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All living organisms in nature consist of the same levels of organization; this is a characteristic biological pattern common to all living organisms.
The following levels of organization of living organisms are distinguished - molecular, cellular, tissue, organ, organism, population-species, biogeocenotic, biospheric.

Rice. 1. Molecular genetic level

1. Molecular genetic level. This is the most elementary level characteristic of life (Fig. 1). No matter how complex or simple the structure of any living organism, they all consist of the same molecular compounds. An example of this is nucleic acids, proteins, carbohydrates and other complex molecular complexes of organic and inorganic substances. They are sometimes called biological macromolecular substances. At the molecular level, various life processes of living organisms take place: metabolism, energy conversion. With the help of the molecular level, the transfer of hereditary information is carried out, individual organelles are formed and other processes occur.

Rice. 2. Cellular level

2. Cellular level. The cell is the structural and functional unit of all living organisms on Earth (Fig. 2). Individual organelles in the cell have a characteristic structure and perform a specific function. The functions of individual organelles in the cell are interconnected and perform common life processes. In unicellular organisms (unicellular algae and protozoa), all life processes take place in one cell, and one cell exists as a separate organism. Remember unicellular algae, chlamydomonas, chlorella and protozoa - amoeba, infusoria, etc. In multicellular organisms, one cell cannot exist as a separate organism, but it is an elementary structural unit of the organism.

Rice. 3. Tissue level

3. Tissue level. A set of cells and intercellular substances similar in origin, structure and functions forms a tissue. The tissue level is typical only for multicellular organisms. Also, individual tissues are not an independent integral organism (Fig. 3). For example, the bodies of animals and humans are made up of four different tissues (epithelial, connective, muscle, and nervous). Plant tissues are called: educational, integumentary, supporting, conductive and excretory. Recall the structure and functions of individual tissues.

Rice. 4. Organ level

4. Organ level. In multicellular organisms, the union of several identical tissues, similar in structure, origin, and functions, forms the organ level (Fig. 4). Each organ contains several tissues, but among them one is the most significant. A separate organ cannot exist as a whole organism. Several organs, similar in structure and function, unite to form an organ system, for example, digestion, respiration, blood circulation, etc.

Rice. 5. Organism level

5. Organism level. Plants (chlamydomonas, chlorella) and animals (amoeba, infusoria, etc.), whose bodies consist of one cell, are an independent organism (Fig. 5). A separate individual of multicellular organisms is considered as a separate organism. In each individual organism, all the vital processes characteristic of all living organisms take place - nutrition, respiration, metabolism, irritability, reproduction, etc. Each independent organism leaves behind offspring. In multicellular organisms, cells, tissues, organs and organ systems are not a separate organism. Only an integral system of organs specialized in performing various functions forms a separate independent organism. The development of an organism, from fertilization to the end of life, takes a certain period of time. This individual development of each organism is called ontogeny. An organism can exist in close relationship with the environment.

Rice. 6. Population-species level

6. Population-species level. A set of individuals of one species or group that exists for a long time in a certain part of the range relatively apart from other sets of the same species constitutes a population. At the population level, the simplest evolutionary transformations are carried out, which contributes to the gradual emergence of a new species (Fig. 6).

Rice. 7 Biogeocenotic level

7. Biogeocenotic level. The totality of organisms of different species and organization of varying complexity, adapted to the same environmental conditions, is called a biogeocenosis, or natural community. The composition of biogeocenosis includes numerous types of living organisms and environmental conditions. In natural biogeocenoses, energy is accumulated and transferred from one organism to another. Biogeocenosis includes inorganic, organic compounds and living organisms (Fig. 7).

Rice. 8. Biosphere level

8. Biosphere level. The totality of all living organisms on our planet and their common natural habitat constitutes the biospheric level (Fig. 8). At the biospheric level, modern biology solves global problems, such as determining the intensity of the formation of free oxygen by the Earth's vegetation cover or changes in the concentration of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere associated with human activities. The main role at the biospheric level is played by "living substances", that is, the totality of living organisms that inhabit the Earth. Also at the biosphere level, "bio-inert substances" are important, formed as a result of the vital activity of living organisms and "inert" substances (i.e., environmental conditions). At the biospheric level, the circulation of substances and energy on Earth takes place with the participation of all living organisms of the biosphere.

levels of organization of life. population. Biogeocenosis. Biosphere.

1. Currently, there are several levels of organization of living organisms: molecular, cellular, tissue, organ, organism, population-species, biogeocenotic and biospheric.
2. At the population-species level, elementary evolutionary transformations are carried out.
3. The cell is the most elementary structural and functional unit of all living organisms.
4. A set of cells and intercellular substances similar in origin, structure and functions forms a tissue.
5. The totality of all living organisms on the planet and their common natural habitat constitutes the biospheric level.
1. List the levels of organization in order.
2. What is fabric?
3. What are the main parts of a cell?
1. What organisms are characterized by the tissue level?
2. Describe the organ level.
3. What is a population?
1. Describe the organism level.
2. Name the features of the biogeocenotic level.
3. Give examples of the interconnectedness of the levels of organization of life.

Complete the table showing the structural features of each level of the organization:

Serial number	Organization levels	Peculiarities

A living thing is characterized by a number of properties that together "make" a living thing alive. Such properties are self-reproduction, specificity of organization, structure orderliness, integrity and discreteness, growth and development, metabolism and energy, heredity and variability, irritability, movement, internal regulation, specificity of relationships with the environment.

Self-reproduction (reproduction

). This property is the most important among all others. A remarkable feature is that the self-reproduction of certain organisms is repeated in innumerable generations, and the genetic information about self-reproduction is encoded in DNA molecules. The proposition “everything living comes only from living things” means that life arose only once and that since then only living things give rise to living things. At the molecular level, self-reproduction occurs on the basis of the template synthesis of DNA, which programs the synthesis of proteins that determine the specifics of organisms. At other levels, it is characterized by an extraordinary variety of forms and mechanisms, up to the formation of specialized sex cells (male and female). The most important significance of self-reproduction lies in the fact that it supports the existence of species, determines the specifics of the biological form of the movement of matter.

Organization Specificity

It is characteristic of any organisms, as a result of which they have a certain shape and size. The unit of organization (structure and function) is the cell. In turn, cells are specifically organized into tissues, the latter into organs, and organs into organ systems. Organisms are not "scattered" randomly in space. They are specifically organized in populations, and populations are specifically organized in biocenoses. The latter, together with abiotic factors, form biogeocenoses (ecological systems), which are the elementary units of the biosphere.

Orderliness of the structure

Living things are characterized not only by the complexity of the chemical compounds from which it is built, but also by their orderliness at the molecular level, leading to the formation of molecular and supramolecular structures. The creation of order from the random movement of molecules is the most important property of the living, which manifests itself at the molecular level. Order in space is accompanied by order in time. Unlike non-living objects, the ordering of the structure of the living occurs due to the external environment. At the same time, the level of order in the environment decreases.

Integrity (continuity) and discreteness (discontinuity).

Life is integral and at the same time discrete both in terms of structure and function. For example, the substrate of life is integral, since it is represented by nucleoproteins, but at the same time it is discrete, since it consists of nucleic acid and protein. Nucleic acids and proteins are integral compounds, but they are also discrete, consisting of nucleotides and amino acids (respectively). The replication of DNA molecules is a continuous process, but it is discrete in space and time, since various genetic structures and enzymes take part in it. The process of transmission of hereditary information is also continuous, but it is discrete, because it consists of transcription and translation, which, due to a number of differences among themselves, determine the discontinuity of the implementation of hereditary information in space and time. Cell mitosis is also continuous and at the same time interrupted. Any organism is an integral system, but consists of discrete units - cells, tissues, organs, organ systems. The organic world is also integral, since the existence of some organisms depends on others, but at the same time it is discrete, consisting of individual organisms.

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Organisms live in a certain environment, which serves as a source of free energy and building material for them. Within the framework of thermodynamic concepts, each living system (organism) is an "open" system that allows mutual exchange of energy and matter in an environment in which other organisms exist and abiotic factors act. Consequently, organisms interact not only with each other, but also with the environment from which they receive everything necessary for life. Organisms either find the environment, or adapt (adapt) to it. Forms of adaptive reactions are physiological homeostasis (the ability of organisms to resist environmental factors) and developmental homeostasis (the ability of organisms to change individual reactions while maintaining all other properties). Adaptive reactions are determined by the reaction norm, which is genetically determined and has its own limits. Between organisms and the environment, between animate and inanimate nature, there is a unity, which consists in the fact that organisms depend on the environment, and the environment changes as a result of the vital activity of organisms. The result of the vital activity of organisms is the emergence of an atmosphere with free oxygen and the soil cover of the Earth, the formation of coal, peat, oil, etc.

Summarizing the information about the properties of living things, we can conclude that cells are open isothermal systems that are capable of self-assembly, internal regulation and self-reproduction. In these systems, many reactions of synthesis and decay are carried out, catalyzed by enzymes synthesized within the cells themselves.

The properties listed above are inherent only to living things. Some of these properties are also found in the study of bodies of inanimate nature, but in the latter they are characterized by completely different features. For example, crystals in a saturated salt solution can "grow". However, this growth does not have those qualitative and quantitative characteristics that are inherent in the growth of living things. Between the properties that characterize the living, there is a dialectical unity that manifests itself in time and space throughout the entire organic world, at all levels of the organization of the living.

Levels of organization of the living

In the organization of the living, molecular, cellular, tissue, organ, organism, population, species, biocenotic and global (biospheric) levels are mainly distinguished. At all these levels, all the properties characteristic of living things are manifested. Each of these levels is characterized by features inherent in other levels, but each level has its own specific features.

Molecular level. This level is deep in the organization of the living and is represented by molecules of nucleic acids, proteins, carbohydrates, lipids, and steroids found in cells and, as already noted, called biological molecules.

The sizes of biological molecules are characterized by a rather significant variety, which is determined by the space they occupy in living matter. The smallest biological molecules are nucleotides, amino acids and sugars. On the contrary, protein molecules are characterized by much larger sizes. For example, the diameter of a human hemoglobin molecule is 6.5 nm.

Biological molecules are synthesized from low-molecular precursors, which are carbon monoxide, water and atmospheric nitrogen, and which in the process of metabolism are converted through intermediate compounds of increasing molecular weight (building blocks) into biological macromolecules with a large molecular weight At this level, the most important life processes (coding and transmission of hereditary information, respiration, metabolism and energy, variability, etc.).

The physicochemical specificity of this level lies in the fact that the composition of the living includes a large number of chemical elements, but the main elemental composition of the living is represented by carbon, oxygen, hydrogen, nitrogen. Molecules are formed from groups of atoms, and complex chemical compounds are formed from the latter, differing in structure and function. Most of these compounds in cells are represented by nucleic acids and proteins, the macromolecules of which are polymers synthesized as a result of the formation of monomers, and the compounds of the latter in a certain order. In addition, the monomers of macromolecules within the same compound have the same chemical groups and are connected using chemical bonds between the atoms of their nonspecific parts (sites).

All macromolecules are universal, because they are built according to the same plan, regardless of their species. Being universal, they are at the same time unique, because their structure is unique. For example, the composition of DNA nucleotides includes one nitrogenous base of the four known (adenine, guanine, cytosine and thymine), as a result of which any nucleotide or any sequence of nucleotides in DNA molecules is unique in its composition, just as the secondary structure of the DNA molecule is also unique. Most proteins contain 100-500 amino acids, but the sequences of amino acids in protein molecules are unique, which makes them unique.

Combining, macromolecules of different types form supramolecular structures, examples of which are nucleoproteins, which are complexes of nucleic acids and proteins, lipoproteins (complexes of lipids and proteins), ribosomes (complexes of nucleic acids and proteins). In these structures, the complexes are bound non-covalently, but non-covalent binding is very specific. Biological macromolecules are characterized by continuous transformations, which are provided by chemical reactions catalyzed by enzymes. In these reactions, enzymes convert the substrate into a reaction product within an extremely short time, which can be a few milliseconds or even microseconds. For example, the unwinding time of a double-stranded DNA helix before its replication is only a few microseconds.

The biological specificity of the molecular level is determined by the functional specificity of biological molecules. For example, the specificity of nucleic acids lies in the fact that they encode the genetic information for protein synthesis. This property is not shared by other biological molecules.

The specificity of proteins is determined by the specific sequence of amino acids in their molecules. This sequence further determines the specific biological properties of proteins, since they are the main structural elements of cells, catalysts and regulators of various processes occurring in cells. Carbohydrates and lipids are the most important sources of energy, while steroids in the form of steroid hormones are important for the regulation of a number of metabolic processes.

The specificity of biological macromolecules is also determined by the fact that the processes of biosynthesis are carried out as a result of the same stages of metabolism. Moreover, the biosynthesis of nucleic acids, amino acids and proteins proceeds according to a similar pattern in all organisms, regardless of their species. Fatty acid oxidation, glycolysis, and other reactions are also universal. For example, glycolysis occurs in every living cell of all eukaryotic organisms and is carried out as a result of 10 consecutive enzymatic reactions, each of which is catalyzed by a specific enzyme. All aerobic eukaryotic organisms have molecular "machines" in their mitochondria, where the Krebs cycle and other reactions associated with the release of energy take place. At the molecular level, many mutations occur. These mutations change the sequence of nitrogenous bases in DNA molecules.

Properties of living organisms

1. Metabolism and energy with the environment.

2. Irritability(ability to respond to influences).

3. reproduction(self-reproduction).

Levels of organization of living matter

1. Molecular- this is the level of complex organic substances - proteins and nucleic acids. At this level, there chemical reactions of metabolism(glycolysis, crossing over, etc.), but the molecules themselves cannot yet be considered alive.

2. Cellular. At this level there is a life, because a cell is the smallest unit that has all the properties of a living thing.

3. Organ-tissue- characteristic only for multicellular organisms.

4. Organismic- due to neuro-humoral regulation and metabolism at this level, homeostasis, i.e. maintaining the constancy of the internal environment of the body.

5. Population-species. At this level there is evolution, i.e. change in organisms associated with their adaptation to their environment under the influence of natural selection. The smallest unit of evolution is the population.

6. Biogeocenotic(a set of populations of different species related to each other and the surrounding inanimate nature). At this level there is

• the circulation of matter and the transformation of energy, as well as
• self-regulation, due to which the stability of ecosystems and biogeocenoses is maintained.

7. Biospheric. At this level there is

• global circulation substances and energy conversion, as well as
• interaction between living and non-living matter planets.

Choose two correct answers from five and write down the numbers under which they are indicated. At what levels of organization of living things do they study the significance of photosynthesis in nature?
1) biospheric
2) cellular
3) biogeocenotic
4) molecular
5) tissue-organ

Answer

Choose one, the most correct option. What level of organization of wildlife is a set of populations of different species, interconnected and the surrounding inanimate nature
1) organismic
2) population-species
3) biogeocenotic
4) biosphere

Answer

Choose one, the most correct option. Gene mutations occur at the level of organization of the living
1) organism
2) cellular
3) species
4) molecular

Answer

Choose one, the most correct option. The elementary structure at the level of which the action of natural selection is manifested in nature
1) organism
2) biocenosis
3) view
4) population

Answer

Choose two correct answers from five and write down the numbers under which they are indicated. What features are similar for living and non-living objects of nature?
1) cellular structure
2) change in body temperature
3) heredity
4) irritability
5) movement in space

Answer

Choose two correct answers from five and write down the numbers under which they are indicated. At what levels of organization of living things do they study the features of photosynthesis reactions in higher plants?
1) biospheric
2) cellular
3) population-species
4) molecular
5) ecosystem

Answer

Below is a list of concepts. All of them, except for two, are levels of organization of the living. Find two concepts that “drop out” of the general series, and write down the numbers under which they are indicated.
1) biosphere
2) gene
3) population-species
4) biogeocenotic
5) biogenic

Answer

1. Establish the sequence in which the levels of organization of the living are located. Write down the corresponding sequence of numbers.
1) population
2) cellular
3) specific
4) biogeocenotic
5) molecular genetic
6) organismic

Answer

2. Establish a sequence of complication of the levels of organization of the living. Write down the corresponding sequence of numbers.
1) biosphere
2) cellular
3) biogeocenotic
4) organismic
5) population-species

Answer

Arrange in the correct order the subordination of systems of different levels, starting with the largest. Write down the corresponding sequence of numbers.
1) connective tissue
2) iron ion
3) erythrocyte
4) hemoglobin
5) shaped elements
6) blood

Answer

1. Choose two correct answers from five and write down the numbers under which they are indicated. The cellular level of organization is the same as the organism level.
1) bacteriophages
2) amoeba dysentery
3) polio virus
4) wild rabbit
5) green euglena

Answer

2. Choose two correct answers out of five and write down the numbers under which they are indicated in the table. At the same time, they correspond to the cellular and organismic levels of life organization.
1) freshwater hydra
2) spirogyra
3) ulotrix
4) amoeba dysentery
5) cyanobacteria

Answer

3. Choose two correct answers. Which organisms have the same cellular and organismal levels of life?
1) sulfur bacterium
2) penicillium
3) chlamydomonas
4) wheat
5) hydra

Answer

Choose two correct answers from five and write down the numbers under which they are indicated. One amoeba ordinary at the same time is on:
1) Molecular level of organization of life
2) Population-species level of life organization
3) Cellular level of life organization
4) Tissue level of life organization
5) Organismic level of organization of life

Answer

1. Choose two correct answers from five and write down the numbers under which they are indicated. Living is different from non-living
1) the ability to change the properties of other objects
2) the ability to change its properties under the influence of the environment
3) the ability to respond to environmental influences
4) the ability to participate in the cycle of substances
5) the ability to reproduce their own kind

Answer

2. Choose two correct answers out of five and write down the numbers under which they are indicated. What characteristics are unique to living matter?
1) growth
2) movement
3) self-reproduction
4) rhythm
5) heredity

Answer

3. Choose two correct answers from five and write down the numbers under which they are indicated. All living organisms are characterized
1) the formation of organic substances from inorganic
2) absorption from the soil of minerals dissolved in water
3) active movement in space
4) breathing, nutrition, reproduction
5) irritability

Answer

4. Choose two correct answers from five and write down the numbers under which they are indicated. What features are characteristic only for living systems?
1) the ability to move
2) metabolism and energy
3) dependence on temperature fluctuations
4) growth, development and ability to reproduce
5) stability and relatively weak variability

Answer

5. Choose two correct answers from five and write down the numbers under which they are indicated. Organisms, unlike inanimate objects, are characterized by
1) change
2) movement
3) homeostasis
4) evolution
5) chemical composition

Answer

Establish a correspondence between the levels of organization of living things and their characteristics and phenomena: 1) biocenotic, 2) biospheric. Write down the numbers 1 and 2 in the order corresponding to the letters.
A) processes cover the entire planet
B) symbiosis
C) interspecies struggle for existence
D) energy transfer from producers to consumers
D) evaporation of water
E) succession (change of natural communities)

Answer

Choose two correct answers from five and write down the numbers under which they are indicated. Ontogeny, metabolism, homeostasis, reproduction occur at ... levels of organization.
1) cellular
2) molecular
3) organismic
4) organ
5) fabric

Answer

Choose two correct answers out of five and write down the numbers under which they are indicated in the table. At the population-species level of life organization there are
1) fish of Lake Baikal
2) birds of the Arctic
3) Amur tigers of the Primorsky Territory of Russia
4) city sparrows of the Park of Culture and Leisure
5) tits of Europe

Answer

Choose two correct answers out of five and write down the numbers under which they are indicated in the table. Which of the levels of life organization are supraspecific?
1) population-species
2) organoid-cellular
3) biogeocenotic
4) biosphere
5) molecular genetic

Answer

Choose two correct answers from five and write down the numbers under which they are indicated. The cellular level of life organization corresponds to
1) chlamydomonas
2) sulfur bacterium
3) bacteriophage
4) kelp
5) lichen

Answer

Choose two options. Energy metabolism in an ordinary amoeba occurs at the level of organization of living
1) cellular
2) biospheric
3) organismic
4) biogeocenotic
5) population-species

Answer

Choose two correct answers from five and write down the numbers under which they are indicated. At what level of organization do such processes as irritability and metabolism take place?
1) population-species
2) organismic
3) molecular genetic
4) biogeocenotic
5) cellular

Answer

© D.V. Pozdnyakov, 2009-2019

Plan

1. Essence and substratum of life.

2. Properties of the living.

3. Levels of organization of living matter.

4. Types of cellular organization.

Essence and substratum of life

All living things come only from living things, and any organization inherent in living things arises only from another similar organization.

The essence of life lies in its self-reproduction, which is based on the coordination of physical and chemical phenomena and which is ensured by the transfer of genetic information from generations to generations. It is this information that ensures self-reproduction and self-regulation of living beings.

A life is a qualitatively special form of the existence of matter associated with reproduction. The phenomena of life are a form of motion of matter, higher than the physical and chemical forms of its existence.

Highlight concepts:

living

Dead

inanimate

living built from the same chemical elements as inanimate(oxygen, hydrogen, carbon, nitrogen, sulfur, phosphorus, sodium, potassium, calcium and other elements). In cells, they are in the form of organic compounds. However, the organization and form of existence of the living has specific features that distinguish the living from the objects of inanimate nature.

Substratum of life are nucleoproteins. They are part of the nucleus and cytoplasm of animal and plant cells. Of these, chromatin (chromosomes) and ribosomes are built. They are found throughout the organic world - from viruses to humans. All living systems contain nucleoproteins. Nucleoproteins are the substrate of life only when they are in the cell, function and interact there. Outside of cells (after isolation from cells) they are common chemical compounds.

Therefore, life is mainly a function of the interaction of nucleic acids and proteins, and living is that which contains a self-reproducing molecular system in the form of a mechanism for the reproduction of nucleic acids and proteins.

Dead- a set of once existing organisms that have lost the mechanism for the synthesis of nucleic acids and proteins, i.e., the ability to reproduce molecularly. For example, "dead" is limestone formed from the remains of once living organisms.

Non-living - a part of matter that has an inorganic (abiotic) origin and is in no way connected in its formation and structure with living organisms. For example, "non-living" is limestone formed from inorganic volcanic limestone deposits. Inanimate matter, unlike living matter, is not able to maintain its structural organization and use external energy for these purposes.

Both living and non-living things are built from molecules that are originally inanimate. Nevertheless, the living differs sharply from the non-living. The reasons for this profound difference are determined by the properties of living things, and the molecules contained in living systems are called biomolecules.

properties of the living

A living thing is characterized by a number of properties that together "make" a living thing alive.

self-reproduction

organization specificity

structure orderliness

integrity and discretion

growth and development, metabolism and energy

heredity and variability

irritability

movement, internal regulation

specific relationship with the environment.

Self-reproduction (reproduction).

is repeated in innumerable numbers of generations, and the genetic information about self-reproduction is encoded in DNA molecules.

The proposition “every living thing comes only from living things” means that life arose only once and that since then only living things give rise to living things.

At the molecular level, self-reproduction occurs on the basis of the template synthesis of DNA, which programs the synthesis of proteins that determine the specifics of organisms. At other levels, it is characterized by an extraordinary variety of forms and mechanisms, up to the formation of specialized sex cells (male and female). The most important significance of self-reproduction lies in the fact that it supports the existence of species, determines the specifics of the biological form of the movement of matter.

Organization Specificity. The unit of organization (structure and function) is the cell. In turn, cells are specifically organized into tissues, the latter into organs, and organs into organ systems. Organisms are specifically organized in populations, and populations are organized into biocenoses. The latter, together with abiotic factors, form biogeocenoses (ecological systems), which are the elementary units of the biosphere.

Orderliness of the structure. Manifested in the formation of molecular and supramolecular structures.

Order in space is accompanied by order in time. Unlike non-living objects, the ordering of the structure of the living occurs due to the external environment. At the same time, the level of order in the environment decreases.

Integrity (continuity) and discreteness (discontinuity).

Life is integral and at the same time discrete both in terms of structure and function.

For example:

The substrate of life is integral, since it is represented by nucleoproteins, but at the same time it is discrete, since it consists of nucleic acid and protein (respectively).

The replication of DNA molecules is a continuous process, but it is discrete in space and time, since various genetic structures and enzymes take part in it.

The body is an integral system, but consists of discrete units - cells, tissues, organs, organ systems.

The organic world is also integral, since the existence of some organisms depends on others, but at the same time it is discrete, consisting of individual organisms.

Growth and development.

The growth of organisms occurs by increasing the mass of the organism due to an increase in the size and number of cells. It is accompanied by development, manifested in cell differentiation, complication of structure and functions. In the process of ontogenesis, signs are formed as a result of the interaction of the genotype and the environment.

Phylogeny is accompanied by the appearance of a variety of organisms, organic expediency.

Metabolism and energy.

Thanks to this property, the constancy of the internal environment of organisms and the connection of organisms with the environment are ensured, which is a condition for maintaining the life of organisms.

Living cells receive energy from the external environment in the form of light energy. In the future, chemical energy is converted in cells to perform many jobs.

Between assimilation (anabolism) and dissimilation (catabolism) there is a dialectical unity, manifested in their continuity and reciprocity.

The potential energy of carbohydrates, fats and proteins absorbed by cells is converted into kinetic energy and heat as these compounds are converted. A remarkable feature of cells is that they contain enzymes.

In living cells, the energy received from the external environment is stored in the form of ATP.

Heredity and variability. Heredity ensures material continuity between parents and offspring, between generations of organisms, which in turn ensures the continuity and stability of life. The basis of material continuity in generations and the continuity of life is the transfer from parents to offspring of genes, in the DNA of which genetic information about the structure and properties of proteins is encrypted. A characteristic feature of genetic information is its extreme stability.

Variability is associated with the appearance in organisms of signs that differ from the original ones, and is determined by changes in genetic structures. Heredity and variability create material for the evolution of organisms.

Irritability. The reaction of the living to external stimuli is a manifestation of the reflection characteristic of living matter.

Factors that cause the reaction of an organism or its organ are calledirritants (light, temperature, sound, electric current, mechanical influences, food substances, gases, poisons, etc.).

In organisms lacking a nervous system (protozoa and plants), irritability manifests itself in the form of tropisms, taxises, and nastia.

In organisms that have a nervous system, irritability manifests itself in the form of reflex activity. In animals, the perception of the external world is carried out through the first signal system, while in humans, in the process of historical development, a second signal system has also been formed. Due to irritability, organisms are balanced with the environment. By selectively responding to environmental factors, organisms "clarify" their relationship with the environment, resulting in the unity of the environment and the organism.

Motion. All living beings have the ability to move. Many unicellular organisms move with the help of special organelles. Cells of multicellular organisms (leukocytes, wandering connective tissue cells, etc.), as well as some cell organelles, are also capable of movement. The perfection of the motor reaction is achieved in the muscular movement of multicellular animal organisms, which consists in muscle contraction.

internal regulation. The processes occurring in cells are subject to regulation. At the molecular level, regulatory mechanisms exist in the form of reverse chemical reactions, which are based on reactions with the participation of enzymes, which ensure the closure of regulatory processes according to the scheme synthesis - decay - resynthesis. The synthesis of proteins, including enzymes, is regulated by mechanisms of repression, induction, and positive control. On the contrary, the regulation of the activity of the enzymes themselves occurs according to the feedback principle, which consists in inhibition by the final product. It is also known regulation by chemical modification of enzymes. Hormones that provide chemical regulation take part in the regulation of cell activity.

Any damage to DNA molecules caused by physical or chemical factors of influence can be repaired using one or more enzymatic mechanisms, which is self-regulation. It is provided by the action of controlling genes and, in turn, ensures the stability of the genetic material and the genetic information encoded in it.

The specificity of the relationship with the environment. Organisms live in a certain environment, which serves as a source of free energy and building material for them.

Within the framework of thermodynamic concepts, each living system (organism) is an "open" system that allows mutual exchange of energy and matter in an environment in which other organisms exist and abiotic factors act. Consequently, organisms interact not only with each other, but also with the environment from which they receive everything necessary for life. Organisms either find the environment, or adapt (adapt) to it.

Forms of adaptive reactions are physiological homeostasis (the ability of organisms to resist environmental factors) and developmental homeostasis (the ability of organisms to change individual reactions while maintaining all other properties). Adaptive reactions are determined by the reaction norm, which is genetically determined and has its own limits.

Between organisms and the environment, between animate and inanimate nature, there is a unity, which consists in the fact that organisms depend on the environment, and the environment changes as a result of the vital activity of organisms. The result of the vital activity of organisms is the emergence of an atmosphere with free oxygen and the soil cover of the Earth, the formation of coal, peat, oil, etc.

The properties listed above are inherent only to living things. Some of these properties are also found in the study of bodies. inanimate nature, but the latter have completely different features.

For example:

crystals in saturated salt solution can "grow". However, this growth does not have those qualitative and quantitative characteristics that are inherent in the growth of living things.

Between the properties that characterize the living, there is a dialectical unity that manifests itself in time and space throughout the entire organic world, at all levels of organization.

Levels of organization of living matter

Currently, there are several levels of organization of living matter.

Molecular.

Any living system manifests itself at the level of functioning of biopolymers built from monomers. From this level, the most important processes of the body's vital activity begin: metabolism and energy conversion, transmission of hereditary information, etc.

Exist three types of biological polymers:

polysaccharides (monomers - monosaccharides)

proteins (monomers - amino acids)

nucleic acids (monomers - nucleotides)

Lipids are also important organic compounds for the body.

Cellular.

The cell is a structural and functional unit of living organisms; it is a self-regulating, self-reproducing living system. There are no free-living non-cellular life forms on Earth.

Fabric.

Tissue is a collection of similar cells and intercellular substance, united by the performance of a common function.

Organ.

Organs are structural and functional associations of several types of tissues. For example, human skin as an organ includes epithelium and connective tissue, which together perform a number of functions, among which the most significant is protective, i.e. the function of delimiting the internal environment of the body from the environment.

Organismic.

A multicellular organism is an integral system of organs specialized to perform various functions.

Population-species.

A set of organisms of the same species, united by a common habitat, creates a population as a system of supraorganismal order. In this system, the simplest, evolutionary transformations are carried out.

Biogeocenotic.

Biogeocenosis is a set of organisms of different species and factors of their habitat, united by the metabolism and energy into a single natural complex.

Biospheric.

The biosphere is a system of a higher order, covering all the phenomena of life on our planet. At this level, there is a circulation of substances and the transformation of energy associated with the vital activity of all living organisms living on Earth.

Cell is a separate, smallest structure, which is inherent in the totality of the properties of life and which, under suitable environmental conditions, can maintain these properties in itself, as well as pass them on to a number of generations.

The cell forms the basis buildings, life and development all living forms - unicellular, multicellular and even non-cellular.

In nature, she has a role elementary structural, functional and genetic unit.

Thanks to the mechanisms inherent in it, the cell ensures metabolism, the use of biological information, reproduction, the properties of heredity and variability, thereby determining the qualities of unity and diversity inherent in the organic world.