Ways of forming parts of speech table. Composition: Ways of forming independent parts of speech
Litnevskaya E. I.
Noun
When forming nouns in the Russian language, all of the above methods of word formation are used: the formation of words by adding affixes, reduction, addition, substantivation, combination of addition with affixation.
Affixal ways of forming nouns
1. By the prefix method, nouns can only be formed from nouns, since the addition of a prefix alone cannot change the part of the word.
The following prefixes are used to form nouns: non- (luck
2. The most active in the formation of nouns is suffixation. By means of suffixes, nouns can be formed from nouns, adjectives, verbs, numerals, adverbs.
The formation of nouns from nouns occurs with the help of suffixes -ik (key
From adjectives, nouns are formed with the help of suffixes -ost (strict
The following suffixes are typical for suffix word-formation of nouns from verbs: -нj (to sing
When forming nouns from numerals, for example, the suffix -н (one hundred
From adverbs, nouns are formed with the help of suffixes -nick (generally
3. Many nouns are formed in the prefix-suffix way.
When forming such nouns from other nouns, the following combinations of prefix and suffix are used: under-...-nick (snow
When forming nouns from adjectives, combinations of affixes for-...-j (polar
Sometimes nouns are also formed from verbs in a prefixed-suffixal way, for example: co-...-(v)ec (serve
Non-affixal ways of forming nouns
1. Many nouns are formed by addition, including abbreviations: forest + steppe
2. Nouns can be formed by abbreviation: specialist
3. When forming nouns, substantivation is active, in which adjectives and participles pass into nouns: ice cream, manager, tip (we are talking about those words that are perceived by native speakers as nouns in the language, and not only in a specific text - cf. with the participle, used in the function of a noun: Everyone looked at the person who entered).
mixed ways
Nouns are formed by addition with suffixation. The most commonly used suffixes are -ets (earth + do
Adjective
Adjectives in Russian are formed by prefixed, suffixal, prefixed-suffixal methods, addition, including fusion.
Affixal ways of forming adjectives
1. In the prefixed way, adjectives are formed from adjectives; this method is one of the most productive in the formation of words of this part of speech. In this case, the following prefixes are used: non- (cheerful
2. The suffix method is used to form adjectives from adjectives, nouns, verbs, numerals and adverbs.
When forming adjectives from adjectives, the suffixes -onk- / -enk- (blue
When forming adjectives from nouns, suffixes -n- are used (autumn
From verbs, adjectives are formed using the suffixes -n- (to cut
When forming adjectives from numerals and adverbs, the suffixes -n- and -enn- are used (two
3. In the prefix-suffix way, adjectives are formed from nouns and verbs.
When forming adjectives from nouns, the following combinations of prefix and suffix are used: bez-...-n- (ticket
The same prefixes can be combined with the suffixes -enn- (leaves
When forming from verbs, combinations of non-...-n- (break
Non-affixal ways of word formation
1. Of the non-affixal ways of forming an adjective, addition is especially productive, for example: lyrical + epic
2. Only when forming adjectives, such a method of word formation as fusion is used: quickly + soluble
mixed ways
When forming adjectives, addition with suffixation is possible, while the suffixes -n- and -(-: railway
numeral
Numerals are formed from numerals in the following ways:
1) suffix: two
2) addition: three + one hundred
Pronoun
Pronouns are formed from pronouns by prefixes neither-, not-, something- and postfixes -something, -or, -something: who
Verb
Verbs are formed mainly by affixal methods (the most productive are prefixed and prefixed-suffixal); addition for verbs is uncharacteristic.
Affixal ways of forming verbs
1. In a prefixed way, verbs are formed from verbs. The number of verb prefixes is very large, which is associated with the expression of the meanings of the result (species value), direction, quantitative and temporal modifications and the nature of the course of the action. We list the main verb prefixes: s- (do
2. In the suffix way, verbs are formed from verbs, nouns, adjectives, numerals, pronouns, interjections, onomatopoeic words.
From perfective verbs, imperfective verbs are formed using the suffixes -iva / -yva, -va and -a: reread
When forming verbs from nouns, the suffixes -i- (salt
To form verbs from adjectives, the suffixes -and- (white
From numerals, verbs are formed using the suffix -i- (two
From pronouns, interjections and onomatopoeia, verbs are formed by the suffix -a-, and if the generating stem ends in a vowel, the interfix consonant is used: you
3. In the postfixal way, verbs are formed from verbs with the meaning of recurrence: wash
4. The prefix-suffix method is used in the formation of verbs from verbs, nouns, adjectives and numerals.
Verbs formed from verbs receive the meaning of the imperfect form along with the designation of the intensity of the action. For this, the following combination of the species suffix -iva- / -yva- with prefixes on- (crack
From nouns, verbs are formed by a suffix and in combination with prefixes for- (shadow
From adjectives, verbs are formed using the suffix -i- and prefixes -u- (dense
From numerals, verbs are formed using the suffix -and- and prefixes y- (three
5. Verbs can be formed in the prefix-postfixal way from verbs. The postfix -sya / -ss is combined with prefixes v- (think
6. In the suffix-postfixal way, verbs are formed from nouns and adjectives using the suffixes -and- (crowd
7. Verbs can be formed in a prefixed-suffixal-postfixal way: bankrupt
Non-affixal ways in the formation of verbs are used extremely rarely. So, for example, the following words are formed by addition: work + arrange
Mixed ways when circumcising a verb are also not very common and are represented by addition with affixation, for example: world + create
Adverb
The adverb is formed mainly by affixal methods, among which the prefix-suffixal is the most productive.
Affixal ways of forming adverbs
1. In the prefixed way, adverbs are formed from adverbs. Most often, prefixes are used in this case, non- (for a long time
2. In the suffix way, adverbs are formed from nouns, adjectives, numerals, verbs, adverbs.
Adverbs formed from nouns contain suffixes homonymous to the endings of the noun (see about this in the section "Formation of words by transition from one part of speech to another"). These are suffixes -om (evening
Adverbs are regularly formed from adjectives with suffixes -о/-е (cheerful
To form adverbs from numerals, the suffix -zhdy and its modifications (two
When forming adverbs from verbs, suffixes -mya are used (stand
Adverbs can be formed by suffixing and from adverbs, while using suffixes: -ovato (early
3. When forming indefinite pronominal adverbs, the postfix method is used, in which postfixes -to are added to pronominal adverbs (where
4. The prefix-suffix method is most actively used in the formation of adverbs from nouns and adjectives.
When forming an adverb from a noun, the following combinations of prefixes and suffixes are presented: in-...-u (dry
The greatest number of combinations is presented in the formation of adverbs from adjectives. These are the following combinations of affixes: in-...-th / -him (new
Adverbs can be formed in the prefix-suffix way from numerals, while the following prefixes and suffixes are used: in-/in-...-s/-s (third
From verbs, adverbs are formed by affixes -...-((jump
Non-affixal ways of formation of adverbs are not presented.
Mixed methods are represented insignificantly. So, some adverbs are formed by addition with suffixation, for example: past + walk
Formation of words by moving from one part of speech to another
The words of some parts of speech were historically formed by the transition of words from one part of speech to another.
We have already called the formation of nouns by passing adjectives and participles into them (ice cream, manager) - substantiation. If the noun formed by the substantivation of the adjective does not have any differences in morphemic structure from these adjectives, then the noun formed by the substantiation of the participle differs from the corresponding participle in terms of its morphemic composition: in the noun, the suffix -usch / -yushch, -ashch / -yashch is not formative (the noun is not a form of the verb) and is included in the stem. Therefore, in linguistics, the formation of such words is considered as a suffixation: head-yush-th (manage, manager - "the one who manages").
Many adverbs were formed by transition from other parts of speech. So, we can note adverbs formed by rethinking
Nouns (at home, in spring),
Adjectives (in vain, openly),
Participles (sitting, lying down),
Numerals (twice).
The transition of a word from one part of speech to another is a historical process. From the point of view of the modern state of the language, all these words are formed with the help of a suffix or prefix and a suffix homonymous with the ending of a noun, adjective or numeral, as well as the form-forming suffix of the participle form of the verb, for example: winter-oh / winter, lie-a / lie, in- empty-y / empty. The transition process is active during the formation of service words. So, for example, we can name the following groups of prepositions formed by the transition from other parts of speech:
Denominative: in view of, in the form of, during, at the expense of, about,
Verbal: thanks to, including, excluding, starting, after,
Adverbs: near, around, opposite, far away.
At the same time, the distinction between a preposition and an adverb is possible only in the context and depends on the real presence or absence of the following noun: I looked around (adverb) - I walked around the house (preposition). The distinction between a derivative preposition and a gerund is based on the difference in their meaning - a derivative verbal preposition expresses the meaning of a relationship, not an action, for example: Thanks to the hosts, the evening was a success (preposition) - We left thanks to the hosts for hospitality (germ).
As for denominative prepositions, the degree of their departure from independent words is different. In a number of cases, prepositions have become absolutely isolated and have lost their semantic connection with the base noun, for example: in view of, during, by, about, as far as; in modern language, these prepositions should be considered non-derivative. In other cases, semantic connections are alive: in quality, in the sphere, with help, in favor. Such prepositions are called prepositional combinations, since they retain some of the syntactic properties of a noun: selective compatibility (in the role of someone - in the function of something), the ability to accept a definition (to act in the dubious role of a peacemaker). In these cases, we are dealing with a living process of "proposing" nominal combinations.
From the point of view of the current state of the language, the following ways of forming prepositions can be distinguished:
1) suffixal - from verbs: exclude-I > exclude,
2) prefixed-suffixal - from nouns: in-time > time,
3) addition - from prepositions: because of > from + for.
Bibliography
For the preparation of this work, materials from the site http://www.portal-slovo.ru/ were used.
AT morphemics two main questions are addressed:
1) how the morphemes of the Russian language are classified,
2) how the word is divided into morphemes, that is, what is the algorithm for morphemic division.
The basic unit of morphemic is the morpheme. Morpheme- This minimal significant part of a word (root, prefix, suffix, ending).
In this definition, both definitions are equally important - minimal and significant; a morpheme is the smallest unit of a language that has a meaning.
The minimum unit of audio stream is sound. Sounds in a strong position can distinguish words: pond and rod. But the sounds do not denote either concepts, or objects, or their signs, that is, they do not matter.
In the course of lexicology, students study the words- grammatically designed meaningful units that serve to name the objects of reality.
Phrases, like words, serve to name objects of reality, then they do it more accurately, dissected (cf .: table and desk).
Another important unit is offer. Its difference from morphemes and words is, firstly, that it is a larger unit consisting of words, and secondly, that the sentence, having a target and intonation design, serves as a unit of communication, communication.
A morpheme differs from units of all other language levels: a morpheme differs from sounds in that it has a meaning; from words - by the fact that it is not a grammatically formalized naming unit (it is not characterized as a dictionary unit belonging to a certain part of speech); from sentences - by the fact that it is not a communicative unit.
A morpheme is a minimal two-sided unit, that is, a unit that has both sound and meaning. It is not divided into smaller meaningful parts of the word. Words are built from morphemes, which, in turn, are the “building material” for sentences.
In Russian, the alphabetic and sound composition of morphemes is not unchanged: non-phonetic (i.e., not caused by phonetic conditions - position in relation to stress, the end of a phonetic word and other sounds) alternations of vowels and consonants are widely represented in morphemes. These alternations are not accidental, they are explained by historical processes that took place in the language in ancient times, so the alternations are of a systemic nature.
In modern Russian, the following alternations are presented in the composition of morphemes:
Vowel alternations:
about/ Ø (zero sound, fluent vowel): sleep - sleep,
e / Ø: day - day,
e/o: delirious - to wander,
about / a: look - look
e / about / Ø / and: collect - collect - collect - collect,
about / at / s: dry - dry - to dry.
There are other vowel alternations, but they are less common.
Consonant alternations:
double hard / double soft: RU[to]a - ru[to"]e,
G / well: leg - leg,
to / h: hand - pen,
X / w: fly - fly,
d / well: drive - drive
t / h: twist - twist,
h / well: to drive - I drive
with / w: wear - wear
b / bl: love - love
P / pl: buy - buy
in / ow: catch - catch
f / fl: graph - graph,
m / ml: feed - feed.
In addition, it is possible to alternate vowel and combinations vowel with consonant:
and I) / them: take off - take off,
and I) / in: reap - reap,
and / oh: beat - the battle,
e / oh: sing - sing.
Classification of Russian morphemes
All morphemes are divided into root and foliar derivational(prefix and derivational suffix) and shaping(ending and formative suffix).
The fundamental difference between the root and other types of morphemes is that root- the only obligatory part of a word. There are no words without a root, while there are a significant number of words without prefixes, suffixes ( table) and without endings ( kangaroo). The root can be used, unlike other morphemes, out of combination with other roots.
The definition of a root as "a common part of related words" is correct, but is not an exhaustive description, since the language has a sufficient number of roots that occur in only one word, for example: cockatoo, very, Alas, many proper nouns naming geographical names.
Often, when defining a root, it is indicated that it "expresses the main lexical meaning of the word." For most words, this is indeed the case, for example: table-ik"small table". However, there are words in which the main component of the lexical meaning is not expressed in the root or is not expressed at all by any particular morpheme. So, for example, in the word matinee the main component of the lexical meaning - "children's holiday" - is not expressed by any of the morphemes.
There are many words that consist only of the root. These are official words but, over if), interjections ( yeah, hello), many adverbs ( very, very), immutable nouns ( aloe, attache) and invariable adjectives ( beige, raglan). However, most of the roots are still used in combination with formative morphemes: part-a, good-th, go.
Roots that can be used in a word alone or in combination with inflections are called free. There are 6 such roots in the language. Those roots that can only be used in combination with affixes are called related, For example: ob-u-t - raz-u-t, agit-irov-t - agit-atsij-ya.
According to some examples of fiction, journalistic literature and colloquial speech, one may get the impression that words consisting only of prefixes or suffixes are possible, for example: “ Democracies, humanisms - go and go zaisms isms "(V. V. Mayakovsky). But this is not so: in such cases, the suffix turns into a root and, with or without an ending, forms a noun.
Word-forming morphemes: prefix, suffix
Non-root morphemes are divided into derivational(word-forming) and shaping(shaping).
Word-formers non-root morphemes serve to form new words, morphemes, shaping- for the formation of word forms.
There are several terminological traditions in linguistics. The most common is the terminology in which all non-root morphemes are called affixes. Further, affixes are subdivided in it into derivational affixes and inflections. Another fairly authoritative tradition assigns the term affixes only to word-forming morphemes.
Word-formers Morphemes are divided into prefixes and suffixes. They differ in their place in relation to the root and to other morphemes.
Prefix- derivational morpheme before the root or another prefix ( re-do, pre-pretty, seaside, somewhere, re-o-det).
derivationalsuffix- derivational morpheme after the root ( table-ik, red-e-t).
In linguistics, along with the suffix, there are also postfix- a word-forming morpheme after the ending or form-forming suffix ( mind-th-xia, anyone).
Prefixes are more autonomous in word structure than suffixes:
1) prefixes can have a side, weaker stress in polysyllabic words: UV,
2) they do not cause grammatical alternations in the root, unlike suffixes, which can cause such alternations: hand-a - hand-to-a,
3) by adding only one prefix, a word of another part of speech cannot be formed, unlike suffixes: adding a suffix may not change the part of the word ( house - house-ik), and to form a word of another part of speech ( white - white-e-t, white-out-a),
4) prefixes are often not associated with a specific part of speech ( under-work, under-sleep), while suffixes are usually assigned to a specific part of speech: - Nick- serves to form nouns, - Liv- - adjectives, - willow- - verbs),
5) the meaning of the prefix is usually quite specific and only modifies the meaning of the original stem, while the meaning of the suffix can be either very specific (- yonok- denotes the cub of the one who is named in the root), and very abstract (- n- denotes an attribute of an object).
Formative morphemes: ending, formative suffix
Formative morphemes serve to form word forms and are divided into endings and formative suffixes.
Formative morphemes, like other types of morphemes, necessarily have a meaning. But these are meanings of a different kind than those of roots or word-forming morphemes: endings and formative suffixes express grammatical meanings words - abstract meanings abstracted from the lexical meanings of words (gender, person, number, case, inclination, time, degrees of comparison, etc.).
Endings and formative suffixes differing in the nature of the grammatical meaning they express
The ending
The ending new student), control ( letter to brotherI go-y, you go-eat).
The ending- a formative morpheme that expresses the grammatical meanings of gender, person, number and case (at least one of them!) and serves to link words in a phrase and sentence, that is, it is a means of agreement ( new student), control ( letter to brother) or connection of the subject with the predicate ( I go-y, you go-eat).
Only modified words have endings. Functional words, adverbs, invariable nouns and adjectives have no endings. Changed words do not have endings in those grammatical forms that do not have the indicated grammatical meanings (gender, person, number, case), that is, the infinitive and gerund.
Some compound nouns and compound numerals have several endings. This can be easily seen when changing these words: tr-and-st-a, tr-ex-hundred-Ø, sofa-bed-Ø, sofa-a-bed-and.
The end may be null. It stands out from the modified word if there is a certain grammatical meaning, but it is not materially expressed. Zero ending- this is a significant absence of an ending, an absence that carries certain information about the form in which the word is. Yes, the ending a in the shape of table-a shows that this word is in the genitive case, - at in table-at indicates the dative case. The absence of an ending in the form table says that it is a nominative or accusative case, that is, it carries information, meaningfully. It is in such cases that the zero ending is allocated in the word.
You must not confuse words with a zero ending and words in which there are no and cannot be endings - immutable words. Only inflected words can have a null ending, that is, words that have non-zero endings in other forms.
Zero endings are widely represented in the language and are found in the noun, adjective and verb in the following positions:
1) masculine nouns of the 2nd declension in I. p. (V. p.) singular: boy - I. p., table - I. / V. p.;
2) feminine nouns of the 3rd declension in I. p. (V. p.) singular: night;
3) nouns of all genders in R. p. plural: countries, soldiers, swamps.
But in this position, non-zero endings can also be represented: night-she - articles- . The correctness of parsing such words is achieved by declining the word. If the sound [th ’] disappears during declination, then it belongs to the ending: noch-her, noch-ami. If [th '] can be traced in all cases, then it refers to the basis: articles - become [th'-a] - become [th'-a] mi. As we can see, in these forms the sound [y'] is not expressed at the letter level, it is “hidden” in the iotized vowel. In this case, it is necessary to identify and identify this sound. In order not to clutter up the spelling with transcription brackets, it is customary in linguistics to designate the sound [th ’], “hidden” in an iotized vowel with the help of j, without brackets, entered in the right place: articles j-s.
A fairly common mistake is to determine the endings of words ending in -ya, -ya, -ya. The impression is incorrect that these sound complexes are endings. Two-letter endings in the initial form are present only for those nouns that are substantiated adjectives or participles. Compare:
genius, genij-th, genij-th
army-i, army-she - tables-th, tables-th, etc.
4) short singular masculine adjectives: handsome, smart;
5) possessive adjectives in I p. (V. p.) singular; despite the external similarity of the declension, qualitative and possessive have a different morphemic structure in these cases:
units number
I. p. blue fox-Ø
R. p. blue-his foxj-his
D. p. blue-him fox-him
V. p. \u003d and. p. / c. P.
T. p. blue-im foxj-im
P. p. blue fox j-em.
Such a morphemic structure of possessive adjectives is easy to understand, given that possessive adjectives denote a sign of belonging to a person or animal and are always derivative, formed using derivational suffixes -in-, -ov-, -ij- from nouns: mom → mom-in-Ø, fox → fox-y-Ø. In oblique cases, this possessive suffix is - uy- is realized in [j], which is “hidden” in an iotized vowel;
6) a verb in the form of the masculine singular in the past tense of the indicative mood and in the conditional mood: dela-l- (by) - cf.: dela-l-a, dela-l-i;
7) a verb in the imperative mood, where the zero ending expresses the meaning of the singular: write-and-, write-and-te;
8) in short participles, the zero ending, as in short adjectives, expresses the meaning of the masculine singular: read-n-Ø.
formative suffix. Modifications of the verb stem
Another type of formative morphemes is formative suffix- a suffix used to form word forms.
In educational complex 2, the concept of a formative suffix is introduced, in complexes 1 and 3 - no, however, they say that "a suffix is a significant part of a word, which usually serves to form new words"; this “usually” is the idea that suffixes can serve not only for word formation, but also for shaping.
Basically, all formative suffixes are present in the verb: these are the suffixes of the infinitive, past tense, imperative, participial and participle forms (if we consider participle and gerund participle as forms of the verb, as complexes 1 and 3 do). Not in the verb, formative suffixes are presented in degrees of comparison of adjective and adverb.
Historically, most verbs have different twobase modifications- infinitive and present tense (for perfective verbs - future). In addition to them, you can sometimes talk about the basis of the past tense.
Since word forms that have the same stem (in terms of its constituent morphemes) are combined into a verb word, it is more correct to say that a verb can have several types of stem, each of which is used in a certain set of word forms. In other parts of speech, the stem may also have a different form in different word forms (for example, son - sons), but for them it is the exception rather than the rule, while for verbs it is the rule rather than the exception. In this regard, not very successful word usage has been fixed, when different types of the same stem are called different stems.
To highlight stem of the infinitive, you need to separate the formative suffix of the infinitive: write, bite, weave, take care (or save-Ø).
To highlight the basis of the present / simple future tense, it is necessary to separate the personal ending from the present / simple future tense; it is preferable to use the 3rd person plural form (since this stem itself can have a different form in different forms): write-ut, workj-ut, treat-at.
To highlight base of past tense, you need to discard the formative suffix of the past tense from the past tense form - l- or -Ø- and ending; it is preferable to use any form other than the form husband. kind of unit numbers, since it is in it that a zero suffix can be represented, which can complicate the analysis: carried-l-a, writing-l-a.
Most verbs have two different types of stem: one is the stem of the present / simple future, and the other is the stem of the infinitive, as well as the past tense: chitaj- and chita-, risuj- and risova-, run- and run-, talk-and talk - . There are verbs that have the same bases of the present / simple future and the infinitive: (id-ut, id-ti), and they are opposed to the basis of the past tense (sh-l-a).
There are verbs in which all three stems are different: ter-t, ter-l-a, tr-ut; get wet, wet-l-a, wet-ut.
There are verbs in which all forms are formed from the same stem: carry, carry-l-a, carry-ut; take it, take it, take it, take it.
Different verb forms are formed from different stems.
From the stem of the infinitive, in addition to the indefinite form, personal and participial forms of the past tense (if the verb does not have a different stem of the past tense) and conditional mood are formed.
From the basis of the present / simple future tense, in addition to personal and participial forms of the present tense, forms of the imperative mood are formed.
This is clearly seen in those verbs in which the alternation of consonants is represented:
write-t - write-l-Ø (would) - write-vsh-th
write-u - write-usch-th - write-and-Ø.
The verb contains the following formative suffixes:
1) infinitive formed by formative suffixes -t / -ti: read-t, carry-ti. The infinitives on -whose there are two possible ways to highlight inflection: oven or oven-Ø, where Ø is a zero formative suffix (historically in whose the end of the stem and the infinitive indicator proper overlapped) .
In educational complexes 1 and 3, the infinitive indicator is described as an ending. This is due to the fact that in these complexes, unlike complex 2, the concept of a formative suffix is not introduced, and the part of the word without an ending is considered to be the basis, therefore, in order to exclude the infinitive indicator from the stem, it is given the status of the ending. This is not true, since the infinitive indicator does not have the grammatical meanings of gender, number, person or case that are mandatory for the ending and indicates only the infinitive - an invariable verb form.
2) past tense the indicative mood is formed by the suffixes -l- (deeds-l-) and -Ø-: carried-Ø- - compare: carried-l-a.
3) the same suffixes are presented in conditionalinclination: deed-l-Ø would, carry-Ø- would.
4) imperative mood formed by suffixes -and-(write-and-) and -Ø- (do-Ø-¤, sit-Ø-¤) .
To clarify that forms like do and sit down are formed by a zero formative suffix, not a suffix * th, *-d, it must be remembered that the form of the imperative mood is formed from the basis of the present tense: write-y - write-and. In verbs like read this is not so obvious, since the stems of the infinitive and the present tense differ only in the presence of the present tense in the stem j at the end of the base: read j-th - read. But the grammatical meaning is expressed by a morpheme that is not included in the stem. This morpheme is a zero formative suffix: read-Ø-¤ (the zero ending in this case has a singular meaning - cf.: read-Ø-te).
5) participle as a special form of the verb is formed by the suffixes -ash-(-yash-), -usch-(-yusch-), -sh-, -vsh-, -im-, -om- / -em-, -nn-, -onn - / -enn-, -t-: running-usch-th, taking-t-th (graphic variants of suffixes after soft consonants are indicated in brackets, alternating suffixes through a slash) .
6) gerund as a special form of the verb, it is formed by the suffixes -a (-ya), -v, -shi, -lice, -uchi (-yuchi): delaj-ya, bud-learn.
7) simple comparative adjectives and adverbs are formed using the suffixes -e (higher), -her / -her (faster), -she (earlier), -zhe (deep);
8) simple superlative adjective comparison is formed with the help of formative suffixes -eysh- / -aysh- (fast-eysh-th, high-aysh-th).
As we can see, not only the ending can be zero, but also the formative suffix, which stands out when the meaning of mood or time is not materially expressed in some verbs:
a) a suffix that forms the past tense of the indicative mood and the conditional mood of a number of verbs in the masculine singular (carried-Ø-¤). In the same verbs, when forming forms of the feminine or neuter singular or plural, the suffix is used -l- (nes-l-a);
b) the imperative suffix for a number of verbs mentioned above (do-Ø-¤, take out-Ø-¤).
All types of formative morphemes (ending, formative suffix) are not included in the stem of the word. The basis- this is an obligatory element of the morphemic structure of the word, expressing the lexical meaning of the word. Formative morphemes, expressing grammatical meanings, do not change the lexical meaning of the word.
For immutable words, the whole word forms the basis, for example: if, coat, yesterday. For modified words, endings and / or formative suffixes are not included in the stem, for example: window-o, lie-be, dare-her, read-l-a, done-n-th.
The stem of a word can be interrupted by formative morphemes. These are the bases of verb forms containing the word-forming reflexive suffix -sya / -s (uch-l-a-s), the bases of indefinite pronouns containing suffixes -to, -either, -any (to-tho), the bases of some complex compound nouns (sofa-a-bed-and) and compound numerals (fifth-and-ten-and). Such bases are called discontinuous.
Principles of morphemic analysis of a word
Morphemic parsing of a word (parsing a word by composition) begins with the allocation of a stem and formative morphemes - an ending and / or a formative suffix (if any).
At the same time, it is necessary to remember about j, which may be "hidden" in an iotized vowel after a vowel or separator. If it closes the stem of the word, it must be entered ( impression). If this is not done, you can make a mistake in the composition of the suffix or not notice the suffix in the word at all. So, for example, in Russian there is no suffix -*neither-, but there is a suffix - nij-: sing → ne-nij-e. the word is heaven contains the suffix - j-, which is not expressed at the literal level: under-heaven-is-j-e.
After that, the basis of the word must be divided into the root (roots) and word-forming morphemes, if they are in the word. In some textbooks (in particular, in complex 2), the following procedure is proposed for this: the root is distinguished in the word as a common part of related words, then what remains in the word is distinguished as a prefix (prefixes) and a suffix (suffixes) in accordance with our ideas about whether there is such a suffix or such a prefix in Russian. But such an analysis can lead to errors; there is not enough validity in its procedure. To avoid mistakes, the morphemic analysis of the stem must be connected with the analysis of word-formation.
The algorithm for morphemic analysis of the stem, associated with its word-formation analysis, was substantiated by the Russian linguist Grigory Osipovich Vinokur (1896 - 1947).
What is base productivity? Under performance understand the education of a given basis from another basis at the synchronous level, in the modern language. How do we know that one basis is formed, that is, derived from another? The meaning of a derivative basis can always (and should) be explained through the meaning of the basis, which is producing (basic) for it, and not through a direct reference to the object of extralinguistic reality designated by it. For example: table→ table. Motivation: table - this is a small table. The interpretation of a derived word necessarily includes the generating word (stem). This criterion is called the motivation criterion.
The criterion of motivation emphasizes that the semantic connection between the derivative and the producer should be felt in the modern language (at the synchronous level). Historically, one word can be derived from another. So, for example, the word forget historically derived from the word be, word capital- from the word table. But for a modern native speaker, the semantic connections between them are destroyed. Meaning of the word capital cannot be explained through the meaning of the word table, therefore, they are not related by derivative relations. Word capital(similar forget) is non-derivative, which means that its basis is indivisible at the synchronous level, the root of this word is capitals. Mixing synchronous morphemic and etymological analysis of words in the study of the modern Russian language is unacceptable.
Algorithm for morpheme articulation of stem
In word formation, sometimes a prefix and a suffix are attached to the generating stem at the same time, for example, windowsill→ window(there are no words in Russian * subwindow and * windowsill). But often word-forming morphemes are attached sequentially:
white → white-e-t → turn white.
It turns out word-building chain, in each link of which a new word-forming morpheme is “put on” on the original generating stem. Therefore, in order not to make a mistake in determining the morphemic structure of a word, during its morphemic analysis, it is necessary to restore this word-formation chain and sequentially “remove” word-forming morphemes from the derived stem under study. To the word under study, its generating is selected - the word (base) from which it is formed, the closest in form and necessarily motivating in meaning to the word given for analysis (motivation criterion). Then the stem of the generating word and the stem of the derived word are compared. The difference between them is the suffix (prefix) with which the word under study is formed. Further to the generating, if it is not a non-derivative word, it is necessary to select its generating. And so it is necessary to build a word-building chain "on the contrary" until it reaches a non-derivative word. When constructing each link in the chain, it is necessary to prove the correctness of its construction by explaining the value of each derivative through the value of its generator. For example:
recovered → recover → healthy
Motivation: recovery- the same as get well(result) or recover(process), denotes an action or its result, get well- become healthy.
Thus, the process of determining the morphemic composition through the word-formation chain does not begin with the selection of the root, but ends with it. From the word, as it were, affixes are “removed”; what is left is the root.
The only exception to this pattern are words with related roots. Connected, as already mentioned, is a root that is not used independently, that is, only with formative morphemes, but is always found in conjunction with word-forming prefixes and suffixes, and can attach to itself various well-defined prefixes and / or suffixes. The analysis of such words is carried out through the construction morphemic squares, in which the given root must be used with a different suffix (prefix), and the suffix (prefix) with a different root:
o-u-t - o-t-t
oh-de-th - one-de-th
It is this algorithm of stem morphemic parsing: the construction of a word-building chain for words with a free root and the construction of a morphemic square for words with a connected root - that should be used in the morphemic parsing of a word.
Connecting elements in a word (interfixes)
When connecting morphemes in a word, insignificant connecting elements can be used, called in linguistics interfixes. The main type of interfixes are connecting elements used in the formation of compound words: - about- (airplane), -e- (half-e-waters), -uh- (double decker), -ex- (three-storey), -and- (five-and-story). Such connecting vowels at the junction of roots are not morphemes in the generally accepted sense (although a number of linguists consider them morphemes with a special, connecting meaning). The stems of the word are not interrupted by connecting elements.
Sometimes the term "interfix" is used to describe a wider range of phenomena - all connecting elements used in word formation and inflection. In this case, the following types of interfixes are distinguished:
in word formation:
1) connecting elements used in the formation of compound words: - about- (airplane), -e- (half-e-waters), -uh- (double decker), -ex- (three-storey), -and- (five-and-story) other,
2) consonants inserted between a root and a suffix or between two suffixes; - l- (resident), -in- (singer), -j- (coffee), -t- (argot-t-ichesy), -w- (cine);
in shaping:
-j- (leaf-j-i), -ov- (son-ov-me), -er- (mat-er-and), -en- (tribe-en-a). The function of insignificant elements in inflection is also performed by vowels at the end of the verb stem, which have no meaning and close the verb stem: -a- (write), -e- (mountains), -about- (half-o-th), -and- (be in love).
How, with this understanding, is the question of the status of interfixes in morphemic analysis resolved? Linguistic scholars do not have a consensus on this issue; interfixes of different groups are usually qualified differently.
Connecting vowels at the junction of roots (group 1) do not join either one or the other root and remain between morphemes; with morphemic articulation of a word, they can be distinguished by brackets, underlining or circling the connecting element with a circle: sam(o)let-Ø ← himself + fly.
As for the interfixes of the second group used in word formation, there are three points of view:
1) leave them between morphemes (ne (v) ets),
2) attach them to the root (singer),
3) attach them to the suffix (pe-vec).
Each of these points of view has arguments for and against. The algorithm of morphemic parsing adopted by us corresponds to the third point of view: the suffix is that segment of the derived stem that distinguishes it from the generating stem, for example, singer ← sing.
The interfixes used in the inflection of nouns are considered to be extensions of the root (mother - mother-and), and the vowels at the end of the verb stem are designated as suffixes (chit-a-t).
Zero derivational suffix
Suppose that it is necessary to determine the morphemic composition of the word run. At first glance, it consists of a root and a zero ending. However, in this case the word run, like any non-derivative word, must directly and directly name some object of extralinguistic reality, be unmotivated. But it's not. Any native Russian speaker for an explanation of what is run, uses the following interpretation: "This is when they run." Indeed, nouns with an uncharacteristic meaning of an action or attribute are derivatives in Russian, they are formed from verbs or from adjectives: run → running-relative-I , walk → walk-enij-e , blue → syn-ev-a , strict → strictness. Similarly: run → run, walk → move, blue-th → blue, quiet-th → silence. From verbs and adjectives, nouns were formed, which is possible only by adding suffixes. Indeed, these words also use a suffix. This suffix is zero.
To highlight zero derivational suffix two conditions are required:
1) the word must be derived, motivated by another word of the language (therefore, the word din does not have a zero suffix)
2) there must be a derivational meaning that can be expressed by a non-zero suffix, but in this case it is not materially expressed: run → run-Ø-¤, run → running-relative-I .
With the help of a zero word-forming suffix, words of different parts of speech are formed:
nouns
1) with the meaning of an abstract action, formed from verbs: explode → burst-Ø-¤, enter → input-Ø-¤. Alternative suffixes: -enij- (walking-enij-e), -rel- (running-relative) other;
2) with the meaning of an abstract feature, formed from adjectives: blue → blue-Ø-¤, deaf → wilderness-Ø-¤ . Alternative suffixes: -ev- (sin-ev-a), -in- (tish-in-a), -ost- (strict-ost);
3) with the meaning of an object or person related to the action (producing it, being its result, etc.), formed from the verb (nakip-Ø- ← boil) or two generating stems - the stem of the noun and the stem of the verb: steamboat-Ø- ¤ ← steam + walk , spoiler-Ø-¤ ← marriage + make. Alternative suffixes - -nick-, -ets-: heat exchange-Nick ← heat + exchange, farmer← earth + do;
adjectives:
1) from verbs: enter-Ø-th ← enter. Alternative suffix - - n-: res-n-oh← cut;
2) from nouns: everyday-Ø-th ← weekdays. Alternative suffix - -n-: forest-n-oh ← forest.
There are other cases of null derivational suffixation, but they are less common.
In complex 1, the method of forming such words is called suffix-free; in complex 2, words of this kind are not considered at all.
Morphemic analysis (word analysis by composition)
During morphemic parsing of a word (parsing a word by composition), first the ending and the form-forming suffix (if any) are distinguished in the word, the stem is emphasized.
After that, the basis of the word is divided into morphemes.
As we have already said, two opposite approaches to the morphemic articulation of the stem are possible: formal-structural and formal-semantic.
essence formal structural morphemic analysis consists in the fact that the root is first of all singled out as a common part of related words. Then what comes before the root, the student should be aware of as a prefix (prefixes) in accordance with the student's ideas about whether he met similar elements in other words. Same with suffixes. In other words, the main thing in the analysis is the effect of recognition by the student of morphemes, the external similarity of some parts of different words. And this can lead to massive errors, the reason for which is ignoring the fact that the morpheme is significant language unit. The lack of work to determine the meaning of morphemes leads to errors of two types, which have a different nature:
Errors in determining the root of the word are associated with the indistinguishability of the synchronous morphemic and historical (etymological) composition of the word. Moreover, complex 2 takes the indistinguishability of the modern and historical morphemic composition of words as a setting that sometimes helps in determining the correctness of spelling, which is quite consistent with the general spelling and punctuation orientation of the course and the textbook as a whole. So, in a textbook on theory, as an illustrative material, such an example of morphemic parsing of a word is given art (art). Obviously, such an approach cannot contribute to the correct selection of the root in the modern structure of the word and leads to the selection of insignificant segments in the stem.
Errors in the selection of prefixes and suffixes are associated with the morpheme division algorithm - with the majority of students' perception of the word as a string of morphemes that should be "recognized" as already encountered in other words. The extreme expression of this kind of parsing is cases like key(cf.: pilot), box (upholsterer). But even with a correctly defined root, one often encounters an incorrect definition of the number and composition of prefixes and suffixes if there are more than two of these morphemes in a word. This is due, firstly, to the morpheme division algorithm and, secondly, to the fact that in textbooks words with more than one prefix and / or suffix are practically not given.
The formal-structural approach to the morphemic articulation of a word is not exclusively an attribute of school practice. A similar approach has been implemented in a number of scientific publications, for example, in the Dictionary of Russian Morphemes by A. I. Kuznetsova and T. F. Efremova, where it is stated that “morpheme analysis does not depend much on word-formation, since usually a comparative method is used when dividing a word, in which it is practically not taken into account what is formed from what.
The formal-structural approach is opposed to the approach formal semantic (formal semantic). The main setting of this approach and the algorithm of morphemic parsing come from the works of G. O. Vinokur and consist in the continuity of morphemic articulation and word-formation parsing. The fact that this approach is expedient and even the only possible one has been written by many scientists and methodologists for many decades.
The approach of educational complexes to the question of the principles and algorithm of morphemic division is different: educational complexes 1 and 3 offer a formal-semantic approach to the morphemic division of a word (complex 3 to a greater extent than complex 1), complex 2 is formal-structural.
The algorithm for morphemic parsing of the stem consists in constructing a word-building chain "on the contrary": prefixes and suffixes are, as it were, "removed" from the word, while the root is singled out last. In parsing, it is always necessary to correlate the meaning of the derivative and the meaning of its generator; the producing basis in modern Russian is the motivating basis. If there is no relation of motivation between the meaning of the derivative and the meaning of the generating (in our view) word, the generating is chosen incorrectly.
Thus, order of word parsing by composition is:
1) highlight the ending, formative suffix (if they are in the word),
2) highlight the stem of the word - part of the word without endings and formative suffixes,
3) highlight the prefix and / or suffix in the basis of the word through the construction of a word-formation chain,
4) highlight the root in the word.
Examples:
1) carpenter
Reasoning pattern:
carpenter- verb form carpentry; the verb is in the past tense of the indicative mood, which is expressed by the formative suffix - l-, masculine singular, which is expressed by zero ending (compare: carpenter-and).
The basis - carpentry-.
Verb carpentry formed from a noun a carpenter, motivated through it: carpentry - “to be a carpenter”; difference between base carpentry and a carpenter- suffix - a-, alternation is presented in the basics b/h.
Noun a carpenter in modern language it is non-derivative, since it cannot be motivated through the word raft. Hence, a carpenter / carpenter- root.
So the word form carpenter has a zero ending with the meaning of the masculine singular, the formative suffix - l- with the meaning of the past tense of the indicative mood, the word-forming suffix - a- with the meaning of being what is named in the motivating basis, the root carpenter. stem carpentry.
2) dressing
Reasoning pattern:
Dressing- noun, ending - e(it is this segment of the word that changes when it is declined: dress up, dress up, dress up).
At the junction of the ending and the stem in all forms, the sound [y '] is pronounced, which is “hidden” in the letter e standing after a vowel. Therefore, this sound belongs to the basis, closes it. The base of the word dress up[y'].
Word dressing derived from the verb dress: dressing - ‘the process of dressing is the same as dressing’. The difference between the base dressing and verb stem clothing- segment - neither[y']-, which is a word-forming suffix.
The verb to dress is derived from the verb dress and has an imperfect form. The means of word formation - suffix - wa-.
The verb to dress is non-derivative, but there are verbs in the language undress, re-dress with the same root, but different prefixes, therefore, we are dealing with a related root - de- and a prefix about-.
Thus, the word form dressing has an ending - e with the meaning of the nominative or accusative case of the singular, word-forming morphemes: suffix - neither[y']- with the meaning of an abstract action, suffix - wa- with the value of the imperfect form, the prefix about- and associated root - de-. stem dressing-.
Sample writing:
In written analysis, the word-formation chain can be removed in brackets. In simple cases, the procedure can be carried out orally and only the result can be recorded - write down the word with the morphemes highlighted in it.
Subject and basic concepts of word formation
word formation is called both the process of formation of derivative words, and the section of linguistics that studies this process.
Why are words formed in a language? The formation of new words can have several goals: the first goal is to designate the realities of reality by folding syntactic constructions into one word ( switch - something that turns off); the second goal is to move to a different syntactic position of one or another meaning (for example, nouns are formed from verbs with the meaning of an action of the type singing, which can act as the subject of the message, occupying the syntactic position of the subject); word formation can also serve to express the stylistic characteristics of a word (cf.: sky - heaven) and emotional-evaluative components of meanings (cf.: book - little book). Word formation, along with borrowing, is the most important way of enriching the vocabulary of the Russian language. In the oral speech of people, as well as in fiction and journalistic works, the author's word formation often takes place: a native speaker invents, constructs words that do not exist in the language, for the sake of a language game, to make his text more expressive. Most often, not new word roots are invented, but new word-formation derivatives are created according to the word-formation models available in the language.
Main word formation tasks as a section of linguistics are as follows:
1) establish whether the word is derivative in the modern language (at the synchronous level),
2) determine from what and how the given derivative word is formed.
Basic concepts word formation:
Derivative (PN) basis,
Producing (PS) base (or bases),
word building tool,
way of word formation
Processes accompanying word formation.
Derivative basis- a basis formally formed and motivated by the meaning of another basis (criterion of motivation): table-ik←table, table- "small table".
Production base- the basis closest in form to the derivative, through which the derivative basis is motivated, interpreted.
Means and method of word formation
means formation of a new word can serve derivational morpheme(prefix or suffix, as well as their combination - simultaneous attachment to the generating base of the prefix and suffix, etc.).
But there is another means of forming a new word: with the generating base (foundations), some operations, which are the means of creating a new word, while word-forming morphemes are not used. Such operations include the following:
1) reduction of the generating base as a means of creating a new word (within the same part of speech): specialist → specialist;
2) addition components of generating stems with their possible reduction, which is accompanied by a rigid fixation of their sequence within the derived word, as well as a single stress: department store → Department store;
3) change in part-of-speech attribution of a word: at the adjective tea masculine, neuter, feminine singular and plural forms are presented, and the noun tea room- only feminine singular and plural forms.
To form a new word, a word-forming morpheme and an operational tool can be used simultaneously, for example: earth + do → land-e-del-ets(addition of generating bases + suffix).
The characteristic of the word-formation tool used to form new words underlies the classification ways of word formation:
Methods using word-forming morphemes as a means of word formation:
1) prefix: do → re-do,
2) suffix: blue → syn-ev-a, wash → wash , proud → proud-and-t-sya,
3) prefixed-suffixal: cup → under-glass-nick, run → run away, speak → re-talk-iva-th-sya.
Ways using operational means of word formation:
1) reduction: deputy → deputy,
2) addition:
a) complex method: sofa + bed → sofa bed,
b) addition: forest + steppe → forest (o) steppe,
A kind of addition is sometimes distinguished in an independent way by fusion: crazy → crazy. As part of a derived word, the final morpheme of the first generating word becomes an interfix, and not a suffix or ending, as it was in the generating one: crazy.
c) addition with reduction (abbreviation): wall newspaper → wall newspaper, Ministry of Foreign Affairs → Ministry of Foreign Affairs
With abbreviation, it is possible to reduce the original words to the first sounds ( university), letters ( Moscow State University), initial parts ( supply manager), the initial part of the first word and the first letters or sounds of other words ( city department of public education → gorono), abbreviations are also words formed by combining the initial part of the first word with the unabbreviated second ( savings bank) and the beginning of the first word with the beginning and/or end of the second ( sales office → trade mission).
3) the transition of a word from one part of speech to another; the main type of such a transition is substantiation - the transition of an adjective or participle into a noun: dining room(adj.) → canteen(n.).
Mixed ways - ways in which word-forming morphemes and operational means of word formation are used simultaneously: order + wear → order (o) nose-ets (addition generating bases + suffixation).
Type cases run → run, called in complex 1 non-suffix word formation, belong to the suffix method. The suffix here, as already mentioned, is zero: run-Ø → run away.
In the process of word formation, the following processes take place, which serve to adapt morphemes in a derived word:
1) alternating vowels and consonants: cat → cat-to-a(alternating b/h, zero sound / e), lion →lioness(alternating in / in’, e /Ø),
2) insertion of an insignificant connecting element (interfix); steam + walk → steam(o)stroke-Ø,
3) stem truncation(it should not be confused with abbreviation as a way of word formation, in which abbreviation alone forms a new word): cut → cut-to-a,
The authors of complex 3 introduce the concept of a word-formation model - a model for creating a new word that lives in the Russian language and is understandable to everyone. Thus, the word-formation model _____ oval means "slightly": white-ovate, sour-ovate, rough-ovate.
The introduction of the concept of a word-formation model helps to understand the systemic relations of units in a language, its orderliness. However, what the authors call a word-formation model is actually a morphemic word structure scheme and describes both derivative words and non-derivative words with an associated root; e.g. schema time _____ describes as derived words break up, scatter, and non-derivative undress, undress. Indirect evidence that for the authors of the textbook, morphemic rather than word formation is more significant when using models, is the formulation of tasks using the concept of a word-formation model, for example: “Write down the words corresponding to these models: _____ ist: velvet-, waves-, voice-, shower-, grain-, ear, shoulder-, spots-". As we can see, for use in the word-formation model, the authors do not specify words - PN bases, but ready-made roots, including those with already implemented alternation ( fragrant from spirit).
Methods for the formation of independent parts of speech
The following main ways of forming independent parts of speech are presented in Russian:
Noun
1. prefixal, in which nouns are formed from nouns: city → suburb,
2. suffixal, in which nouns are formed from
Nouns: table → table-ik,
Adjectives: blue → syn-ev-a, blue-Ø,
Verbs: run away → running-relative-I , run-Ø,
Numerals: one hundred → a hundred , two → twins,
Adverbs: together → accomplice, why → why-chk-ah,
3. prefixed-suffixal, in which nouns are formed from
Nouns: window → windowsill,
Verbs: serve → colleague,
Adjectives: polar → for-polar-j-e,
4. addition, including with the abbreviation: forest + steppe → forest(o)steppe, Moscow State University → Moscow State University,
5. truncation: specialist → specialist,
6. substantiation, at which there is a transition into nouns of adjectives and participles: ice cream, manager(substantive participles, as already mentioned, can be considered suffixal derivatives of verbs),
7. addition with suffix: Earth + make → land (e) business.
Adjective
1. prefixal, in which adjectives are formed from adjectives: huge → pre-huge,
2. suffixal, forming adjectives from
Adjectives: blue → blue-yenky-y,
Nouns: autumn → autumn,
Numerals: two → double,
Adverbs: inside → interior,
3. prefixed-suffixal: shore → near-shore-n-th,
4. addition: Russian + English → Russian-English;
5. addition with suffix: crooked+ side→ crooked(o)side-Ø- uy
numeral
Numerals are formed from numerals in the following ways:
1. suffixal: two → twenty, five → fifteen , two → dv-oj-e,
2. addition: three + hundred → three hundred;
Pronoun
Pronouns are formed from pronouns by prefixes none, not, something and suffixes - then, either, something: who → no-one, no-one , somebody, anybody, anyone;
1. prefixal- from verbs: run → pro-run,
2. suffixal, in which verbs are formed from
Adjectives: red → blush, prominent → visible,
Nouns: partisan → partisan-i-t, crowd → crowd,
Numerals: two → two-and-th ("divide in two"),
Interjection: ah → ah-ah-ah,
3. prefixed-suffixal, with which verbs are formed from
Nouns: shadow → for-shadow-and-t , bankrupt → go bankrupt,
Adjectives: straight → you-straight-and-be ,
Numerals: three → u-three-and-be,
Verbs: be in love → dislike, jump → ras-jump-sya, call → re-called-iva-th-sya;
4. addition: work+ arrange → labor (o) to arrange,
5. addition with the addition of a word-forming morpheme: world + create → u-world (o) to create;
1. prefixal- from adverbs: long → not for long, how → somehow
2. suffixal
Nouns: winter → winter-oh,
Adjectives: good → well,
Numerals: three → tr-everyday,
Verbs: lie down → lie-a,
Adverbs: well → good, how → somehow ,
3. prefixed-suffixal, with which adverbs are formed from
Adjectives: new → in a new way old → from a long time ago
Nouns: top → up,
Numerals: two → in two,
Verbs: catching up → in catch-up, jump → in-jump-Ø
Adverbs: long → for a long time
4. addition with suffix: past+ walk → in passing.
Formation of words by transition from one part of speech to another
The words of some parts of speech were historically formed by the transition of words from one part of speech to another.
We have already called education nouns by passing adjectives and participles into them ( ice cream manager) - substantiation. If the noun formed by the substantiation of the adjective does not have any differences in morphemic structure from these adjectives, then the noun formed by the substantiation of the participle differs from the corresponding participle in terms of its morphemic composition: in the noun the suffix is - utsch / -yushch, -ashch / -yashch is not formative (the noun is not a form of the verb) and is included in the stem. Therefore, in linguistics there is a description of the formation of such words by suffixation: manager ← manage, manager - "the one who manages."
The transition from other parts of speech formed many adverbs. So, we can note adverbs formed by rethinking
Nouns ( at home in spring),
adjectives ( in vain, out in the open),
gerund ( sitting, lying),
Numerals ( twice).
It must be understood that the transition of a word from one part of speech to another is a historical process. From the point of view of the current state of the language (from a synchronic point of view), all these words are formed using a suffix or prefix and a suffix homonymous to the ending of a noun, adjective or numeral, as well as the formative suffix of the participle form of the verb, for example:
winter-oh ← winter, lying-a ← lie, empty-y ← empty.
The transition process is active during the formation of service words. For example, the following groups can be called pretexts, formed by the transition from other parts of speech:
denominated: in view, in the form, during, on account of, on account of,
Verbs: thanks to, including, excluding, starting, after,
adverbs: near, around, opposite, far away.
At the same time, the distinction between a preposition and an adverb is possible only in the context and depends on the real presence or absence of the following noun: I looked around(adverb) - I walked around the house(pretext). The distinction between a derivative preposition and a gerund is based on the difference in their meaning - a derivative verbal preposition expresses the meaning of a relation, for example: Thanks to the hosts, the evening was a success.(preposition) - We left, thanking the hosts for their hospitality.(germs). As for denominative prepositions, the degree of their departure from independent words is different. In a number of cases, prepositions have become absolutely isolated and have lost their semantic connection with the base noun, for example: in view of, in the course of, by, about, in the course of; in modern language, these prepositions should be considered non-derivative. In other cases, semantic connections are alive: as, in the field, with the help of, in favor of. Such prepositions are called prepositional combinations, since they retain some of the syntactic properties of the noun: selective compatibility ( in the role of someone - in the function of what), the ability to accept the definition ( act in the dubious role of appeaser). In these cases, we are dealing with a living process of "proposing" nominal combinations.
From the point of view of the current state of the language, the following ways of forming prepositions can be distinguished:
1) suffixal - from verbs: exclude-I ← exclude,
2) prefixed-suffixal - from nouns: in-time-i ← time,
3) addition - from prepositions: due to ← due to + due.
The material concerning the formation of words of one part of speech from words of another part of speech clearly shows the necessity and ways of distinguishing between historical and synchronic derivativeness.
Word-building analysis of the word
Word-formation analysis is carried out according to the following scheme:
1. Put the word under study in the initial form (for participle and gerund participle - infinitive).
2. To the word under study, select a motivating word (words) that is closest in form and related in meaning to the word under study; explain the meaning of a derivative word through the meaning of the generating word (words); highlight the researched and producing (producing) bases.
3. In the word under study, highlight the means of word formation, if the word is formed by a prefix and / or a suffix.
4. Indicate the way of word formation.
5. Indicate the processes accompanying word formation, if any:
alternating vowels and consonants
Truncation of the generating base,
interfixation,
When parsing word-formation, it is necessary to pay attention to the following.
First of all, word formation and form formation should not be confused. So, it is impossible to describe the past tense of the verb, participle or gerund as words formed from the infinitive (for example, was reading, reading, reading from read). In this case, we are dealing with forms of the same verb, that is, with the same word. It is to avoid errors of this kind that the word under study is first put in its initial form.
The generating stem must also be in the initial form (for example, windowsill← window, but not * under the window), the only exceptions are cases of fusion ( crazy ← crazy) and substantivation ( student n. ← student incl.).
Secondly, during word-formation analysis, it is necessary to correctly determine the generating stem - the closest motivating stem in form. An analysis would be erroneous in which the initial non-derivative word of the word-formation chain will be indicated as the generating basis, and not the direct generating word of the word under study. So, for example, for the word steamboat its producing basis will be the word steamer not words steam and walk. Means of word formation steamboat- suffix - n-, way - suffixation.
Thirdly, one should not clutter up the word-formation analysis with a complete morphemic analysis of the word under study. Extra operations indicate a misunderstanding of the task of word-formation parsing and its difference from morphemic parsing. In the word under study, only the stem and the morpheme (morphemes) that are directly involved in word formation should be singled out.
In rare cases, the word under study may be at the same level of derivation from two different stems, for example: sadly ← funny / sad. In these cases, one speaks of the double motivation of the given word. It can also be described as a prefix derivative of the word funny, and as a suffixal derivative of the word sad.
Here are a few examples word-formation parsing:
1) excess
excess ← superfluous ; excess - "something in excess" ;
the process that accompanies word formation is the truncation of the PN stem.
2) rushed about- verb form rush about
to rush about ← to rush about; to rush about - “to start rushing about”,
way of word formation - prefix.
3) care
care- noun form care
care-Ø ← leave; leaving - "when they leave, the same as leaving",
way of word formation - suffixation,
Truncation of the PS base,
alternation d'/d.
4) snow scooters- noun form snow scooter
snow (o) catØ ← snow + ride, snow scooter - “what they ride in the snow”,
way of word formation - addition with suffixation,
processes accompanying word formation:
Interfixation
Truncation of the PN of the stem of the verb.
Reflection of the morphemic composition of the word and its word-formation relations in dictionaries
There are special private (aspect) dictionaries that reflect the morphemic composition of the word and its derivational derivation. These dictionaries are private (aspect) linguistic dictionaries.
To work with the morphemic composition of the word, there are dictionaries that describe the compatibility and meaning of the sea (A. I. Kuznetsova, T. F. Efremova "Dictionary of morphemes of the Russian language", T. F. Efremova "Explanatory dictionary of word-building units of the Russian language").
Word-building relationships between words are reflected in word-building dictionaries, the most complete of which is A. N. Tikhonov's "Derivational Dictionary of the Russian Language" in 2 volumes.
In these dictionaries, non-derivative words are arranged alphabetically, to which word-formation chains are built, taking into account all derivatives of this non-derivative stem. A non-derivative word with all its derivatives is called a derivational nest. As an example, let's take the derivational nest of the word cheerful:
Comprehensive information about the word is contained, for example, in the "Dictionary-reference book on the Russian language: spelling, pronunciation, stress, word formation, morphemic, grammar, word frequency" by A. N. Tikhonova, E. N. Tikhonova, S. A. Tikhonova .
There are also versions of morphemic and word-formation dictionaries adapted specifically for schoolchildren, for example, A. N. Tikhonov’s School Word-Formation Dictionary of the Russian Language, M. T. Baranova’s School Dictionary of the Russian Word Formation, Z. A. Potihi, dictionaries presented in school textbooks.
Litnevskaya E. I.
Noun
When forming nouns in the Russian language, all of the above methods of word formation are used: the formation of words by adding affixes, reduction, addition, substantivation, combination of addition with affixation.
Affixal ways of forming nouns
1. By the prefix method, nouns can only be formed from nouns, since the addition of a prefix alone cannot change the part of the word.
The following prefixes are used to form nouns: non- (luck< неудача), при- (город < пригород), под- класс < подкласс), сверх- (прибыль < сверхприбыль), супер- (игра < суперигра), ультра- (звук < ультразвук), анти- (частица < античастица), контр- (удар < контрудар), противо- (действие < противодействие) и некоторые другие.
2. The most active in the formation of nouns is suffixation. By means of suffixes, nouns can be formed from nouns, adjectives, verbs, numerals, adverbs.
The formation of nouns from nouns occurs with the help of suffixes -ik (key< ключик), -ек (замок < замочек), -к (книга < книжка), -чик/-щик (барабан < барабанчик, газета < газетчик), -ник (школа < школьник, чай < чайник), -ин (горох < горошина), -онок (тигр < тигренок), -иц (тигр < тигрица) и многих других.
From adjectives, nouns are formed with the help of suffixes -ost (strict< строгость), -изн (белый < белизна), -ин (глубокий < глубина), -от (добрый < доброта), -# (тихий < тишь), -ец (беглый < беглец), -ик (умный < умник), -ак (бедный < бедняк) и некоторых других.
The following suffixes are typical for suffix word-formation of nouns from verbs: -нj (to sing< пение), -к (строить < стройка), -тельств (строить < строительство), -# (входить < вход), -тель (читать < читатель, включать < включатель), -чик / -щик (перевозить < перевозчик, выдумать < выдумщик), -ец (бороться < борец), -ун (врать < врун) и другие.
When forming nouns from numerals, for example, the suffix -н (one hundred< сотня).
From adverbs, nouns are formed with the help of suffixes -nick (generally< сообщник) и -чк (почему < почемучка).
3. Many nouns are formed in the prefix-suffix way.
When forming such nouns from other nouns, the following combinations of prefix and suffix are used: under-...-nick (snow< подснежник), на-...-ник (колено < наколенник), при-...-j (море < приморье), за-...-j (река < заречье), меж-...-j (гора < межгорье), без-...-j (деньги < безденежье), без-...-иц (работа < безработица).
When forming nouns from adjectives, combinations of affixes for-...-j (polar< заполярье), про-...-# (седой < проседь).
Sometimes nouns are also formed from verbs in a prefixed-suffixal way, for example: co-...-(v)ec (serve< сослуживец).
Non-affixal ways of forming nouns
1. Many nouns are formed by addition, including abbreviations: forest + steppe< лесостепь, сберегательный банк < сбербанк, Московский государственный университет < МГУ.
2. Nouns can be formed by abbreviation: specialist< спец, заместитель < зам.
3. When forming nouns, substantivation is active, in which adjectives and participles pass into nouns: ice cream, manager, tip (we are talking about those words that are perceived by native speakers as nouns in the language, and not only in a specific text - cf. with the participle, used in the function of a noun: Everyone looked at the person who entered).
mixed ways
Nouns are formed by addition with suffixation. The most commonly used suffixes are -ets (earth + do< земледел-ец), -ник (тепло + обменивать < теплообменник), -тель (море + плавать < мореплаватель), -# (вино + делать < винодел).
Adjective
Adjectives in Russian are formed by prefixed, suffixal, prefixed-suffixal methods, addition, including fusion.
Affixal ways of forming adjectives
1. In the prefixed way, adjectives are formed from adjectives; this method is one of the most productive in the formation of words of this part of speech. In this case, the following prefixes are used: non- (cheerful< невеселый), пре- (огромный < преогромный), раз- (веселый < развеселый), анти- (научный < антинаучный), противо- (естественный < противоестественный), сверх- (быстрый < сверхбыстрый), архи- (сложный < архисложный), супер- (модный < супермодный).
2. The suffix method is used to form adjectives from adjectives, nouns, verbs, numerals and adverbs.
When forming adjectives from adjectives, the suffixes -onk- / -enk- (blue< син-еньк-ий, плохой < плохонький), -ущ- (большой < большущий), -енн- (высокий < высоченный), -оват-/-еват- (белый < беловатый, синий < синеватый).
When forming adjectives from nouns, suffixes -n- are used (autumn< осенний), -ан- (песок < песчаный), -ин- (тополь < тополиный, мама < мамин), -ий (лиса < лисий), -ов (отец < отцов), -ск- (море < морской), -ист- (лес < лесистый), -чат- (пузырь < пузырчатый), -лив- (дождь < дождливый).
From verbs, adjectives are formed using the suffixes -n- (to cut< резной), -чив- (улыбаться < улыбчивый), -лив- (въедаться < въедливый), -ист- (поджарить < поджаристый), -к- (пылать < пылкий), -л- (гнить < гнилой).
When forming adjectives from numerals and adverbs, the suffixes -n- and -enn- are used (two< двойной, вчера < вчерашний, внутри < внутренний).
3. In the prefix-suffix way, adjectives are formed from nouns and verbs.
When forming adjectives from nouns, the following combinations of prefix and suffix are used: bez-...-n- (ticket< безбилетный), внутри-...-н- (школа < внутришкольный), вне-...-н- (класс < внеклассный), на-...-н- (стол < настольный), после-...-н- (война < послевоенный), до-...-н- (война < довоенный), противо-...-н- (удар < противоударный), без-...-(- (усы < безусый).
The same prefixes can be combined with the suffixes -enn- (leaves< безлиственный), -ов- (сеть < внутрисетевой), -ск- (завод < внутризаводской).
When forming from verbs, combinations of non-...-n- (break< неразрывный), без-...-н- (возвратить < безвозвратный), не-...-м- (исцелить < неисцелимый).
Non-affixal ways of word formation
1. Of the non-affixal ways of forming an adjective, addition is especially productive, for example: lyrical + epic< лир(о)-эпический, засуха + устойчивый < засух(о)устойчивый. При образовании прилагательных сложением обязательно используется интерфикс.
2. Only when forming adjectives, such a method of word formation as fusion is used: quickly + soluble< быстрорастворимый, с ума сшедший < сумасшедший. Отличие сращения от сложения заключается в том, что словосочетание при объединении в одно слово не претерпевает никаких изменений, за исключением того, что в производном прилагательном может быть установлено единое ударение (о возможной интерпретации этого способа см. примечание в разделе "Средства и способы словообразования").
mixed ways
When forming adjectives, addition with suffixation is possible, while the suffixes -n- and -(-: railway< железн(о)дорож-н-ый, кривой + бок < крив(о)бокий.
numeral
Numerals are formed from numerals in the following ways:
1) suffix: two< дв-адцать, пять < пят-надцать, три < тр-оj-е,
2) addition: three + one hundred< триста, двести + пятьдесят< двести пятьдесят.
Pronoun
Pronouns are formed from pronouns by prefixes neither-, not-, something- and postfixes -something, -or, -something: who< никто, некто, кое-кто, кто-то, кто-либо, кто-нибудь.
Verb
Verbs are formed mainly by affixal methods (the most productive are prefixed and prefixed-suffixal); addition for verbs is uncharacteristic.
Affixal ways of forming verbs
1. In a prefixed way, verbs are formed from verbs. The number of verb prefixes is very large, which is associated with the expression of the meanings of the result (species value), direction, quantitative and temporal modifications and the nature of the course of the action. We list the main verb prefixes: s- (do< сделать), на- (писать < написать), про- (читать < прочитать), о- (слепить < ослепить), в- (нести < внести), вы- (бежать < выбежать), от- (прыгнуть < отпрыгнуть), у- (лететь < улететь), за- (петь < запеть), до- (есть < доесть), про- (жить < прожить), при- (бежать < прибежать), недо- (выполнить < недовыполнить).
2. In the suffix way, verbs are formed from verbs, nouns, adjectives, numerals, pronouns, interjections, onomatopoeic words.
From perfective verbs, imperfective verbs are formed using the suffixes -iva / -yva, -va and -a: reread< перечитывать, подкормить < подкармливать, напеть < напевать, решить < решать.
When forming verbs from nouns, the suffixes -i- (salt< солить), -а- (плотник < плотничать), -е- (пот < потеть), -нича- (лентяй < лентяйничать), -ова- (форма < формовать), -ствова- (адвокат < вокатствовать).
To form verbs from adjectives, the suffixes -and- (white< белить), -е- (белый < белеть), -ова- (пустой < пустовать), -ича- (подлый < подличать).
From numerals, verbs are formed using the suffix -i- (two< двоить "разделять надвое").
From pronouns, interjections and onomatopoeia, verbs are formed by the suffix -a-, and if the generating stem ends in a vowel, the interfix consonant is used: you< вы(к)ать, ах < ахать, мяу < мяу(к)ать.
3. In the postfixal way, verbs are formed from verbs with the meaning of recurrence: wash< мыться, встречать< встречаться.
4. The prefix-suffix method is used in the formation of verbs from verbs, nouns, adjectives and numerals.
Verbs formed from verbs receive the meaning of the imperfect form along with the designation of the intensity of the action. For this, the following combination of the species suffix -iva- / -yva- with prefixes on- (crack< потрескивать), при- (петь < припевать), на- (свистеть < насвистывать), под- (петь < подпевать), недо- (любить < недолюбливать).
From nouns, verbs are formed by a suffix and in combination with prefixes for- (shadow< затенить), об- (лес < облесить), при- (земля < приземлить). Приставка обез- употребляется в сочетании с суффиксами -и- (рыба < обезрыбить "лишить рыбы") и -е- (рыба < обезрыбеть "лишиться рыбы").
From adjectives, verbs are formed using the suffix -i- and prefixes -u- (dense< уплотнить), о- (благородный < облагородить), вы- (прямой < выпрямить) и некоторых других.
From numerals, verbs are formed using the suffix -and- and prefixes y- (three< утроить), с- (двое < сдвоить).
5. Verbs can be formed in the prefix-postfixal way from verbs. The postfix -sya / -ss is combined with prefixes v- (think< вдуматься), за- (думать < задуматься), на- (гулять < нагуляться), рас- (прыгать < распрыгаться), до- (звонить < дозвониться) и некоторыми другими.
6. In the suffix-postfixal way, verbs are formed from nouns and adjectives using the suffixes -and- (crowd< толпиться) и -е- (видный < виднеться).
7. Verbs can be formed in a prefixed-suffixal-postfixal way: bankrupt< о-банкрот-и-ть-ся, звонить < пере-зван-ива-ть-ся.
Non-affixal ways in the formation of verbs are used extremely rarely. So, for example, the following words are formed by addition: work + arrange< труд(о)устроить, сам + воспламениться < сам(о)воспламениться.
Mixed ways when circumcising a verb are also not very common and are represented by addition with affixation, for example: world + create< у-мир(о)творить.
Adverb
The adverb is formed mainly by affixal methods, among which the prefix-suffixal is the most productive.
Affixal ways of forming adverbs
1. In the prefixed way, adverbs are formed from adverbs. Most often, prefixes are used in this case, non- (for a long time< недолго), во- (вне < вовне), за- (темно < затемно), до- (ныне < доныне), на- (всегда < навсегда), по- (ныне < поныне), от- (ныне < отныне), кое- (как < кое-как), ни- (где < нигде).
2. In the suffix way, adverbs are formed from nouns, adjectives, numerals, verbs, adverbs.
Adverbs formed from nouns contain suffixes homonymous to the endings of the noun (see about this in the section "Formation of words by transition from one part of speech to another"). These are suffixes -om (evening< вечером, -ой/-ою (весна < весной / весною), -ами (времена < временами).
Adverbs are regularly formed from adjectives with suffixes -о/-е (cheerful< весело, неуклюжий < неуклюже), -и (дружеский < дружески), -ком (пеший < пешком).
To form adverbs from numerals, the suffix -zhdy and its modifications (two< дважды, три < трижды).
When forming adverbs from verbs, suffixes -mya are used (stand< стоймя), -ом (волочь < волоком), -ю (ощупать < ощупью).
Adverbs can be formed by suffixing and from adverbs, while using suffixes: -ovato (early< рановато), -енько/-онько (часто < частенько) и некоторые другие.
3. When forming indefinite pronominal adverbs, the postfix method is used, in which postfixes -to are added to pronominal adverbs (where< где-то), -либо (куда < куда-либо), -нибудь (зачем < зачем-нибудь).
4. The prefix-suffix method is most actively used in the formation of adverbs from nouns and adjectives.
When forming an adverb from a noun, the following combinations of prefixes and suffixes are presented: in-...-u (dry< всухомятку), в-...-((даль < вдаль), на-...-у (встеча < навстречу), на-...- (показ < напоказ), в-...-у (верх < вверху), в-...-е (начало < вначале), в-...-и (даль < вдали), на-...-у (верх < наверху), с-...-у (бок < сбоку) и другие.
The greatest number of combinations is presented in the formation of adverbs from adjectives. These are the following combinations of affixes: in-...-th / -him (new< по-новому, прежний < по-прежнему), по-...-и (охотничий < по-охотничьи), из-...-а (давний < издавна), до-...-а (белый < добела), с-...-а (новый < снова), в-...-о (правый < вправо), на-...-о (белый < набело), по-...-у (пустой < попусту), в-...-ую (пустой < впустую), в-...-и (близкий < вблизи), с-...-у (молодой < молоду).
Adverbs can be formed in the prefix-suffix way from numerals, while the following prefixes and suffixes are used: in-/in-...-s/-s (third< в-третьих, второй < во-вторых), в-...-ом/-ем (двое < вдвоем, пятеро < впятером), в-...-о/-е (десятеро < вдесятеро), на-...-о/-е (двое < надвое).
From verbs, adverbs are formed by affixes -...-((jump< вскачь), в-...-ку (догонять < вдогонку).От наречий наречия образуются при помощи по-...-у (долго < подолгу), по-...-ку (нарочно < понарошку).
Non-affixal ways of formation of adverbs are not presented.
Mixed methods are represented insignificantly. So, some adverbs are formed by addition with suffixation, for example: past + walk< мимоходом.
Formation of words by moving from one part of speech to another
The words of some parts of speech were historically formed by the transition of words from one part of speech to another.
We have already called the formation of nouns by passing adjectives and participles into them (ice cream, manager) - substantiation. If the noun formed by the substantivation of the adjective does not have any differences in morphemic structure from these adjectives, then the noun formed by the substantiation of the participle differs from the corresponding participle in terms of its morphemic composition: in the noun, the suffix -usch / -yushch, -ashch / -yashch is not formative (the noun is not a form of the verb) and is included in the stem. Therefore, in linguistics, the formation of such words is considered as a suffixation: head-yush-th (manage, manager - "the one who manages").
Many adverbs were formed by transition from other parts of speech. So, we can note adverbs formed by rethinking
Nouns (at home, in spring),
Adjectives (in vain, openly),
Participles (sitting, lying down),
Numerals (twice).
The transition of a word from one part of speech to another is a historical process. From the point of view of the modern state of the language, all these words are formed with the help of a suffix or prefix and a suffix homonymous with the ending of a noun, adjective or numeral, as well as the form-forming suffix of the participle form of the verb, for example: winter-oh / winter, lie-a / lie, in- empty-y / empty. The transition process is active during the formation of service words. So, for example, we can name the following groups of prepositions formed by the transition from other parts of speech:
Denominative: in view of, in the form of, during, at the expense of, about,
Verbal: thanks to, including, excluding, starting, after,
Adverbs: near, around, opposite, far away.
At the same time, the distinction between a preposition and an adverb is possible only in the context and depends on the real presence or absence of the following noun: I looked around (adverb) - I walked around the house (preposition). The distinction between a derivative preposition and a gerund is based on the difference in their meaning - a derivative verbal preposition expresses the meaning of a relationship, not an action, for example: Thanks to the hosts, the evening was a success (preposition) - We left thanks to the hosts for hospitality (germ).
As for denominative prepositions, the degree of their departure from independent words is different. In a number of cases, prepositions have become absolutely isolated and have lost their semantic connection with the base noun, for example: in view of, during, by, about, as far as; in modern language, these prepositions should be considered non-derivative. In other cases, semantic connections are alive: in quality, in the sphere, with help, in favor. Such prepositions are called prepositional combinations, since they retain some of the syntactic properties of a noun: selective compatibility (in the role of someone - in the function of something), the ability to accept a definition (to act in the dubious role of a peacemaker). In these cases, we are dealing with a living process of "proposing" nominal combinations.
From the point of view of the current state of the language, the following ways of forming prepositions can be distinguished:
1) suffixal - from verbs: exclude-I > exclude,
2) prefixed-suffixal - from nouns: in-time > time,
3) addition - from prepositions: because of > from + for.
We know from experience in teaching and learning languages that some languages are easier to learn, while others are more difficult. Meanwhile, the concept of simplicity/complexity of a language has not yet been reflected in science.
The current state of the Russian language is characterized by unusually active processes of borrowing vast layers of vocabulary related to various areas of our life: economics, politics, sports, art, etc.
The subject of our study was adjectives denoting a person by appearance in connection with his physical features, recorded in the Yaroslavl Regional Dictionary (1981-1991).
Scheme of word-formation parsing of a word.
Normalization of the sound side of speech creates conditions for its further improvement. The formation of morphological generalizations is the most important element of this process. On this basis, the most significant tasks are solved
We want to remind you that the rule itself essentially consists of two: you can talk about writing one or two letters "n" in adjectives formed from nouns (this is one rule), or you can check verbal adjectives and participles.
The typological restructuring of the English language led to a change in the technique of coding information - the analytical technique became dominant. As a result, the analytical method of creating nominative units is firmly entrenched in lexeme formation.
Experienced array of texts. Processing technique.
During inflection in the stems of nouns and verbs, regular and irregular changes are observed associated with fluent vowels in the stems of nouns and verbs.
Morphological causatives, i.e. causative verbs formed by affixing non-causative stems are found in many natural languages. Undoubtedly, the primacy in this respect belongs to the languages of the agglutinating type.
Adjective. Endings of adjectives. Suffixes of adjectives. Spelling of complex adjectives. Classes of adjectives. Coordination of adjectives with nouns.
It is no coincidence that these notes on parts of speech begin with the above lines belonging to the English mathematician and writer Lewis Carroll (translated by Dina Orlovskaya) and the Russian linguist academician L.V. Shcherba, respectively.
The word-formation model, according to which masculine nouns are formed with the help of the suffix -ist- in our modern language, is very productive.
In this article, we would like to clarify for ourselves and for other translators the question of how the culture and the individual translator develop an idea of what and how should be transmitted from culture to culture.
The state and development of Russian word formation is manifested in the rate of replenishment of the lexical system with the help of new derivative words, in the ratio of own and borrowed, in language creativity.
Deictic adverbs in Spanish represent a very ramified and peculiar system of means of spatial localization of objects and actions.
Word formation is called both the process of forming derivative words, and the section of linguistics, which studies the derivation, means and methods of word formation.
The spelling code of 1956, having eliminated inconsistencies in a number of spellings, made certain clarifications and changes to the spelling rules, left unchanged such rules that can be simplified and streamlined.
What do we mean by "declension". Substantive declension. Features of change in the singular. Substantive declension. Features of change in the plural.
In language, there is no one-to-one correspondence between meaning and the way it is expressed. The process of word formation (formation of words) is only a part of the process of formation of derivative nominations, which are not only single-word.
Noun
When forming nouns in the Russian language, all of the above methods of word formation are used: the formation of words by adding affixes, reduction, addition, substantivation, combination of addition with affixation.
Affixal ways of forming nouns
1. By the prefix method, nouns can only be formed from nouns, since the addition of a prefix alone cannot change the part of the word.
The following prefixes are used to form nouns: not- (luck< неудача), при- (город < пригород), под- класс < подкласс), сверх- (прибыль < сверхприбыль), супер- (игра < суперигра), ультра- (звук < ультразвук), анти- (частица < античастица), контр- (удар < контрудар), противо- (действие < противодействие) and some others.
2. The most active in the formation of nouns is suffixation. By means of suffixes, nouns can be formed from nouns, adjectives, verbs, numerals, adverbs.
The formation of nouns from nouns occurs with the help of suffixes - ik (key< ключик), -ек (замок < замочек), -к (книга < книжка), -чик/-щик (барабан < барабанчик, газета < газетчик), -ник (школа < школьник, чай < чайник), -ин (горох < горошина), -онок (тигр < тигренок), -иц (тигр < тигрица) and many others.
From adjectives, nouns are formed using suffixes -ost (strict< строгость), -изн (белый < белизна), -ин (глубокий < глубина), -от (добрый < доброта), -# (тихий < тишь), -ец (беглый < беглец), -ик (умный < умник), -ак (бедный < бедняк) and some others.
The following suffixes are typical for suffixal word formation of nouns from verbs: -nij (sing< пение), -к (строить < стройка), -тельств (строить < строительство), -# (входить < вход), -тель (читать < читатель, включать < включатель), -чик / -щик (перевозить < перевозчик, выдумать < выдумщик), -ец (бороться < борец), -ун (врать < врун) other.
When forming nouns from numerals, for example, the suffix -n (one hundred< сотня).
From adverbs, nouns are formed with the help of suffixes -nick (together< сообщник) и -чк (почему < почемучка) .
3. Many nouns are formed in the prefix-suffix way.
When forming such nouns from other nouns, the following combinations of prefix and suffix are used: under-...-nick (snow< подснежник), на-...-ник (колено < наколенник), при-...-j (море < приморье), за-...-j (река < заречье), меж-...-j (гора < межгорье), без-...-j (деньги < безденежье), без-...-иц (работа < безработица) .
When forming nouns from adjectives, combinations of affixes for-...-j (polar< заполярье), про-...-# (седой < проседь).
Sometimes nouns are also formed from verbs in the prefix-suffix way, for example: co-...- (in) ets (serve< сослуживец) .
Non-affixal ways of forming nouns
1. Many nouns are formed by addition, including with contraction: forest + steppe< лесостепь, сберегательный банк < сбербанк, Московский государственный университет < МГУ .
2. Nouns can be formed by abbreviation: specialist< спец, заместитель < зам .
3. When forming nouns, substantivation is active, in which there is a transition into nouns of adjectives and participles: ice cream, manager, tip(we are talking about those words that are perceived by speakers as nouns in the language, and not only in a specific text - cf. with the participle used in the function of a noun: Everyone looked at the incoming).
Litnevskaya E. I.
Noun
When forming nouns in the Russian language, all of the above methods of word formation are used: the formation of words by adding affixes, reduction, addition, substantivation, combination of addition with affixation.
Affixal ways of forming nouns
1. By the prefix method, nouns can only be formed from nouns, since the addition of a prefix alone cannot change the part of the word.
The following prefixes are used to form nouns: non- (luck
2. The most active in the formation of nouns is suffixation. By means of suffixes, nouns can be formed from nouns, adjectives, verbs, numerals, adverbs.
The formation of nouns from nouns occurs with the help of suffixes -ik (key
From adjectives, nouns are formed with the help of suffixes -ost (strict
The following suffixes are typical for suffix word-formation of nouns from verbs: -нj (to sing
When forming nouns from numerals, for example, the suffix -н (one hundred
From adverbs, nouns are formed with the help of suffixes -nick (generally
3. Many nouns are formed in the prefix-suffix way.
When forming such nouns from other nouns, the following combinations of prefix and suffix are used: under-..-nick (snow
When forming nouns from adjectives, combinations of affixes for-..-j (polar
Sometimes nouns are also formed from verbs in a prefixed-suffixal way, for example: co-..-(v)ec (to serve
Non-affixal ways of forming nouns
1. Many nouns are formed by addition, including abbreviations: forest + steppe
2. Nouns can be formed by abbreviation: specialist
3. When forming nouns, substantivation is active, in which adjectives and participles pass into nouns: ice cream, manager, tip (we are talking about those words that are perceived by native speakers as nouns in the language, and not only in a specific text - cf. with the participle, used in the function of a noun: Everyone looked at the person who entered).
mixed ways
Nouns are formed by addition with suffixation. The most commonly used suffixes are -ets (earth + do
Adjective
Adjectives in Russian are formed by prefixed, suffixal, prefixed-suffixal methods, addition, including fusion.
Affixal ways of forming adjectives
1. In the prefixed way, adjectives are formed from adjectives; this method is one of the most productive in the formation of words of this part of speech. In this case, the following prefixes are used: non- (cheerful
2. The suffix method is used to form adjectives from adjectives, nouns, verbs, numerals and adverbs.
When forming adjectives from adjectives, the suffixes -onk- / -enk- (blue
When forming adjectives from nouns, suffixes -n- are used (autumn
From verbs, adjectives are formed using the suffixes -n- (to cut
When forming adjectives from numerals and adverbs, the suffixes -n- and -enn- are used (two
3. In the prefix-suffix way, adjectives are formed from nouns and verbs.
When forming adjectives from nouns, the following combinations of prefix and suffix are used: bez-..-n- (ticket
The same prefixes can be combined with the suffixes -enn- (leaves
When forming from verbs, combinations of non-..-n- (break
Non-affixal ways of word formation
1. Of the non-affixal ways of forming an adjective, addition is especially productive, for example: lyrical + epic
2. Only when forming adjectives, such a method of word formation as fusion is used: quickly + soluble
mixed ways
When forming adjectives, addition with suffixation is possible, while the suffixes -n- and -(-: railway
numeral
Numerals are formed from numerals in the following ways:
1) suffix: two
2) addition: three + one hundred
Pronoun
Pronouns are formed from pronouns by prefixes neither-, not-, something- and postfixes -something, -or, -something: who
Verb
Verbs are formed mainly by affixal methods (the most productive are prefixed and prefixed-suffixal); addition for verbs is uncharacteristic.
Affixal ways of forming verbs
1. In a prefixed way, verbs are formed from verbs. The number of verb prefixes is very large, which is associated with the expression of the meanings of the result (species value), direction, quantitative and temporal modifications and the nature of the course of the action. We list the main verb prefixes: s- (do
2. In the suffix way, verbs are formed from verbs, nouns, adjectives, numerals, pronouns, interjections, onomatopoeic words.
From perfective verbs, imperfective verbs are formed using the suffixes -iva / -yva, -va and -a: reread
When forming verbs from nouns, the suffixes -i- (salt
To form verbs from adjectives, the suffixes -and- (white
From numerals, verbs are formed using the suffix -i- (two
From pronouns, interjections and onomatopoeia, verbs are formed by the suffix -a-, and if the generating stem ends in a vowel, the interfix consonant is used: you
3. In the postfixal way, verbs are formed from verbs with the meaning of recurrence: wash
4. The prefix-suffix method is used in the formation of verbs from verbs, nouns, adjectives and numerals.
Verbs formed from verbs receive the meaning of the imperfect form along with the designation of the intensity of the action. For this, the following combination of the species suffix -iva- / -yva- with prefixes on- (crack
From nouns, verbs are formed by a suffix and in combination with prefixes for- (shadow
From adjectives, verbs are formed using the suffix -i- and prefixes -u- (dense
From numerals, verbs are formed using the suffix -and- and prefixes y- (three
5. Verbs can be formed in the prefix-postfixal way from verbs. The postfix -sya / -ss is combined with prefixes v- (think
6. In the suffix-postfixal way, verbs are formed from nouns and adjectives using the suffixes -and- (crowd
7. Verbs can be formed in a prefixed-suffixal-postfixal way: bankrupt
Non-affixal ways in the formation of verbs are used extremely rarely. So, for example, the following words are formed by addition: work + arrange
Mixed ways when circumcising a verb are also not very common and are represented by addition with affixation, for example: world + create
Adverb
The adverb is formed mainly by affixal methods, among which the prefix-suffixal is the most productive.
Affixal ways of forming adverbs
1. In the prefixed way, adverbs are formed from adverbs. Most often, prefixes are used in this case, non- (for a long time
2. In the suffix way, adverbs are formed from nouns, adjectives, numerals, verbs, adverbs.
Adverbs formed from nouns contain suffixes homonymous to the endings of the noun (see about this in the section "Formation of words by transition from one part of speech to another"). These are suffixes -om (evening
Adverbs are regularly formed from adjectives with suffixes -о/-е (cheerful
To form adverbs from numerals, the suffix -zhdy and its modifications (two
When forming adverbs from verbs, suffixes -mya are used (stand
Adverbs can be formed by suffixing and from adverbs, while using suffixes: -ovato (early
3. When forming indefinite pronominal adverbs, the postfix method is used, in which postfixes -to are added to pronominal adverbs (where
4. The prefix-suffix method is most actively used in the formation of adverbs from nouns and adjectives.
When forming an adverb from a noun, the following combinations of prefixes and suffixes are presented: in-..-u (dry
The greatest number of combinations is presented in the formation of adverbs from adjectives. These are the following combinations of affixes: in-..-th / -him (new
Adverbs can be formed in the prefix-suffix way from numerals, while the following prefixes and suffixes are used: in-/in-..-s/-them (third
From verbs, adverbs are formed by affixes -..-((jump
Non-affixal ways of formation of adverbs are not presented.
Mixed methods are represented insignificantly. So, some adverbs are formed by addition with suffixation, for example: past + walk
Formation of words by moving from one part of speech to another
The words of some parts of speech were historically formed by the transition of words from one part of speech to another.
We have already called the formation of nouns by passing adjectives and participles into them (ice cream, manager) - substantiation. If the noun formed by the substantivation of the adjective does not have any differences in morphemic structure from these adjectives, then the noun formed by the substantiation of the participle differs from the corresponding participle in terms of its morphemic composition: in the noun, the suffix -usch / -yushch, -ashch / -yashch is not formative (the noun is not a form of the verb) and is included in the stem. Therefore, in linguistics, the formation of such words is considered as a suffixation: head-yush-th (manage, manager - "the one who manages").
Many adverbs were formed by transition from other parts of speech. So, we can note adverbs formed by rethinking
Nouns (at home, in spring),
Adjectives (in vain, openly),
Participles (sitting, lying down),
Numerals (twice).
The transition of a word from one part of speech to another is a historical process. From the point of view of the modern state of the language, all these words are formed with the help of a suffix or prefix and a suffix homonymous with the ending of a noun, adjective or numeral, as well as the form-forming suffix of the participle form of the verb, for example: winter-oh / winter, lie-a / lie, in- empty-y / empty. The transition process is active during the formation of service words. So, for example, we can name the following groups of prepositions formed by the transition from other parts of speech:
Denominative: in view of, in the form of, during, at the expense of, about,
Verbal: thanks to, including, excluding, starting, after,
Adverbs: near, around, opposite, far away.
At the same time, the distinction between a preposition and an adverb is possible only in the context and depends on the real presence or absence of the following noun: I looked around (adverb) - I walked around the house (preposition). The distinction between a derivative preposition and a gerund is based on the difference in their meaning - a derivative verbal preposition expresses the meaning of a relationship, not an action, for example: Thanks to the hosts, the evening was a success (preposition) - We left thanks to the hosts for hospitality (germ).
As for denominative prepositions, the degree of their departure from independent words is different. In a number of cases, prepositions have become absolutely isolated and have lost their semantic connection with the base noun, for example: in view of, during, by, about, as far as; in modern language, these prepositions should be considered non-derivative. In other cases, semantic connections are alive: in quality, in the sphere, with help, in favor. Such prepositions are called prepositional combinations, since they retain some of the syntactic properties of a noun: selective compatibility (in the role of someone - in the function of something), the ability to accept a definition (to act in the dubious role of a peacemaker). In these cases, we are dealing with a living process of "proposing" nominal combinations.
From the point of view of the current state of the language, the following ways of forming prepositions can be distinguished:
1) suffixal - from verbs: exclude-I > exclude,
2) prefixed-suffixal - from nouns: in-time > time,
3) addition - from prepositions: because of > from + for.
Watching along with it.
Two heads and six legs; four walk, and two lie still
Self-esteem - what is it: concept, structure, types and levels
Cassandra's Path, or Pasta Adventures War on Earth and Underground