian historical science, the problem of determining the socio-economic formation of Ancient Russia was not given much importance. The only exception was the book by N. Pavlov-Silvansky "Feudalism in Russia", published in 1908. In Soviet historical science, on the contrary, this problem was given priority, since its methodological basis was Marxism. In 1939, during a rather heated discussion, the thesis about the slave-owning nature of Kievan Rus was rejected and B. Grekov's concept of Ancient Rus as an early feudal state triumphed. Then, in 1980-2000, a number of authors (I. Froyanov, A. Dvornichenko, P. Pyankov) sharply criticized the concept of B. Grekov, but it still remains dominant in Russian historiography. Most modern authors recognize the presence in Kievan Rus (starting from the 11th century) of three main features of feudalism:

1) the hierarchy of land ownership;

2) the institution of feudal vassalage;

3) senior regime.

2. The political system of the Old Russian state

The head of the Old Russian state was the great prince of Kyiv, who at the same time was the head of the feudal hierarchy, legislator, military leader, addressee of tribute and supreme judge. Such a wide range of his powers gave grounds to a number of authors (N. Karamzin) to assert that he was an autocratic monarch. However, most historians (N. Kostomarov, V. Klyuchevsky, M. Tikhomirov, A. Kuzmin) believe that the power of the Grand Prince of Kyiv was significantly limited: first by the council of the tribal nobility and the people's council, and later by the senior princely retinue and the Boyar Duma. At the same time, a number of modern authors (I. Froyanov, A. Dvornichenko) generally deny the monarchical nature of the Old Russian state and argue that the main political role in pre-Mongolian Rus belonged to the people's council.

The power of the Grand Prince of Kyiv was hereditary and passed on ladder principle, i.e., the next in seniority to the specific prince (younger brother or older nephew). However, it must be said that this principle was often violated, and the struggle for the grand prince's throne between the specific princes of the "Rurik House" was a characteristic feature of the political system. Ancient Russia.

Rice. 3. Yaroslav's family. Part of the fresco of St. Sophia Cathedral in Kyiv ()

The mainstay of princely power in ancient Russia was princely retinue. The question of its origin and functions still causes the most heated debate. But traditionally, this term itself served to designate a small but very influential social group in ancient Russian society. In the early stages of its existence, the princely retinue lived mainly on military campaigns, foreign trade and tribute collected from the subject population (polyudye), and then (from the middle of the 11th century) took an active part in the process of folding feudal land ownership.

The princely squad itself was divided into two parts: the older and the younger. The senior squad (gridi, ognischans, tiuns and boyars) not only participated in all military campaigns and diplomatic relations with foreign powers, but also took an active part in the management of the princely domain economy (tiuns, ognischans) and the state as princely posadniks and volostels. The junior squad (children, youths) was the personal guard of the prince, which also participated in all military campaigns and carried out separate instructions from the prince to manage his domain economy and state as guardians of public order, swordsmen (bailiffs), virniki (fine collectors) and etc.

According to most historians (B. Grekov, B. Rybakov, L. Cherepnin, A. Kuzmin), from the middle of the 11th century. the process of decomposition of the princely squad as a purely military organization begins and the formation of the boyar patrimonial land ownership takes place, which was formed:

1) through the grant of state land to a private inalienable possession (allod or estate);

2) either through the grant of land from the princely domain to a private, but alienable possession (flax or feud).

3. Dependent population of Ancient Russia

We can judge the various categories of the dependent population of Ancient Rus from the same Russkaya Pravda, but since this source is clearly not enough, disputes in historical science still do not stop in assessing the social status of various categories of the dependent population of Kievan Rus.

a) Smerdy. B. Grekov divided all smerds into two main groups: community smerds, independent of private owners and paying tribute only to the state, and suffering smerds, who were land dependent on feudal lords and carried feudal duties in his favor - corvée and dues. I. Froyanov argued that the smerds were divided into “internal”, that is, prisoners planted on the land of the feudal lord, and “external”, that is, subjugated tribes who paid tribute (military indemnity) to the Grand Duke. V. Klyuchevsky, L. Cherepnin, B. Rybakov considered smerds to be state (princely) peasants who were in feudal dependence on the state and carried duties in the form of tribute in its favor. S. Yushkov believed that the status of a smerd was akin to the legal status of a serf in the 16th-17th centuries.

Rice. 4. The uprising of smerds in 1071 ()

b) servants (serfs). B. Grekov divided all the serfs into "whitewashed", i.e. full, who did not conduct an independent household and were the personal servants of the feudal lord, and "hiremen" - former free community members who fell into the category of slaves for debts. A. Zimin believed that the term "servants" denoted the entire dependent population of Ancient Russia, and the term "serf" - only slaves. I. Froyanov argued that the servants were captive slaves, and the serfs were slaves of local origin, etc.

Closely related to this dispute is the problem of the place of slavery in ancient Russian society. According to most historians (B. Grekov, M. Tikhomirov, A. Kuzmin), slavery in Russia existed only in the form of domestic slavery and did not play a significant role in the social division of labor. According to their opponents (I. Froyanov, P. Pyankov), slavery played a key role in Ancient Russia.

in) Ryadovichi. According to most historians (B. Grekov, M. Tikhomirov, A. Kuzmin), the dependence of the Ryadovich on the feudal lord was purely feudal in nature, since through the signing of a special agreement (series) he entered into a dependent position from the landowner and carried feudal duties in his favor.

G) Purchases. B. Grekov considered purchases of former free smerds, who, through obtaining a cash loan (kupa), fell into a dependent position from the feudal lord. A. Zimin, I. Froyanov, V. Kobrin argued that purchases were "non-whitewashed" serfs who either worked on the lord's plow or were the feudal gentry. The main difference between purchases and obelnye serfs was that they ran a personal household and could eventually, having repaid a debt, regain their freedom.

e) Outcasts. Most Soviet historians shared the point of view of B. Grekov, who considered outcasts to be former serfs planted on the land of a feudal lord, that is, serfs.

1. Gorsky A. A. Russia from the Slavic settlement to the Moscow kingdom. M., 2004

2. Grekov B. D. Kievan Rus. M., 2004

3. Danilevsky I. N. Ancient Russia through the eyes of contemporaries and descendants. M., 2001

4. Zimin A. A. Slaves in Russia from ancient times to the end of the 15th century. M., 1973

5. Kuzmin A. G. History of Russia from ancient times to 1618. M., 2003

6. Tikhomirov M. N. Ancient Russia. M., 1975

7. Sverdlov M. B. Pre-Mongol Rus. SPb., 2003

8. Stefanovich P.S. Boyars, youths, squads. The military-political elite of Russia in the X-XI centuries. M., 2012

9. Froyanov I. Ya. Beginnings of Russian history. SPb., 2005

10. Yushkov S. V. Russian Truth. Origin, sources, its significance. M., 2002

4. Dependent population of Ancient Russia ().

Socio-economic development of Kievan Rus

The date of formation of the Old Russian state is conditionally considered to be 882, when Prince Oleg, who seized power in Novgorod after the death of Rurik (some chroniclers call him the governor of Rurik), undertook a campaign against Kyiv. Having killed Askold and Dir, who reigned there, for the first time he united the northern and southern lands as part of a single state. Since the capital was moved from Novgorod to Kyiv, this state is often called Kievan Rus (Kiev Principality, Kyiv Khaganate).

Forms of ownership

1. The Grand Prince of Kyiv was considered the supreme owner of all land in the state, but his rights were limited by the possibility of collecting regular, strictly stipulated tribute. Initially, the collection of tribute passed through the system polyudya, when the prince with his retinue traveled around the lands subject to him, collecting tribute. After the reform of Princess Olga, the amount of tribute was precisely specified, and it had to be brought to specially prepared points - churchyards. The collection of tribute was in charge governors.

2. From the XII century. the emergence of princely domain land tenure is noted: princes bought land from cities and bred horses on it, and serfs worked on their lands. Gradually, the princes seize part of the communal lands and donate these lands to their combatants. This is how fiefdoms arose.

3. Despite on the these trends continue the existence of urban and communal lands, managed in accordance with the traditions of the tribal system.

social structure

BOYARS - noble people who had estates. They were divided by origin into the tribal boyars (in the past, the "old men of the city") and the service boyars (the top of the princely squad).

The middle stratum of the population was represented by MERCHANTS (the social stratum of merchants, intermediaries between production and the market.) and WEALTH CITIZENS in cities and JUNIOR DRUZHINNIKI.

DRUZHINNIKI- ("men") - military people united in a squad (an armed detachment under the prince). They participated in wars, the administration of the principality and the personal household of the prince. In the XI - XII centuries. combatants were divided into elders - boyars, princely husbands, and younger ones - warriors and servants of the princely court

All the free population was called - PEOPLE.

artisans - people who were engaged in craft - small-scale manual production of products in a handicraft way, simple tools, based on individual labor with a limited number of assistants.

Dependent population:

SMERDY - a semi-free population living on the lands of the prince and paying taxes;

ZAKUPY - semi-free people, ruined community members, for a loan ("kupa") with livestock, grain, tools, etc. caught in debt bondage to another landowner. He is deprived of personal freedom, but he has his own household and there was an opportunity to redeem himself by repaying the debt.

RYADOVICHI - smerds (peasants) who have concluded an agreement (“row”) with landowners on the conditions of their work for him or the use of his land and tools.

Serfs - not free population, slaves. As a rule, prisoners of war were slaves, as well as purchases that fled or did not return the debt,

OUTSIDE - people who stand outside of society. The smerds who left the community became outcasts, later - the children of priests who did not learn to read and write, and the children of princes who did not receive a "table" before the death of their parent.

The main trends in the development of the social structure:

1. Integration of various groups of tribal and service nobility, with the advent of a single term - "boyars".

2. The division of the squad into older and younger and the emergence of the lower part of the ruling class - the youths.

3. Enrichment of the ruling elite - through the state system (predatory raids and redistribution of state taxes).

4. Emergence of patrimonial economy (XI - XII centuries) with the exploitation of servants.

5. The stratification of the community.

MAIN EVENTS

992-996pp.- Tithe Church was built in Kyiv

1037 - construction of St. Sophia Cathedral in Kyiv

1037-1039 pp.- At the Sophia Cathedral in Kyiv, a chronicle was created, called the Most Ancient Kyiv Code

1056-1057 pp.- Creation of "Ostromirov Eva Helium" - the oldest of the books that has survived to this day

1073 , 1076 pp.- Creation of "Izbornik for Prince Svyatoslav Yaroslavich"

1108 - founding by the grandson of Yaroslav the Wise Svyatopolk St. Michael's Golden-Domed Monastery in Kyiv

1113 - the completion of the writing of the chronicle "The Tale of Bygone Years" by the monk of the Kiev-Pechersk Lavra Nestor

1117 - conclusion "Instruction" by Vladimir Monomakh

1200, about- construction of the Church of St. Panteleimon in Galich

1230s pp.- Writing "Words about the death of the Russian land"

1256 - the first annalistic mention of the city. Lviv

13th century, second half- the conclusion of the Galicia-Volyn chronicle, containing two independent parts: Galician (1201-1261) and Volyn (1262-1292)

1324 - the first written mention of the action on the Ukrainian lands (in Vladimir-Volynsky) points

Features of the socio-economic development of the Kyiv state

Questions of socio-economic development of Kievan Rus is debatable in historical science. The essence of the question is whether Kievan Rus is a feudal state, like other states of Western Europe.

A significant part of scientists argue that Kievan Rus was a feudal society. At the same time, other scientists point out that:

In Kievan Rus there was no clear system of vassalage (the main feature of feudalism)

Significant was the role of trade and cities;

The nobility and the Grand Duke himself gave preference to trade, and not to the organization of labor of dependent peasants;

Most of the population was made up of the free peasantry, which had more rights than the Western European peasant;

A significant part of the artisans worked not to order, but to the market.

All these and other features give us the right to conclude that Kievan Rus was a unique and original social system, which, however, developed towards European feudalism.

Society of Kievan Rus was divided into several main layers.

The dominant layer consisted of princes, boyars, combatants. princes belonged to the ruling dynasty of Rurikovich and were in a rather complex relationship of dependence on the Kyiv prince. Boyars formed from representatives of the old tribal nobility and warriors of the Grand Duke of Kyiv, who became landowners. Vigilantes made up the immediate environment of the prince, which helped him in military and economic affairs.

The urban population was divided into "people" - the urban nobility (merchants associated with international trade), "young people" - urban residents (small traders, shopkeepers, artisans) and "rabble" - the poorest sections of the city (loaders, apprentices, etc.). ).

The peasantry constituted the most numerous stratum of society. Its vast majority were smerdy - personally free peasants, who had their own economy, owned land and paid tribute to the state. Peasants who lost their own economy and found themselves dependent on landowners were called procurement .

* In the lower social strata belonged laborers (peasants or petty bourgeois, hired to work before landowners), ryadovichi (peasants who worked as landowners under an agreement - “nearby”), servants (various categories of dependent population, it was possible to sell, bequeath and donate) and serfs (persons whose position resembled slaves serving the needs of the lord's court). Slaves were one of the main goods sold by Kyiv merchants. Captives, criminals, debtors fell into slavery.

A separate group of people were outcasts - those who, due to certain circumstances, have lost contact with their social group. They remained personally free, although they did not have the rights and obligations of their group. In Russia, free peasants, merchants, children of the clergy and even princes were outcasts.

With the adoption of Christianity, another significant layer of society arises - clergy, which replaced the Magi and other servants of pagan gods, cults. It was a privileged social group and was divided into higher (metropolitan, bishops, etc.) and ordinary (priests, monks, etc.).

In Kievan Rus, 13-15% of the population lived in cities and towns, of which there were about 240. But only 74 cities had a population of about 4-5 thousand people. Among the cities, Kyiv was distinguished, in which 35-40 thousand people lived. At that time it was one of the largest cities in Europe. The cities of Kievan Rus were both centers of crafts and trade, as well as administrative and military centers.

Trade in Kievan Rus developed due to the presence of such important trade routes as the route "from the Varangians to the Greeks" (from the Baltic to the Black Sea), along the Volga to the coast of the Caspian Sea.

Despite the significant role of trade and crafts, most of the population was engaged in agriculture and various crafts. In agriculture, a plow with an iron plow and a two-, three-field crop rotation system were used. Livestock occupied a significant place. They raised cattle, horses, pigs, etc.

Changes in the form of government of Kievan Rus IX-XIII centuries.
Stages of development of statehood	the form board	character traits
becoming	retinue state	It was based on a simple apparatus of administration, legal proceedings and tribute collection, which was formed on the basis of the prince's squad, which served not only as an army, but also as advisers to the prince.
	centralized monarchy	All power was concentrated in the hands of the prince, the wife faded into the background. In governing the state, the prince relied on the princely council, which included senior warriors and people from the old tribal nobility - the boyars.
fragmentation	Federal monarchy	The power of the prince was limited to his lot. The most important issues for all of Russia were resolved at princely congresses (snems). Struggle for Kyiv between different branches of the Rurik dynasty. Increasing role of veche and boyars.