Reference. Mars Opposition

In August 2003, not just the Great will happen, but The Greatest opposition to Mars! Get your telescopes ready!

Earth and Mars are space neighbors. The Earth orbits a little closer to the Sun, and Mars a little further. The rotation of the Earth occurs in a year, and Mars - in almost two Earth years. Therefore, the Earth “along the inner track” first overtakes the sluggish Mars, but soon, having overtaken it by a circle, again finds itself in the role of a catch-up. So they have been "running" for several billion years, constantly approaching and moving away from each other. Approaches of Earth and Mars - astronomers call these events "oppositions" - occur approximately every two years. Astronomers are waiting for these moments: during the opposition period, when Mars is approaching the Earth, its surface is most conveniently studied through a telescope.

If the orbits of the Earth and Mars were perfectly round, then all the oppositions of these planets would be the same. But this is not so: the orbits of the planets are elliptical. True, the orbit of the Earth is only slightly different from the circle, but the orbit of Mars is very noticeably elongated. And since the time between oppositions is a little more than two years, the Earth during this time makes a little more than two revolutions in orbit and Mars - a little more than one revolution. This means that at each opposition these planets meet in different places of their orbits, approaching each other at different distances. If the confrontation happens during our winter, from January to March, then the distance to Mars is quite large, about 100 million km. But if the Earth approaches Mars at the end of summer, when Mars passes the perihelion of its orbit, then the distance from us to Mars is reduced to only 56-60 million km. Such favorable oppositions are called GREAT, they happen every 15 or 17 years and will certainly bring astronomers new discoveries about the nature of the Red Planet. The opposition is more favorable the closer it is to August 28, since on this day the Earth passes closest to the perihelion of the orbit of Mars.

The most famous opposition of Mars is considered to be what happened in early September 1877. It was then that the American astronomer Asaph Hall (1829-1907) discovered the only two satellites of Mars - Phobos and Deimos. And then the Italian astronomer Giovanni Schiaparelli (1835-1910) discovered the famous Martian "channels". Calling the dark spots on Mars "seas" and "gulfs", and the lines connecting them - "channels", Schiaparelli simply followed the astronomical tradition, well aware that Mars, most likely, is a dry planet. But later, some enthusiasts took these names seriously and even believed that the canals were artificial structures created by the Martians to irrigate fields. One of these enthusiasts, who did much to study Mars and other planets, was the American astronomer Percival Lovell (1855-1916). On his maps of Mars, compiled in 1894-96, we see many single and double channels, straight as an arrow, stretching for thousands of kilometers. In those years, Lovell infected many with his enthusiasm: for example, the English writer Herbert Wells, impressed by astronomical discoveries, created in 1898 The War of the Worlds, the most famous novel about the Martian invasion of Earth.

However, the great opposition of 1909 brought disappointment to the supporters of Martian civilization: large new telescopes and the proximity of Mars to the Earth made it possible to make magnificent observations that undermined faith in artificial channels. The French astronomer E. Antoniadi (1870-1944), a Greek by nationality, especially distinguished himself. Having made a large series of observations with a fine large telescope at the Meudon Observatory near Paris and obtained remarkably accurate sketches of the surface of the planet, Antoniadi showed that the "channels" are irregular dark bands formed by individual spots of various sizes. The vicissitudes of the great century in the study of Mars - from the middle of the 19th to the middle of the 20th centuries. - you can follow the fragments from the classic books about the Red Planet, presented in the following sections of this article.

Meanwhile, continuing to observe Mars, Antoniadi showed that this planet is still not quite a "dead" body: during the opposition of 1924, he observed luminous ejecta on the edge of the planet's disk, above the Hellas region, for four nights. The discoveries of Antoniadi again aroused the liveliest interest of the general public in Mars. Everyone expected the next great confrontation in 1939. It was for him that a new edition of the book of the Moscow astronomer, Professor Iosif Fedorovich Polak (1881-1954) "The Planet Mars and the Question of Life on It" was prepared, with fragments from which you can find in the following sections of this article. Polak's book is still of great interest to those who decide to observe Mars on their own. And modern data on Mars and additional recommendations on observations can be found in the books: Kulikovsky P.G. Reference book of amateur astronomy, M.: URSS, 2002. Bronshten V.A. Planets and their observation. Moscow: Nauka, 1979.

In our era, Mars is studied with the help of space telescopes and automatic interplanetary vehicles, but to see the surface of the planet for yourself, on which there may have been (and maybe there is!) Extraterrestrial life, believe me, this leaves an unforgettable impression. Such a case will present itself to us in the near future. Perhaps, finally, it will be possible to understand exactly which spots on the surface of Mars form slender straight lines, and most importantly, why!

The last "small" oppositions of Mars took place in April 1999 and June 2001. And in August this year, 2003, a great one will take place, moreover - The Greatest opposition to Mars! In the entire era of telescopic observations of the sky, that is, over the past four centuries, not once did a great opposition fall on August 28 - at the time of the closest approach of the planets. For the first time this will happen now. Look at the table: over the past two centuries, there have been only three such extreme encounters between the Earth and Mars. These "almost the greatest" confrontations took place with an interval of 80 years. You won't see this twice in your life!

So, formally, the current confrontation will take place on August 28, when the distance to Mars will be 55.8 million km, and the apparent diameter of the planet's disk will be 25 arc seconds. However, it should be remembered that the conditions for observing Mars will be excellent throughout August and September. However, it is at the end of August that the conditions will be the best, since the new moon falls on August 27, and the sky these days will be especially dark, favorable for observations. Mars during this period will be very bright, its magnitude will reach a value of -2.8 (almost like that of Venus during periods of greatest brightness). Around midnight, Mars will be visible exactly in the south, not very high above the horizon: at 20 degrees at the latitude of Moscow, for southerners - higher, for northerners - lower.

To everyone who has his own telescope or the opportunity to use someone else's instrument, I advise you not to miss the chance and observe, draw or photograph Mars on these nights. Don't think it will be easy: it's better to set aside a few nights for this and practice in advance. Fortunately, this is a period of holidays and vacations. It is advisable to have a telescope with a lens diameter of at least 10 cm, then you will surely be able to see the south polar cap of Mars. And with a certain patience, waiting for a favorable state of the atmosphere, which gives a good image, and using an eyepiece with a high magnification, you will be able to notice the main geographical formations of the planet - "seas", "bays" and, possibly, some "channels".

By the way, two weeks after the greatest opposition of Mars, on September 9, another curious phenomenon will occur - the covering of Mars by the Moon. True, only residents of Eastern Siberia and the Far East (Buryatia, Chita and Amur regions) will be able to observe it. But on November 9, all residents of the European part of Russia and Belarus will be able to admire the total lunar eclipse, which no one has seen on Earth for several years. I wish you clear skies!

John Herschel
"Essays on Astronomy"
Per. from English. A. Drashusova, M. 1861.

Mars. In this planet, we often see quite clearly such outlines that can designate continents and seas. In the drawing, Mars is not quite complete, as it was seen on August 16, 1830 in a 20-foot reflector in Slough. The first, that is, the continents, have that reddish hue that distinguishes the color of this planet, no doubt denoting the general vortex tone of the soil; in the same form, only brighter, perhaps, the parts of the earth's surface covered with red sandstone appear to the inhabitants of Mars. In contrast, according to the general law of optics, the seas appear greenish. However, the spots are not always shown with the same clarity; but when they are visible, then their outlines appear, during the rotation of the planet, in a definite and highly characteristic form, so that by careful observation it has been found possible to draw a rough map of the entire surface of the planet. The variety of spots may come from the fact that the planet is not devoid of atmosphere and clouds; and the brilliant spots at its poles make such an assumption very plausible: one of them is shown in our drawing. It is believed that these spots probably come from the snow, because they disappear when they remain long under the influence of the Sun, and are largest after leaving the long night of the polar winter.

Camille Flammarion
"Picturesque Astronomy"
Per. from French E. Predtechensky, St. Petersburg, 1897

(From chapter 4. "The planet Mars is a reduced likeness of the Earth")

The first question that arises when looking at a map of Mars is whether those dark spots that we call seas really represent bodies of water. It may be that we are currently in the same delusion regarding Mars as we were until half the last century with respect to the Moon. What are these spots may to be seas is beyond doubt, because water absorbs light instead of reflecting it like solid earth; but a certain kind of dark substance, purely mineral, or localities covered with a vegetable carpet, could produce the same effect on the world; and this has proved to be true of the Moon, where precise observation has revealed dry and rough ground in those vast gray expanses long thought to be true seas.

Of course, the name of the seas in application to the dark spots of Mars could remain even in the case when they were actually not seas: the names could be justified already in the mere similarity; however, if it were proved that this is a delusion, then we would have no right at the very beginning of the geography of Mars to adopt such terminology, and it would be much preferable to use such names that would not at all prejudge the issue in one sense or another. But we will now see that if it is not yet absolutely certain that the dark spots of Mars are indeed seas, similar to those on our planet, then this is at least very likely.

Thus, all the evidence agrees to lead to the conclusion that the seas, clouds and polar ices of Mars are more or less similar to ours, and the study of Martian geography can go in the same direction as terrestrial geography. Nevertheless, one should not hasten to conclude that the two planets are perfectly identical geographically and meteorologically. Mars also presents significant differences from us. Our globe is covered by the waters of the seas for three-fourths of its surface; the largest of our continents, one might say, are nothing but islands. The vast Atlantic and boundless Pacific oceans fill deep depressions on the earth's surface with their waters. On Mars, water and continents are distributed more evenly, and there are even more continents than seas. These latter are real Mediterranean seas, inland lakes or narrow straits, reminiscent of the English Channel and the Red Sea, which give a geographical pattern completely different from that of the earth.

But there is another circumstance no less worthy of our attention: the seas of Mars present a remarkable difference in their color or shade. On the one hand, they are darker at the equator than at higher latitudes, and on the other hand, some of them are especially dark, such as the Hooke Sea, the Maraldi Sea, the Thurby Round Sea and the Sand Sea. A comparison of the current drawings with the old ones shows that the same thing happened fifty and a hundred years ago, but that these shades are still changing. Therefore, such gradualness of shades really exists. What is its reason? The simplest explanation is to assume that it depends on greater or lesser depth.

When you fly in a balloon over a wide river, over a lake or the sea, and if the water is calm and transparent, then you can see the bottom, and sometimes it is so clear that there seems to be no water above it. I myself had to observe this once, on June 10 AD. with. 1867 at 7 o'clock in the morning, keeping at an altitude of 1400 fathoms above the Loire. On the seashores, the bottom is distinguished at a depth of 5 to 9 sazhens, a few sazhens from the shore, depending on the lighting and the state of the sea. With this assumption, the light seas of Mars would be seas like the Zuiderzee, for example, that is, having only a few fathoms of depth; the gray seas would be somewhat deeper than this, and the black ones the deepest. However, this is not the only possible explanation, because the very color of the water itself can be very different, depending on the area. The saltier the water, the darker it seems, thanks to which it is possible to distinguish sea currents over a long distance, streams, similar to the Gulf storm, for example, and forming, as it were, rivers of less dense water, flowing over the surface of the ocean in liquid, but denser shores. The salinity of sea waters depends on the rate of evaporation, and it is not surprising that the equatorial seas of Mars are saltier and darker than all others. But a third explanation arises of its own accord in our mind. We have seas on Earth: Blue, Yellow, Red, White and Black; if not entirely and certainly not, these names still more or less correspond to the appearance of these seas. Who has not been struck by the emerald green of the water of the Rhine near Basel, or the Aar near Bern; who has not admired the dark azure of the Mediterranean Sea and the Gulf of Naples, who has not observed the yellow waters of the Seine at Le Havre, visible in the middle of the sea, and in general all sorts of shades presented by rivers and their tributaries? So, we can explain the color of water spaces on Mars in three ways, as well as on Earth. Light areas can be swampy coastal plains or temporarily flooded areas. The main color of the Mars Seas is green, the same as that of the Earth Seas; but this shade changes, just as the very dimensions of the seas change. From here we sometimes have to observe phenomena similar to those that vast areas that have been subjected to a great flood would present to us. Just as our rivers turn yellow and muddy after storms, so also on Mars the color of the waters changes with the seasons.

The continents of Mars are distinguished by their yellow color, and this gives the planet that fiery shade that we notice with a simple eye. In this respect, Mars differs significantly from Earth. Our planet, viewed from afar, must appear greenish, because green is the predominant color both in our seas and on the continents. Due to the presence of the atmosphere, this green color should soften and become bluish. Astronomers of Venus and Mercury should see our seas as dark green, and the continents as light green with different shades, deserts as yellow, polar ice and snow as bright white; our clouds seem white to them, as well as the tops of high mountain ranges, covered with eternal snow. On Mars, snow, clouds, and seas appear almost the same as ours, but its continents are yellow, as if they were continuous fields of rye, wheat, corn, barley or oats.

This yellow coloration is much stronger to the naked eye than when viewed through a tube; the stronger the magnification, the less noticeable it is. What is its reason? It cannot depend on the atmosphere, that is, on the fact that this atmosphere, as others believed, is red, and not blue, like ours; because in this case such a coloring would spread to the entire planet and its intensity would increase from the center to the circumference as the thickness of the atmospheric layer traversed by the rays reflected from the planet increases. Therefore, it remains for us to make two assumptions for explanation: either the continents of Mars are solid deserts covered with sand and other yellow minerals, or we can assume that the predominant color of vegetation on Mars is yellow.

The first of these two hypotheses is in complete contradiction with the nature of Mars, and one can only wonder how many astronomers who admit it do not notice this contradiction. To admit that this coloration depends on the color of the mineral surface of this ball means to admit that there is nothing on this surface, no vegetation, no cover even of lichen and mosses, that there are no forests, no meadows, no fields, because what whatever the vegetation that covers this surface, in any case we see it, and not bare soil. Therefore, the first assumption is tantamount to condemning this world to eternal barrenness.

The view of the continents of Mars directly inspires us with a simple thought - to expand our horizons somewhat in a botanical sense and to admit that vegetation does not necessarily have to be green in all worlds, that chlorophyll can manifest itself in various ways and that the varied and variegated color of flowers and leaves in different plant species , observed by us on Earth, can manifest itself a hundred times more depending on a thousand new conditions. We do not distinguish from this the forms of Mars plants, but we can conclude that all the vegetation there, in general, from giant trees to microscopic mosses, is distinguished by the predominance of yellow and orange flowers - whether by the fact that there are many red flowers or fruits of the same color, or by the fact that the plants themselves, that is, their leaves, are not green, but yellow. A red tree with green fruits, according to our earthly concepts, seems to us an absurdity; but in fact, it is enough that the chemical combination of particles, or even their simple arrangement, takes place differently than on Earth, for one color to change into another.

Indeed, the existence of continents and seas shows us that this planet, like ours, was subjected to deep internal upheavals, which produced the uplift of some localities and the lowering of others. There were earthquakes and volcanic eruptions, which changed the initially monotonous and even crust of this ball. Hence there are mountains and valleys, flat hills and plains, ravines and coastal cliffs and rocks. How does rainwater return to the sea? - By springs, streams, rivers and rivers. A water drop that has fallen from a cloud, as on Earth, makes its way through layers permeable to water, rolls down slopes that do not allow water to pass through, finally looks out into the light of God in a transparent way, murmurs in a stream, runs swiftly in a mountain stream and majestically and slowly descends along the great river to its mouth. Therefore, it is difficult not to see spectacles on Mars similar to those that appear to us in various parts of the earth - with streams flowing along channels of multi-colored pebbles, shining with all the colors of the rainbow when illuminated by the rays of the sun, with nameless rivers crossing the plains and in the form of waterfalls rolling down into valleys and lowlands, over which they slowly roll their waters towards the seas. Rivers on Mars, as here, receive their tribute from streams and streams; the seas there, like ours, are either calm and smooth like a mirror, or agitated by the waves; just as here, they rise and fall under the influence of the sun and moons, rapidly circling the sky of Mars, causing alternate ebb and flow.

But apparently the continents of Mars are flatter and more even than ours, and almost everywhere they are vast plains, because on the one hand the seas here protrude from the coast and often flood vast expanses of the earth, then receding to the same distance; on the other hand, the straight lines or channels, discovered in 1879 by Schiaparelli and since then again seen not only by this astronomer, but also by others, prove to us that here a geometric network of straight lines is possible, stretching over all continents over vast distances.

These straight lines, bringing all the Martian seas into communication with each other, form some kind of amazing geometric grid. The lines sometimes stretch for up to 5 or 6 thousand miles, having a width of up to 100 miles. Their color seems to indicate that these are indeed channels filled with water.

This is not the place to describe these discoveries in detail, but our readers can get an idea of ​​this peculiar network of canals by looking at the Schiaparelli map attached here (mars107s.jpg). Most of these channels consist of two parallel lines, sometimes visible, sometimes invisible. What an amazing and incomprehensible geography for us! But someday, no doubt, it will be possible to unravel this mystery.

Lovell P.
"Mars and life on it"
Per. from English. ed. A.R. Orbinsky, Odessa: Matesis, 1912

(From Chapter V, "Canals and Oases on Mars")

Thirty years ago, those areas on Mars that were taken for continents seemed to be smooth spots; and it would be strange to expect anything else, considering the continents at such a distant distance.

But in 1877 a remarkable observer made an even more remarkable discovery. This year, Schiaparelli, peering into the continents of Mars, discovered on them long narrow strips, which have since become very famous under the name of the channels of Mars. Already at the first superficial acquaintance, they made a striking impression, but the more they were studied, the more wonderful they turned out to be. It would not be an exaggeration to say that these channels are the most amazing objects that the sky has ever shown us. There are more dazzling spectacles in heaven, pictures that inspire more reverent horror; but to the thinking observer who has the good fortune to see them, nothing in the sky makes such a deep impression as these channels of Mars. These are just thin lines, insignificant cobweb threads, entangling the face of the Mars disk with their network. But even beyond the millions of kilometers of empty space that separates us from the planet, these threads irresistibly attract our thought.

As for their width, it would be closest to the truth to say that they have no width at all. In fact, the more favorable the conditions for observing the channels, the narrower and narrower they turned out to be. Careful observations by the Flagstaff Observatory showed that the smallest of them should, apparently, be no more than two kilometers wide. That such a thin line is still visible to the eye is due to its length, and this is probably due to the numerous cones of the retina of the eye on which it acts. If only the cone of the retina were affected, as it would be in the case of a point, then the eye, of course, could not discover these lines.

With a comparative variety of channels, it is all the more striking that each of them has exactly the same width throughout its length. As far as it is possible to distinguish, there is no noticeable difference in the width of a fully developed canal along its entire length from one end to the other. Only a straight line drawn on paper along a ruler can be compared with a channel in terms of correctness and uniformity.

No matter how striking the view of one separate canal, it is nothing compared to the impression that their number and even more their dissection makes on the observer. When Schiaparelli finished the work to which he devoted his life, they had opened only 113 channels; this number has now risen to 437 thanks to new canals opened in Flagstaff. Just as with the discovery of asteroids, channels found later are generally smaller and therefore less visible than those discovered earlier. But this rule is not without exceptions; and --- here lies the difference from hunting for asteroids --- the exception in this case is not due to the fact that in the vast skies one can easily miss an object: the reason lies in the channel itself.

These multiple lines form an articulated whole. Each is connected to the nearest one (and even to several nearest ones) in the most direct and simple way: they meet at their ends. But since each of them has its own special length and its own special direction, the result is, so to speak, incorrect correctness. It turns out such a picture, as if the entire disk is braided with lace of a complex and elegant pattern, covering the face of the planet. Thus, the surface of the planet is divided into a large number of polygons, cells of Mars.

One of the most remarkable features of these lines is their location. They connect with each other all outstanding points of the surface. If we take a map of the planet and connect all the conspicuous places on it with straight lines, then we will find, to our amazement, that we have obtained a reproduction of reality. The fact that these lines, on the one hand, are so dependent on the topography, and, on the other hand, are completely independent of which region they cross, tells us very eloquently about the nature of these formations: it shows that these lines are of a later origin, than the main features of the surface themselves. Indeed, our lines testify to this, regardless of what they are. In short, the characteristic properties and arrangement of these lines show that even after the surface of the planet was formed in the main features, the lines were superimposed on these latter.

For a long time, the pioneers who discovered this new world did not publicize their discoveries, because those who could not look through a telescope criticized all this as empty opinions and illusions: people are so easily succumbed to the deceptive voice of prejudice. But in 1901, attempts were made at the Flagstaff Observatory to make these discoveries tell the world about themselves by recording them on a photographic plate. It took a long time, however, before they could be forced to do so. The first attempt did not give any result, the second, two years later, was more successful: the initiates, but only they, could already see faint hints; but after another two years, long efforts were crowned with success. Finally managed to capture this strange geometry in the picture. The photographic feat of making these lines remain stationary relative to the camera long enough, i.e., to capture air waves of such a length that the image of the channels had time to fix itself on the photographic plate, was accomplished by Lampland. Careful study, patience and skill helped him to succeed in this extraordinary business, about which Schiaparelli wrote with surprise to the author of this book: "I would never have believed that this was possible."

Surprising as the appearance of the canals, but the study revealed something even more surprising in them: their appearance changes depending on time. The channels are permanent in their position and impermanent in their nature. In one era they are objects that catch the eye, so that it is almost impossible not to notice them, in another, after a few months, one has to strain all visual acuity just to find them. But that's not all; some are shown when others remain hidden, and these others appear when the former become invisible. Entire regions are engulfed in such spontaneous disappearance and spontaneous appearance, while in neighboring regions the opposite occurs at the same time.

Our study seems to lead us to the conclusion that a certain law governs the growth and decline of these strange formations. The water released by the melting of the polar sheets revitalizes the channels, they quickly become clear, remain so for several months, and then slowly die. Each in turn completes the predetermined circle and the process of revival slowly but surely marches from latitude to latitude down the disk.

We conclude that the phenomena detected by the channels are explained by vegetation. Not just the transfer of water, but the transformation that follows the transfer gives us the key to understanding. Not the very substance of water, but the life-giving spirit awakened by it, gives rise to those phenomena that we see. The water accumulated in the form of snow, having thrown off the fetters of ice and released from the winter containers, begins to flow and on its way brings vegetation to life. The latter is the real reason why we see the channels with gradually increasing clarity.

Nothing can stop this measured movement, no obstacles deviate its path. In order, one belt after another is reached and passed, even the equator is crossed and the wave floods the territory of the other hemisphere. From a distance, a slower process of decline follows in its footsteps. But in the meantime, from the cover of the other pole, an impulse of the same nature has already been given; it is transmitted in the same way, but in the opposite direction, marching to the north, as the first impulse went to the south. Each Mars year, the greater part of the planet is twice the scene of these alternating opposing waves, bringing vegetation to life, steadily rushing forward, regardless of any obstacles. Mars therefore has two growth periods; one comes from the arctic belt of the planet, and the other from the antarctic and its equator --- it is curious to note --- half a year is connected with one or the other pole.

There is something exhilarating in the idea of ​​this coherence of movement commensurate with the course of the year. The eye seems to almost grasp the pace of this silent movement in unison with the gradual darkening of the canals. And the fact that it brings life, and not death, does not reduce the excitement it causes one iota. Despite the peacefulness of the goal, the rhythmic grandeur of the phenomenon evokes in us the thought of something powerful. This impression suits the name of the planet quite well, justifying it in a good, not ominous sense. The planet, named after the god of war, remains true to his character in the measured regularity of the majestic changes taking place on it.

G. Spencer-Jones
"Life on Other Worlds"
(H. Spencer Jones "Life on other worlds", London, 1940)
Per. from English. A.K. Fedorova-Grott, ed. prof. N.I.Idelson M.-L.: OGIZ, 1946

(From chapter VIII, "Mars is the planet of extinct life")

Mars is considered by many to be the most interesting celestial object, because it is the only world for which we seem to have direct evidence of life, and because, according to some astronomers, the study of Mars leads to the belief that intelligent beings exist on it.

Our possibilities for satisfactory observations of Mars are limited to a certain extent. Its apparent diameter varies from 3.5 seconds of arc when Mars is at its greatest distance to 25 seconds at its most favorable oppositions. In these cases, the diameter of its image, as seen through a telescope, is about 7 times larger, and the image surface is about 50 times larger, than when the planet is at its furthest distance from the Earth. To study fine details on the planet's surface, conditions are more or less favorable for only a few months before and after the opposition, in other words, about a few months every two years.

Let us assume that we have a large telescope with a focal length of 7.5 m at our disposal. At the most favorable oppositions, the diameter of the image of Mars in the focal plane of such an instrument is somewhat less than 1 mm, at the least favorable, approximately two times less; at the greatest distance of the planet, it is approximately 0.1 mm.

With such a small image size, even with a large telescope, it is impossible to study the fine details of the structure of the Martian surface using photography. These details are so complex in their structure that many of them are smaller than the grains of a photographic plate; besides, the planet is never bright enough to be photographed instantly. Exposure shots are required; but then the light currents of the atmosphere, which are always present to a greater or lesser extent, completely obscure the most subtle details of the image. If we try to get around the difficulty with the graininess of the plate by using fine-grained plates of low sensitivity, then we have to significantly increase the shutter speed; but at the same time, the harmful influence of the restlessness of the atmosphere also increases. Thus, in both cases, there is a limit to the details that can be detected photographically. This is the reason for the fact that the photographs of Mars show less detail than the drawings made by experienced observers. With visual observations, it is always possible to wait for the moment when the atmosphere calms down for a short time and all the details are sharply outlined. On almost every clear night, there are several short intervals during which visibility conditions become much better than they are on average.

The first really detailed and careful study of the surface of Mars was made by the Italian astronomer Schiaparelli, at a very favorable opposition of Mars, in 1877. Schiaparelli was a very skillful observer; he had at his disposal an excellent telescope; The observing conditions were good, and Mars was then at an exceptionally close distance from the Earth. The existence of dark areas on the surface of the planet, which stand out against its general red-brown background, was already known, and it was assumed that these spots represent the seas, and the very background of the planet is the land areas on its surface. But in 1877, Schiaparelli discovered that on Mars there are darkish bands that had not been observed before; they cross land areas (or "continents") and connect various "seas" to each other. Schiaparelli introduced the name canali for these bands, which means straits or channels. However, the similarity of the Italian word with the English word "canal" was the reason that the term introduced by Schiaparelli began to be understood in a somewhat narrower sense than he himself had in mind; from this came quite a lot of ambiguities and misinterpretations. [Note: In its more general sense, the Italian word canali denotes any narrow passage of water, but not necessarily artificially constructed. - Book ed.]

The conclusion reached by Schiaparelli after a long study of the planet was that these "channels" were permanent formations on its surface. Their length and location remained unchanged or fluctuated only within small limits. But their appearance and the very degree of visibility changed considerably from one opposition of Mars to another, or even within a few weeks. In addition, these changes in the type of "channels" were not simultaneous; they appeared in unexpected ways, so that one "channel" could become indistinct or even invisible, while a "channel" in the vicinity became very noticeable. The "channels" crossed each other at all sorts of angles, but usually they met at small dark spots, which Schiaparelli interpreted as lakes. Each "channel" ended either at the lake, or at another "channel", or at the sea. But not one of them was cut off in the middle of the continent, remaining, as it were, without a beginning or end.

Schiaparelli's (1893) conclusion, very thoughtful, was that the "channels" were in fact furrows or depressions on the surface of the planet, intended for the passage of water. Changes in the appearance of the "channels" Schiaparelli attributed to floods caused by melting snow, followed by the absorption of water into the soil, and in some cases its drying. Schiaparelli added that the entire web of "channels" is probably a geological formation, so there is no need to assume that they are the result of the creative work of intelligent beings.

A major proponent of the theory of the artificial origin of channels was the American astronomer Parzival Lowell. In 1894, Lowell established an observatory at Flagstaff, Arizona specifically for the study of the planets, and especially Mars. The location of this observatory at high altitude in dry Arizona was chosen because of the excellent atmospheric conditions. Here, for many years, Lowell and his collaborators have been stubbornly studying Mars, when only its position was convenient for observations, and have collected considerable factual material relating to changes on its surface.

Lowell claimed that he also observed the bifurcation or pairing of some channels, which, as we have already said, was reported by Schiaparelli even earlier. According to Lowell's descriptions, a significant part of the channels remained constantly and invariably single, but some of them at times seemed mysteriously bifurcated; while the second channel was, as it were, an exact copy of the first, i.e., it ran along its entire length next to it and at a constant distance from it, like (as we have already said) two tracks of a railway track. The distance between two channels in one pair varied according to Lowell from 120 to 600 km.

Lowell concluded that "channels" are artificial channels created by intelligent beings to carry melting waters from the poles to the entire surface of the planet and drawn from point to point along the shortest path. As the water spreads through the canals, irrigation causes vegetation to appear along their banks; in the oases where the channels meet are the fertile regions where the Martian creatures live.

What is the reason for the need for these gigantic irrigation networks? It is by no means difficult to point it out. They are caused by the instinct of self-preservation of the inhabitants of the planet; gradually turning into waterless deserts. In the growing shortage of water, the Martians received a warning of their fate. All other issues faded into the background for them compared to the vital need to extract water. The only places where water is available and from where it can be obtained are the polar caps; hence, the whole structure of life on Mars should have, as it were, as its center the task of adapting these reserves of water to the demands of life. But since obtaining it has become their main task and concern, what is surprising in the fact that it was the fruits of these works that revealed their existence before the eyes of people.

Only in the presence of a reasonable population and in no other way could the inevitable and ever-increasing drying up of the planet be prevented. Obviously, the lack of water could not affect suddenly; this requires a slow and gradual process. Local needs forced to turn to more distant supplies, as is done on Earth, in order to ensure an adequate supply of water in large centers and cities. So gradually on Mars they switched to water supplies at ever greater distances, until, ultimately, the entire planet was covered with an extensive network of channels providing water and the possibility of the development of the plant world on the planet.

Such was Lowell's theory at its core; attractive, witty and logical - if only the observational base on which it rests can be accepted. But it is precisely here that the difficulty arises; although some observers of Mars, who had medium-sized instruments at their disposal, confirmed Lowell's observations, there were also such observers who failed to ascertain the main phenomena that formed the basis of his theory; some of them had great visual acuity, enjoyed a well-deserved reputation and worked with powerful tools and in excellent conditions. The question of the nature of the details observed on Mars has become the subject of fierce controversy. But time passed; the controversy froze; now we have reached some agreement on what actually we are able to see on Mars. Let us try to look around the whole state of affairs and find out what can now be considered established beyond any doubt.

The climate of Mars can be compared to the climate of the highlands on Earth on clear days. During the day on Mars, solar radiation is very rarely absorbed by clouds or fogs. During the night, heat is quickly given off by the surface into space, and a sharp cold sets in. This is a climate of extremes. Temperature fluctuations from day to night and from one season to another are very significant. In addition, the seasons here are longer than on Earth, and their length enhances the difference between summer and winter conditions. Seasonal fluctuations are more pronounced in the southern hemisphere than in the northern. The distance between Mars and the Sun during its orbit changes to 40 million km. Mars is closest to the Sun when it is winter in its northern hemisphere and summer in its southern hemisphere, and it is farthest from the Sun when it is summer in the northern hemisphere and winter in the south. Therefore, in the southern hemisphere, summers are warmer and winters colder than in the northern hemisphere.

We have been forced to reject the considerations on which Lowell based his theory of intelligent life on Mars. However, is there not sufficient evidence of the existence of any forms of life on it in general, although not necessarily intelligent life? The temperature here is neither so high nor so low that we can completely rule out the possibility of life, although the significant diurnal variation in temperature and the rapidity of its change could be very distressing for any form of life with which we are familiar on Earth. Water vapor is undoubtedly present in its atmosphere, and there is evidence of the presence of oxygen, although its reserves may be approaching depletion. There is no reason why life on Mars could not adapt to such conditions.

We have already talked about the fact that changes occur on the surface of Mars from time to time. Some of them are purely seasonal, while others are completely irregular. Lowell claimed that he was able to establish a darkening wave propagating towards the planet's equator as the ice cap melted in the summer hemisphere. These indications of his were not fully confirmed by other observers, who found that these changes were neither so simple nor so pronounced. However, everyone seems to agree that there are great changes in both appearance and color of various parts, coinciding with the change of seasons. These changes would be difficult to explain otherwise than assuming a seasonal growth of vegetation cover. Vegetation covers the dark areas of the planet, the rest of it is a desert. As the ice cap melts, moisture reaches lower latitudes, possibly in the form of streams and rivers, but more likely in rain or dew. With the advent of moisture, the plant world comes to life, and the color of the areas covered with vegetation turns into green tones. When winter returns, the green color gradually gives way to gray and brown.

As we have already said, the color of the surface of Mars is a definite proof of the presence of free oxygen on it, at least in the past. But the presence of free oxygen almost certainly requires the existence of vegetation. Comparing this conclusion with the evidence we get from studying the changes taking place on the surface of Mars, we can conclude that some form of plant life almost certainly exists on Mars.

We have seen on the example of Venus a planetary world in which conditions are probably not very different from those that existed on Earth many millions of years ago. On the contrary, on Mars the conditions now existing are such as those which, one might think, will be established on the Earth in many millions of years, when the Earth has lost a significant part of the atmosphere which it now possesses.

I.F. Polak
"The planet Mars and the question of life on it"
Third edition, supplemented, M .: GONTI, 1939

(From the chapter "The Theory of Mars")

Lovell's theory

To explain the phenomena that Lovell saw on the surface of Mars, he came up with his famous theory of the habitability of the planet. However, it is highly probable that it was not the theory that was a conclusion from the observed facts, but, on the contrary, the very phenomena discovered at the Flagstaff Observatory were the result of a preconceived idea. The firm conviction that Mars is inhabited by highly organized intelligent beings forced Lovell and most of his employees to create from the pale, fleeting shadows on the planet's disk the picture that they wanted to see and which, unfortunately, is very far from reality.

According to Lovell, Mars, due to its smaller size, developed faster than the Earth and is currently in the stage of evolution through which the Earth is also destined to go, but in a very distant future. In this respect, Mars "plays the role of a prophet for the Earth", and, moreover, a sinister prophet.

What is the sad fate that has already befallen our heavenly neighbor and will someday befall the Earth? This is - drying Lovell answers. Mars, in size, occupies a middle place between the Earth and the Moon; it occupies the same intermediate position between these world bodies in terms of the amount of moisture. On Earth, almost 3/4 of the surface is still covered with water, while on the Moon, the entire surface has turned into a continuous desert. On Mars, the waterless, lifeless desert has already captured almost as much as the ocean occupies on Earth, namely, all the reddish-yellow spaces or "continents" of the planet. Only on a little over one-third of the surface of Mars, in the region of the so-called "seas", moisture is still held in such an amount that it is possible to vegetation. So, according to Lovell, the seas of Mars are places covered with vegetation. This is proved by the change in their appearance at different times of the year; they turn pale in winter and become especially dark towards the middle of summer. We would see similar color changes on the continents of the Earth if we could observe it from another planet.

Where and in what form is the water that feeds this vegetation on Mars? The main, even probably the only source of water supporting vegetation on the entire planet are polar snows, which melt in the summer and whose water could at that time be used for irrigation ... if someone on Mars arranged a suitable irrigation system. And so, according to Lovell's deep conviction, such a gigantic irrigation network exists on Mars; she is a creation Living creatures, which in terms of intelligence and technical power are as superior to people as the giant "sewerage" of Mars is superior to our earthly channels. The inhabitants of this desiccating world have taken every precaution to conserve and use the scarce supply of water that still exists on the planet, mainly in its atmosphere (in the form of water vapour). In winter, these vapors settle near the pole and form a snow cover. With the onset of spring, when the snow has turned into water, and the water has not yet had time to turn into steam, some colossal mechanical devices begin to operate, pumping water from the pole to the equator through a system of pipes or relatively narrow channels, thanks to which water penetrates into the most remote corners. planets.

But the channels themselves are not visible from Earth. Those lines and stripes that we have called by this word are in fact so wide that even Lovell does not dare to allow the inhabitants of Mars to dig straits tens of kilometers wide, stretching for thousands of kilometers. What we see from Earth is a strip of irrigated and vegetated soil; in the middle of it runs a narrow real canal, supporting life in a more or less wide area, and further on, on both sides of the verdant strip, a dead, scorched desert stretches. Thus, the wave of darkening and channeling that spreads on Mars every spring from the pole to the equator means the revival of vegetation, "the spring blush that spreads over the face of the planet awakening from its winter sleep." On Earth, the wave of the awakening of nature spreads in the opposite direction, from the equator to the poles; In our country, vegetation comes to life with increased solar heating, on Mars with the appearance of water, which irrigates the polar regions earlier than the equatorial ones.

Here is a summary of this fascinating theory, which is widely known due to the wit and literary talent of Lovell.

Theory of Maunder and Cerulli

The most ardent opponent of Lovell's picture of the surface of Mars is the English astronomer Maunder. He collected all the facts and considerations that speak against the geometric network of channels, and carried out a series of curious experiments for the same purpose.

When observing the planets, undoubted dark lines of regular shape were noticed. These are the divisions of the ring of Saturn, the so-called lines of Cassini and Encke, dark "slits" that separate the concentric rings located around this wonderful planet from each other. As one would expect, these cracks are visible the better, the stronger the tool; for example, the main division, the "Cassini line", is hardly visible in a three or four inch tube as a very thin faint line, and appears as a wide black band in the most powerful instruments of our time. Not at all what happens, as we have seen, with the channels of Mars. In stronger pipes, they are very often visible not better, but worse than in weak ones. Lovell himself notes that they seem to have "no width at all" and seem to be the narrower, the more favorable the observation conditions. They are thus not subject to the laws of optics and are therefore subjective.

Almost simultaneously with Maunder and completely independently of him, the Italian astronomer Cerulli came to the same conclusions. During the confrontation of 1896, he was able to see that some of the Schiaparelli channels represent a complex system of individual small specks. He extended this conclusion to other channels. The astronomical world was most interested in its discovery of channels on ... the Moon. Cerulli showed that if you look at the Moon through weak binoculars, you can easily see straight dark lines on the surface of our satellite, which completely disappear when viewed through a telescope. The same channels can be opened in photographs of the Moon, only not in large photographs with the help of huge instruments, but in pea-sized photographs, if viewed with a simple eye!

Antoniadi's theory

Antoniadi shares Lovell's view that Mars is a planet much further advanced in its desiccation than our Earth. Most of its surface is covered with yellow-red waterless deserts. The dark parts ("seas"), undoubtedly changing their color and density of color, can be covered with vegetation similar to the vegetation of terrestrial semi-deserts (the so-called "xerophilic" vegetation). This vegetation may, at least in part, subsist on groundwater.

There are no real seas on Mars, at best there are only large lakes. Dark areas that do not change their color must have some other nature.

No regular geometric network of straight lines - channels - exists on Mars. Spots on the planet everywhere have a very complex structure, extremely irregular and completely natural. But in many cases, the irregular features of the surface of Mars are arranged in bands like on Earth. Let us recall the "straight" lines of our geographical maps on a small scale: chains of mountains and islands, valleys of large rivers, coastlines of some continents. The same "straight" lines are also on the Moon (mountain ranges, cracks, light stripes). Why shouldn't they also be on Mars, whose solid crust was probably formed as a result of the same processes as the earth's crust? In the places of these approximately straight stripes of the map of Mars, our weak pipes show obscure dashes-channels. In stronger instruments, straight lines disappear, splitting into many spots. This theory is now almost universally accepted.

The rest of the theories below all assume that there are long, straight channels on Mars and try to explain them in one way or another. Therefore, at present they have almost only historical significance.

Arrhenius theory

Channels - cracks or "clefts" in the crust of Mars, similar to the "geotectonic lines" existing on Earth. Sometimes such a crack in the planet's crust is not visible, and its existence is revealed by a chain of "lakes" located along a long crevasse. These lakes and valleys are filled, however, not with water, but with mud (like some lakes of earthly deserts), which is formed from the dust of the deserts carried by the winds. Moisture that turns dust into dirt, partly emerges from the bowels of the planet in the form of sources, partly is absorbed from the air.

Pickering's theory

Distantly resembles the previous one. Along it, the channels are also long strips of swampy soil, and the water that moistens these places is deposited from atmospheric vapors. The direction and position of the "channels" is determined mainly not by geological, but by meteorological reasons, namely by air currents that carry air vapor from the poles (during the melting of polar ice) to the equator. Due to the rotation of Mars about the axis, the direction of these air currents deviates from the meridian, like the earth's trade winds. The author even tries to determine the speed and direction of the winds in the planet's atmosphere by the shape of some channels.

Bauman's theory

This theory is completely at odds with all others, and the very possibility of its occurrence proves how little we still know about the nature of Mars. According to Bauman, the surface of Mars is not land, but a frozen ocean, but dark spots, usually called "lakes", this is just land, namely islands of volcanic origin, covered with volcanoes that are still active. Volcanic dust that fell from time immemorial on the icy surface of the planet covered it with a yellow coating, and polar vegetation (dark "seas") developed on this peculiar soil. In summer, this vegetation spreads far to the poles, and under it the "polar caps" almost disappear, which explains their periodic decrease. The channels are cracks in the ice, some of ancient, others of new origin. Explains Bauman's theory and channel doubling; to explain the change in the appearance of certain "lakes" (or, according to this theory, "islands"), she resorts to volcanic eruptions, etc.

For astrological analysis, many events are used that occur both in near-Earth space and in outer space, as well as the reflection of these events in the form of cycles and symbolic standings. The study of cosmic "mirrors" often overshadows the visible and most important observable events, such as the change of the lunar phases, although they have the greatest impact on the life cycles of earthlings. One of such events accessible for observation by all people and undeniably important events is the opposition of the Sun and Mars.

The position of Mars at the moment of opposition repeats the position of the Moon in relation to the Earth and the Sun at the time of the full moon, therefore, by analogy, its position can be called “full Mars”. It is at this time that Mars has the best position for observation from Earth for several reasons. Firstly, this is the period of maximum approach of Mars to the earth, and secondly, at this time it is most brightly illuminated by the Sun. Attention is drawn, first of all, to the closest approach of Mars to the Earth, which will take place on May 22, 2016.

Close and bright Mars for an astrologer is not only an object for observation, as for an astronomer, but also an excellent object for analyzing the cyclical impact and its consequences. In the sky, everything happens naturally, according to a certain plan, including surprises that also happen “according to the law”, which is still incomprehensible to man. The orbit of Mars and its relationship with the Earth and the Sun have been studied quite well.

Every 26 months, the Earth, in its rotation around the Sun, catches up with Mars and stands between our star and the red planet, being most influenced by gravitational waves that keep Mars in orbit around the Sun. This simple and understandable mechanics allows you to evaluate the impact on the Earth and its inhabitants during the approach to Mars.

The impact of Mars on the Earth during the period of opposition is manifested in the fact that the activity and movement of bodies and liquids containing metals, for example, human blood, increases. Mars, stuffed with metals, which, in fact, “painted” this planet red, affects related elements on Earth much more strongly when the Earth’s magnetosphere “tenses” in both directions - both day and night, when Mars reigns in the night sky , and the Earth's magnetosphere is turned into space.

Earthly inhabitants can react to the approach of the "iron" planet with a desire for risk, action, emotional outbursts, anger. The “physical shell” of a person at this time may suffer from an increase in pressure, especially if solar activity is observed during this period and, as a result, magnetic storms. As a result of these natural phenomena, an exacerbation of chronic vascular and heart diseases is likely in those people who are most susceptible to this.

But you can “use” Mars in a positive way, for example, go in for sports, comprehend martial arts, work with metals - this is an auspicious time to start your own business, project, business, especially if there was not enough determination for this before. A strong and benefic Mars instills in people confidence, courage and courage in action with unpredictable results.

Among the oppositions of Mars, there is also a gradation: due to the unevenness of the orbit, it can end up at the point of its perigee - if the distance to the Earth decreases even more, reaching a little more than 55 million kilometers. This standing is called the Great opposition of Mars, and its nearest date falls on July 27, 2018.

In world astrology, the opposition of Mars has been infamous since the beginning of wars. So, the great opposition of Mars was on July 23, 1939, and then on September 1, the second world war began. And two years later, at the next opposition of Mars, as you know, the Great Patriotic War began.

The influence of Mars in astrology is not considered harmonious, this planet is equated with "pests", since it literally cracks down on those who are in its "zone of influence" - uncompromisingly and decisively enough so that the "victim" will surely learn bad lesson. But even without a direct Martian influence on the horoscope, a person (situation) during the period of confrontation with Mars becomes amorphous, devoid of vital fuse and potency.