Stylistic figures of speech: examples. Tropes and figures of speech

« The new rhetoric identifies as fundamental rhetorical figures: metaphor - semantic substitution by similarity; metonymy - substitution by contiguity, association, causality; synecdoche - substitution based on quantitative relations (multiplicity - singularity) or involvement, inclusion. And if literary thinking is metaphorical, then film thinking is metonymic by its very nature.

According to A.A. Sip, " Every time a poetic image is perceived and animated by the understanding person, it tells him something different and more than what is immediately contained in it. Thus, poetry is always allegory ... in the broadest sense of the word». Therefore, it is legitimate to say that a number of fundamental rhetorical figures determine the artistic and figurative essence of thinking in various types and genres of art.

Rhetorical figures are classified depending on the type of deviation operation used (for the first time this principle of classification was proposed by the Mu group): 1) from the sign (word) - morphological; 2) from the grammatical code - syntactic; 3) from the meaning - semantic; 4) from the principles of thinking - logical.

The first type of rhetorical figures arises on the basis of deviations from the morphological norm (sign, word undergo partial or complete transformations, replacements, deformations). Let us designate the main varieties of this type of deviations.

Epentheza (insert) - a rhetorical figure that arises by adding an extra word in the middle of a sign (pronounced word). So, in Russian vernacular they say: like», « cheerfully". The artist can use this figure to characterize the hero or create a mocking, ironic author's speech. This artistic tool is also used in the visual arts, for example, when creating a caricature portrait or cartoon.

Synonymy- with the same signified, the constituent elements of the signifier are replaced by others. So, in the "Bronze Horseman" A.S. Pushkin the usual phrase " cold body"replaces poetically expressive" cold corpse". Special cases of stylistic synonymy include archaisms - the replacement of a modern concept with an obsolete, obsolete one. In Pushkin's "Prophet" we read:

With fingers as light as a dream
He touched my eyes.

The use of elements of the order system in modern architecture, the rejection of perspective in painting are also examples of archaisms.

Neologisms- newly formed words. For example, using the neologism " thundering goblet» F.I. Tyutchev creates a vivid poetic image in the poem "Spring Thunderstorm".

The rhetorical figure is turning text into a set of sounds , the meaning of which is not perceived, although the sounds are articulate. In this case, there is not enough redundancy of speech and there is no full-fledged artistic communication, because reduction (return to any kind of “zero level”) turns out to be impossible; absurdity arises - words devoid of meaning, as in the poem by A.E. Twisted "Heights":

Eyu
ias
oa
oasieya
oa

This rhetorical device - the destruction of the traditional sign system and the creation of a new one - is widely used in abstract painting and concrete music.

Quoting foreign words can also be a rhetorical figure. Its use is well known by L.N. Tolstoy in War and Peace. Other "foreign" inclusions are also artistically expressive. For example, dialectisms in the "Quiet Don" by M. Sholokhov, jargon in the "Cavalry" by I. Babel.

Docking of different linguistic layers also occurs when using the eclectic style in architecture.

Pun- a play on words, the use of polysemy of words, homonymy (complete coincidence of signifiers with a difference in signified) or sound similarity of words to achieve artistic expressiveness and comedy.

As a technique of expressiveness, the pun is used by no means only in the comedy genre. For example, M. Gorky resorts to it in one of the episodes of his epic novel “The Life of Klim Samgin”. One day, the comrades flogged Boris Varavka, considering him a snitch and an informer. Klim Sam-gin did not like Boris. Having somehow caught “a belated beetle and giving it to Boris with two fingers, Klim said:

- Oh, insect.

« Pun Gorky writes, appeared by itself, suddenly and made Klim laugh...».

In the visual arts, a pun is found, for example, in some paintings by S. Dali, which are read differently from different angles of peering: people against the backdrop of an ancient castle are a bust of Voltaire.

Anagram- a rhetorical figure formed by rearranging at the morphological level (letters in a word). This figure was first used by the Greek grammarian Lycophron (3rd century BC). Anagram examples: " murmur - ax»; as well as aliases such as Khariton Makentin - Antioch Cantemir.

Palindrome("Flip") - reverse permutations, phrases, stanzas of a verse, equally read in both directions (from left to right and from right to left). Examples: " I go with the sword of the judge"(G.R. Derzhavin) or in V. Khlebnikov's poem "Razin":

Setuy cliff
Morning hell
We flew Nizari Razin
Flowing and gentle gentle and flowing
Volga divas carries a cramped view of the corners
deer turned blue

In a certain sense, the Church of the Intercession on the Nerl, standing right on the river bank, can be considered a palindrome in architecture. Reflected in the river, it doubles and is visually perceived in unity with its reverse image in the water surface. In addition, this temple is axially symmetrical and "same" from left to right and right to left.

The second type of rhetorical figures arises on the basis of deviations from the syntactic norm (at the same time, the author influences the form of the sentence, changes its grammatical structure). The zero step of the syntactic norm for this type of rhetorical figures is based on the grammatical norm that determines the structural relationships between morphemes. According to the conclusions of the linguist R.O. Jacobson, the word order in many languages ​​reflects the logic of the content of the sentence: the verbs are arranged in accordance with the temporal sequence of events, indicating the “main character of the message”, the subject dominates the object. Violation of these "natural" syntactic and grammatical features of the message has the meaning of a rhetorical figure.

Ellipsis- an artistic and expressive omission in speech of parts of a sentence, which, due to the redundancy of information embedded in the statement, are implied and can be mentally restored. So, V.A. Zhukovsky in the poem "The Singer in the Camp of Russian Warriors" omitted the verb " let's turn»:

We sat down - in the ashes; hail - to dust;
In swords - sickles and plows.

Or another example. I.A. Krylov writes: Not here: the sea does not burn", and the expression " it wasn't here».

When a word or other elementary meaningful semantic unit disappears from a phrase, its intonation changes, which is expressed in a written text by ellipsis. An example of such a rhetorical figure in painting is the painting by V.I. Surikov's "Morning of the Streltsy Execution", where there is no execution scene itself - there is a complete plot reduction.

An example of an ellipsis in dramaturgy is the dialogue between Elena Andreevna and Astrov in the play by A.P. Chekhov "Uncle Vanya". The excited speech of the jerky characters:

« Elena Andreevna. No... It's already been decided... And that's why I look at you so bravely that the departure has already been decided...
Astrov. How strange ... We knew each other and suddenly for some reason ... we will never see each other again. So it's all over the place...»

In order to be able to perceive the meaning of the text from which something is thrown out, the redundancy of this text must be large enough to compensate for the missing element.

Reduction of syntactic signs - a rhetorical figure similar to asindeton (omission of unions: “ I came, I saw, I conquered..."). For the first time, the French poet G. Apollinaire allowed the exclusion of syntactic signs from a poetic text. Later, this rhetorical figure began to be used by many poets and prose writers. But even when using this rhetorical figure, it is unacceptable to violate the boundaries of redundancy, since syntactic uncertainty due to the reduction of punctuation marks can turn into semantic uncertainty. In the cinema, “punctuation marks” (influxes, blackouts, etc.) were excluded from his film “8/2” by F. Fellini in the frames of the transition from real events to memories or scenes imagined by the hero. This gave the film additional expressiveness.

Amplification - enumeration and heaping. A striking example of this rhetorical figure is the following stanza from "Eugene Onegin" by A.S. Pushkin:

More cupids, devils, snakes
They jump and make noise on the stage;
More tired lackeys
They sleep on fur coats at the entrance;
Haven't stopped stomping yet
Blow your nose, cough, hiss, clap;
Still outside and inside
Lanterns are shining everywhere;
Still, vegetating, the horses are fighting,
Bored with your harness,
And the coachmen, around the lights,
Scold the gentlemen and beat in the palm of your hand:
And Onegin went out;
He goes home to get dressed.

Amplification is used in the paintings of I. Bosch, S. Dali.

Syllepsis- a rhetorical figure that arises through an artistic and expressive violation of the rules for coordinating morphemes or syntagmas by gender, number, person or time. V. Hugo, for example, owns the following lines:

You wake up in the morning and the whole family
Hugs and kisses you: mother, sister, daughter!

The syllepsis as a replacement of one person by another can be found in N.G. Pomyalovsky. One of the bursaks, Pyotr Teterin, signs for receiving state boots: “ Petra Tetenry got boots».

In the theater, an additional artistic effect arises from the performance of a child's role by an actress-"travesty", female roles - by a man or male - by a woman.

Chiasmus- this is a rhetorical figure that sets a certain order in one sentence, and in another there is its reverse (mirror) symmetry; a compositional figure in which, out of two sentences built on syntactic parallelism, the second sentence is built in the reverse order of members. Let's remember Pushkin's lines:

Secrets of the great POLYGLOTs: language BARRIER and CREATIVITY

Shushpanov Arkady Nikolaevich

Before a person who has chosen to engage in a serious, creative Business, there are many barriers. One of them - language. How to overcome it faster?

The experience of famous polyglots is collected and systematized in just a few principles. Everyone who has read the book, using them, can, as from a designer, make personal language learning method.

The book is addressed to readers who are faced with the task of mastering a foreign language, as well as those interested in issues of creativity.

The less we love a woman,
The easier it is for her to like us...

Here the first sentence is built according to the scheme: “subject - predicate”, and the second, on the contrary, “predicate - subject”.

Parallelism - one of the lines in its syntactic construction repeats the other. In "Reflections at the front door" N.A. Nekrasov writes:

What is this crying sorrow to you,
What are these poor people to you?

Rhetorical figure tmesis occurs when usually closely related morphemes or syntagmas are separated by other elements inserted between them. V. Hugo, for example, in the poem "The Ungrateful King" writes:

You commanded in your pride -
Be ashamed! - so that day and night you
Your monk praised in Latin
And in Castilian, your judge.

Or A.A. Blok in the poem "Humiliation" we read:

In the yellow, winter, huge sunset
Drowned (so magnificent!) bed ..

Tmesis in cinema is expressed as an unexpected montage between two connected episodes, and in painting it occurs with certain types of collage and caricature.

Inversion- manifests itself in a change in the order of the subject, predicate, circumstances of time and place, as well as in similar operations relating to such pairs as "verb - adverb" or "noun - adjective as a definition":

Oh, sad, sad was my soul (P. Verlaine).

Inversion, chiasma and other rhetorical figures, built on the "game" of the order and arrangement of words or other signs, allow you to create a sense of speech space, help the recipient to feel the sign system of this art. On this basis, artistic searches arise, similar to the "topographic experiments" of S. Mallarme, G. Apollinaire, M. Butor.

Rhetorical figures of the second type in a specifically refracted form are also used in other artistic and communicative systems, for example, in cinema.

Rhetorical figures of the third type (tropes) - are built on the basis of "semantic shifts" , replacement of one semantic content by another, deviation from the "zero meaning". In the path, the main meaning of the sign changes, the word is assigned a meaning that does not coincide with its direct meaning. The trope changes the content of the word, retaining a piece of its original meaning. Such semantic rhetorical operations are based on the fact that any phenomenon can be divided on two grounds: 1) the constituent parts of the phenomenon: the river is the source, channel, mouth; 2) varieties of the phenomenon: the river is flat, mountainous, underground. These two fundamental semantic relationships underlie the paths to which, according to R.O. Jacobson, realistic schools of art are predisposed.

On the basis of the transition from the particular to the general, from the part to the whole, from the lesser to the greater, from the species to the genus, the rhetorical figures of synecdoche and antonomasia arise. Generalizing (expanding) synecdoche - using more instead of less. For example, people say: mere mortals”, however, this expression can also be applied to animals. The generalizing synecdoche makes speech more philosophical. Narrowing synecdoche - using less for more. For example, in "The Bronze Horseman" A.S. Pushkin's word flags" is used instead of the phrase " merchant ships flying national flags»: « All flags will visit us...". A narrowing synecdoche also occurs in poetic speech when the singular replaces the plural. For example, in Pushkin's poem "Poltava": Swede, Russian - stabs, cuts, cuts».

In cinema, synecdoche is used as a rhetorical figure in close-ups (“blow-up”), when a part of an object, as it were, personifies its whole (the image of the guns is the image of the Potemkin battleship in the film of the same name by S. Eisenstein). In sculpture, the bust, and in painting, the portrait often appear as a synecdoche.

Antonomasia - replacement of a person's name with an object related to him, or a common name with his own. So, in "Mozart and Salieri" A.S. Pushkin calls Michelangelo " creator of the Vatican”, and in one of the verses he calls the doctor an esculapius.

One of the main rhetorical figures in the service of poetics and aesthetics is metaphor- the establishment in an artistic message of a semantic connection by similarity, a change in the semantic content of a word (more broadly, a sign in general), a reference to both its direct and figurative meanings. According to the figurative expression of the Mu group, a metaphor is a small semantic scandal. How " transfer of names by analogy”, it serves as a powerful factor in the enrichment of concepts. The basis for creating a metaphor is the similarity, which manifests itself in the intersection of two meanings of a word or other sign. The “Mu” group, defining the general trope of rhetoric, notes that “metaphor ascribes to the union of two sets those features that, strictly speaking, are inherent only in the intersection of these sets ... Metaphor ... sort of pushes the boundaries of the text, creates a feeling of its “openness ", makes it more capacious." At the same time, the "Mu" group reveals the presence of pictorial metaphors in painting. A vivid example of a metaphor in a literary text is the figurative definition of a person proposed by B. Pascal: “ Man is but a reed, the weakest of the creatures of nature, but he is a thinking reed» .

By bringing together different objects, a metaphor helps to better describe one of them. It is no coincidence that it is often formalized with the help of unions " as», « like», « like”, contributing to the comparison and establishment of similarity or identity. These are the stereotypical comparisons: clear as day b", " one as a finger».

Rhetorical figures are in a certain sense "false", and no one takes the identification contained in them literally. An example of such a "false" but expressive metaphor is the line of G. Heine:

So dry in the mouth, as if I had eaten the sun ...

Interesting considerations about the nature of metaphor were once expressed by the poet I.L. Selvinsky at a seminar on poetic skill at the Literary Institute. M. Gorky SP of the USSR, a participant of which was the author of these lines. Selvinsky noted the existence of metaphors of Eastern and Western types, belonging to different artistic traditions. Eastern tradition assumes, as a rule, one point of similarity between the compared objects. For example, say " the girl is slim as a telegraph pole” within the framework of the Eastern tradition, Selvinsky believes, is quite acceptable. In the traditions of Russian and, in general, European poetry, a metaphor must bear at least three points of similarity with the phenomena being compared. Following this tradition, it is legitimate to say: "a girl is like a birch." The similarity here is that both compared objects are slender, young, flexible, spring-like fresh and joyful.

Reasoning I.L. Selvinsky are valuable in that, using the example of metaphor, they show the relation of rhetorical figures to the deep structures of artistic thinking, fixing such an important parameter as national identity. Selvinsky showed the features of the expressive metaphor of the European tradition, using a phrase describing a chandelier hidden in a gauze cover for the summer: “ The chandelier was like a cocoon". There are three types of similarities here: the outer is a white shell, the inner is something that is contained in the shell, the existential is the temporality of the state that will be changed, and the inner will be revealed and revived.

In Aeschylus we read: May we not experience that, because of which - great suffering, for the sake of which - the great sea was plowed by the sword". Analyzing this metaphor, literary critic O. Freidenberg writes: “ The image of “plowing with a sword” leads to mythology: the semantic identity of agricultural and military tools is known. The great sea plowed by the sword is the sea on which Paris and Helen sailed to Troy, the sea of ​​love that caused the war of nations.

Mythological images continue to speak their specific language. But they also “allegory” themselves, giving a conceptual meaning: “May we avoid the harmful consequences of love.” The ancient “other rendering” consists in the fact that the image, without losing its character (plowing the sea with a sword), acquires a meaning that does not at all correspond to its meaning (the disastrous results of passion). This new meaning begins to convey the semantics of the image "otherwise", in a different way, in a completely different mental plane - abstractly, as if a thought reads one thing and says another» .

M. Proust believed that a metaphor is a privileged expression of a deep poetic vision, giving the style a “kind of eternity”. This idea can be confirmed by an example of a cinematic metaphor from A. Rene's film "Hiroshima, my love": at first, the viewer sees the body of a murdered Japanese, his arms are outstretched, this image is montage compared with the image of the body of a soldier of the Nazi army, lying in the same position. We can also recall other cinematic metaphors: in S. Eisenstein's "Strike" the types of massacre introduced into the episode of the police attack, or in Ch. Chaplin's "New Times" shots depicting a flock of sheep are cut into the picture of the crowd. Examples of metaphors in monumental sculpture are the sphinx mating a man and a lion, and the centaur mating a man and a horse.

The general aesthetic universality of rhetorical figures is evidenced by the definition of architecture as a metaphor made of stone, given by the Italian theorist of rhetoric and poetics of the 17th century. E. Tesauro.

Metaphor, the queen of rhetorical figures, also found its place in the system of Indian rhetoric and poetics in the figure of rupaka (“giving appearance”)178. And no wonder, because Indian poetry is metaphorically rich. Thus, in Kalidas we read: Your fingers are stems, the shine of your nails is flowers, your hands are vines, and all of you are spring beauty, open to our gaze.". The distinctions between rupak and metaphor, which P. Grinzer outlines in his work, are not sufficient for not recognizing these figures as corresponding to each other, especially if we proceed from the broad understanding of metaphor proposed in the classification of rhetorical figures by the Mu group.

A rhetorical figure close to metaphor is comparison- identification of a common feature when comparing two phenomena. For example, A.S. Pushkin in the poem "Anchar" there is such a comparison:

Anchar, like a formidable sentry,
It stands alone in the entire universe.

Mounting juxtaposition-comparison is often used in cinematography.

Metonymy(literally renaming) - establishing a connection between phenomena by adjacency, transferring the properties of an object to the object itself, with the help of which these properties are discovered, allegorical designation of the subject of speech. So, A.S. Pushkin " the hiss of foamy glasses» replaces the foamy wine poured into glasses. In metonymy, the effect can be replaced by the cause, the content by the capacity, as a result of which the name is transferred based on the adjacency of meanings. For example, sometimes the material from which a thing is made replaces the designation of the thing itself. A.S. Griboedova Famusov recalls: “ Not on silver, on gold».

The French researcher of rhetoric Du Marset revealed the difference between metonymy and synecdoche. The first, he believes, involves a comparison of objects that exist independently of each other (“ in metonymy, the replaced and replacing concepts do not have a common semantic part”), and the second is a rhetorical conjugation of objects that make up some unity and correlate as part with the whole.

Researchers also note the existence of metonymic epithets (" The light of day shines» - M.V. Lomonosov), metonymic paraphrases (“ Great Peter's daughter» - M.V. Lomonosov).

Coats of arms and other symbolic sign formations have a metonymic character (the coat of arms is the metonymy of the state). Collage in painting generates a metonymic relationship between the glued part and the painted part of the canvas. This is written by Yu.M. Lotman: " Drawn and glued objects belong to different and incompatible worlds according to their characteristics: reality / illusory, two-dimensionality / three-dimensionality, sign / non-sign and so on. Within a number of traditional cultural contexts, their meeting within the same text is absolutely forbidden. And that is precisely why their combination forms that exceptionally strong semantic effect that is inherent in the path».

Oxymoron- close proximity in the syntagma of two signs or words with contradictory meanings, direct correlation and combination of contrasting, seemingly incompatible features and phenomena. These are " black Sun" in the finale of "Quiet Don" M.A. Sholokhov or " splendor of shamelessness"- a capacious characteristic of a woman of easy virtue in W. Faulkner's novel "The City".

Repeat- repetition of sound, sign (verbal), synonymous is carried out in the name of artistically expressive, emotionally inspiring and logically persuasive goals. Repetition gives the artistic statement amplification, change and increment of meaning. Such, for example, is the repetition by A.S. Pushkin:

I'm going, I'm going in an open field;
Ding ding ding bell...
Terrible, terribly scary
Amid the unknown plains!

In L. Buñuel's film The Discreet Charm of the Bourgeoisie, the same scene of receiving guests is repeated many times in the dreams of various actors. Then this scene comes true.

A rhetorical figure of repetition in architecture is, for example, the colonnade of the wings of the Kazan Cathedral in Leningrad.

In Sanskrit poetic culture, the rhetorical figure of repetition corresponds to the figure of Avritti, which has three varieties: repetition of words with a change in meaning, repetition of meaning with a change in words, and repetition of both words and meaning.

The fourth type of rhetorical figures arises on the basis of deviations from the logical norm. For figures of this type, the “zero level” may be a “protocol” speech, certifying the truth of the facts disputed by the rhetorical figure. Rhetorical figures of the fourth type are built on the basis of the conscious use of polysemy (polysemy of a word or sign) for artistic expressive purposes.

Antithesis- opposition of various, sharply contrasting phenomena. It is built according to the logical formula " A is not A ". Antithesis is especially expressive when it is composed of metaphors. For example, G. R. Derzhavin resorts to such an antithesis in the poem “God”:

I am a king - I am a slave - I am a worm - I am a god!

overlay- the use of the word simultaneously in the direct and in the figurative, "figurative" meaning. Its most common form is superposition, which is based on two meanings of a word expressed in one of its uses. So, in V. Hugo we read:

And they remember you, sorting through the ashes
Your hearth and your heart!

The specificity of the overlay lies in the fact that the expression "the ashes of one's heart" is perceived metaphorically. At the same time, when perceiving the text, the reader takes into account the direct meaning of the word "ash" in the context of "the ashes of his hearth."

Overlay as a rhetorical figure is also present in other art forms, for example in cinematography, in double exposure shots. In this case, one image is superimposed on another and forms a new thought that is not included in any of the interacting images.

The quantitative (exaggerating) nature of rhetorical figures is inherent in hyperbole. Roman orator and theorist of eloquence M.F. Quintilian defined hyperbole as an appropriate digression from the true state of things. It involves the ultimate increase in the action, properties, dimensions of an object for artistic expressive purposes. When N.V. Gogol states in Taras Bulba that " a rare bird will fly to the middle of the Dnieper", he uses hyperbole as a rhetorical figure in the organization of artistic speech. Sometimes hyperbole appears in combination with a metaphor (" This cat is a tiger"). Among the ancient Indian rhetorical figures (alankar) there is a figure similar to the hyperbole dating back to ancient rhetoricians - this is atishaya (exaggeration) and its variety - atishayokti (exaggerated statement). This figure is born when you want to describe some property (of the subject) that goes beyond the ordinary. Thus, the brilliance and whiteness of women's clothes and the female body, indistinguishable in the radiance of moonlight, is figuratively conveyed in Kalidasa with the help of this rhetorical figure: When, in wreaths of white jasmine, smearing the body with sandalwood ointment, in a linen dress, women go on a date, they cannot be distinguished in the moonlight.».

But in order not to violate the aesthetic measure in art, as Pseudo-Longin correctly noted, the artist " it is necessary to know the limit to which in each individual case it is possible to bring the hyperbole».

Examples of hyperbole in architecture: the grandiose pyramid of Cheops, because for the practical purpose of burial and memorial fixation of the grave, a mound or crypt is enough; hyperbole of the entrance gate - the triumphal arch at the same time symbolizes the greatness of the deeds of those in whose honor it was created.

AT litote the quantitative, but already downplaying, nature of rhetorical operations is also manifested. Litota reduces the phenomenon, speaks of less in order to say more. The litotes are: miniature - in painting, a hut on chicken legs - in architecture.

Carried to the limit, the litote becomes silence (the best way to say less is to say nothing at all). Silence can also be hyperbolic in nature: from a strong emotion, speech is cut off by silence, and a written text by ellipses. Sudden cessation of speech - interruption or temporary cessation - suspension. In temporary arts, suspension can be expressed not only in silence, but also in freeze frames (film art) or in a silent scene (theater). A well-known example of such silence is a silent scene in N.V. Gogol's "Inspector". The gendarme announces the arrival of a genuine auditor, and then the author's remark follows: “The spoken words strike everyone like thunder. The sound of amazement unanimously emanates from the ladies' lips; the whole group, suddenly changing position, remains in petrification.

Allegory- allegory, the transfer of the meanings of one circle of phenomena to another, the transfer by similarity from the literal meaning to the non-literal meaning of a judgment, thought, or an entire system of judgments. Thus, in The Tale of Igor's Campaign, Boyan's playing on the harp is conveyed through allegory:

Then ten falcons set off on a herd of swans;
Whose falcon flew - that song was sung before:
Whether to the old Yaroslav, whether to the brave Mstislav ...
(translated by V. Zhukovsky).

In the finale of I. Bergman's film "The Seventh Seal" in the traditional allegorical form (a skeleton with a scythe), death appears to the heroes and takes them away from life. And in "Strawberry Meadow" by the same director, the dial of a street clock without hands appears as an allegory of the end of time in the dream of a sick hero.

In a fable, an allegorical deviation from the logical norm occurs through personification (the king is a lion) or through a narrowing synecdoche (the cunning fox, the worker is an ant).

Euphemism- replacement of a rude, forbidden, indecent or overly harsh expression with a softer, more acceptable ethically, socially, aesthetically. At the same time, the meaning of the euphemism is preserved, but random semantic shades are added to it. So, in one of the poems by E.A. Baratynsky uses the less harsh expression “abode of the night” to designate the “grave”, “the other world”, thereby achieving greater artistic expressiveness.

The figure of euphemism is widely used in cinema.

Among the ancient peoples, among the taboos, there were prohibitions to mention this or that phenomenon, so they had to give concepts about them with the help of allegorical expressions or euphemism. It can be assumed that allegory and euphemism are the oldest rhetorical figures that arose even before the development of artistic consciousness proper.

Antiphrasis differs from irony by the absence of a comedic beginning in criticism. An example of this rhetorical figure, when a deplorable point of view is said: " Good position!»

Negation- a rhetorical figure used to figuratively characterize the phenomenon "from the opposite", by reporting what it is not. For example, M.Yu. Lermontov characterizes his lyrical hero in this way:

No, I'm not Byron, I'm different
Still unknown chosen one,
Like him, a wanderer persecuted by the world,
But only with a Russian soul.

Using rhetorical figures of the fourth type, the authors of a literary text, deliberately breaking the logical connection and even sometimes mocking the logic of reality, in a certain sense pay tribute to it, because they use the redundancy of information about it. For example, " a knife without a blade that lacks a handle”(G.K. Lichtenberg) is an object that exists only in language, through which we get the opportunity to see a special reality.

Rhetorical figures provide such a paradoxically unexpected linkage of the original signs, words, in which a dialectical leap occurs and a qualitatively new thought arises that is not directly contained in any of the original signs and does not arise from their simple extra-rhetorical addition.

Giving a global-philosophical, universal-existential meaning to rhetorical figures, Tesauro believed that they constitute the very basis of the mechanism of thinking of that genius that spiritualizes both man and the Universe. These ideas are continued in modern views on rhetoric, as a result of which the actual artistic value of rhetorical figures is underestimated. Correctly noting the presence of tropes in science, Yu.M. Lotman makes the expansive conclusion that they " belong to creativity in general»: « ...paths are not an external adornment, some kind of appliqué imposed on thought from the outside - they are the essence of creative thinking...their scope is also wider than art. It belongs to creativity in general. So, for example, all attempts in constructing spatial physical models of elementary particles, etc., are rhetorical figures (tropes). And just like in poetry, in science, irregular convergence often acts as an impetus for the formulation of a new pattern.».

In general, this is true, but with the only caveat that in science, tropes and rhetorical figures are an additional, optional means. In art, they are indispensable, they are “the very essence”, figures of precisely figurative, and not any creative thinking.

The strength of rhetorical figures lies in the fact that, being carriers of conceptual meaning, they at the same time have a visual nature. Thus, it is rhetorical figures that create a “bridge” in our thinking, a jumper between the activity of the left and right hemispheres, one of which provides conceptual, and the other - visual, concrete-sensory thinking. This duality, the ambivalence of rhetorical figures (conceptuality and "visuality", conceivability, concrete sensibility) allows them to live both in verbal (prose, poetry) and in the visual arts (painting, sculpture), as well as in other types of arts built by on the interaction of visual and verbal principles (theater, cinema, etc.). Through the intonational side of their verbal nature and through the closeness of its concrete-sensual side, rhetorical figures turn out to be significant for musical thinking as well.

« In the system of poetic language, figures and paths are the main nodes in which the energy tension of the stylistic body of the text is concentrated.”, - rightly notes M.Ya. Polyakov. To read rhetorical figures, the main thing is to understand what figurative meaning this symbolic formation receives in this context.

So, the artist, with the help of these four types of rhetorical figures, violates the "zero stage" of speech, thus creating artistic speech that conveys artistic meaning and carries a specifically aesthetic impact.

Borev Y. Aesthetics.

The figurative and expressive means of the language allow not only to convey information, but also to clearly and convincingly convey thoughts. Lexical expressive means make the Russian language emotional and colorful. Expressive stylistic means are used when an emotional impact on listeners or readers is necessary. It is impossible to make a presentation of oneself, a product, a company without the use of special language tools.

The word is the basis of figurative expressiveness of speech. Many words are often used not only in the direct lexical meaning. The characteristics of animals are transferred to a description of the appearance or behavior of a person - clumsy like a bear, cowardly like a hare. Polysemy (polysemy) - the use of a word in various meanings.

Homonyms are a group of words in the Russian language that have the same sound, but at the same time carry a different semantic load, serve to create a sound game in speech.

Types of homonyms:

• homographs - words are spelled the same, they change meaning depending on the stress set (lock - lock);
• homophones - words when written differ in one or more letters, but are perceived the same way by ear (the fruit is a raft);
• homoforms - words that sound the same, but at the same time refer to different parts of speech (I'm flying in an airplane - I'm flying a runny nose).

Puns - used to give speech a humorous, satirical meaning, betray sarcasm well. They are based on the sound similarity of words or their ambiguity.

Synonyms - describe the same concept from different angles, have a different semantic load and stylistic coloring. Without synonyms, it is impossible to build a vivid and figurative phrase; speech will be oversaturated with tautology.

Synonym types:

• full - identical in meaning, used in the same situations;
• semantic (semantic) - designed to give shade to words (conversation-conversation);
• stylistic - have the same meaning, but at the same time refer to different styles of speech (finger-finger);
• semantic-stylistic - have a different shade of meaning, refer to different styles of speech (do - bungled);
• contextual (author's) - used in the context used for a more colorful and multifaceted description of a person or event.

Antonyms - words have the opposite lexical meaning, refer to the same part of speech. Allows you to create bright and expressive phrases.

Tropes are words in Russian that are used in a figurative sense. They give speech and works imagery, expressiveness, are designed to convey emotions, vividly recreate the picture.

Trail definition

	Definition
Allegory	Allegorical words and expressions that convey the essence and main features of a particular image. Often used in fables.
Hyperbola	Artistic exaggeration. Allows you to vividly describe properties, events, signs.
Grotesque	The technique is used to satirically describe the vices of society.
Irony	Tropes that are designed to hide the true meaning of the expression through light mockery.
Litotes	The opposite of hyperbole - the properties and qualities of the subject are deliberately underestimated.
personification	A technique in which inanimate objects are attributed the qualities of living beings.
Oxymoron	Connection in one sentence of incompatible concepts (dead souls).
paraphrase	Description of the item. A person, an event without a precise name.
Synecdoche	Description of the whole through the part. The image of a person is recreated by describing clothes, appearance.
Comparison	The difference from metaphor is that there is both what is being compared and what is being compared with. In comparison, unions are often present - as if.
Epithet	The most common figurative definition. Adjectives are not always used for epithets.

Metaphor is a hidden comparison, the use of nouns and verbs in a figurative sense. There is always no object of comparison in it, but there is something with which they are compared. There are short and extended metaphors. Metaphor is aimed at an external comparison of objects or phenomena.

Metonymy is a hidden comparison of objects by internal similarity. This distinguishes this trope from a metaphor.

Syntactic means of expression

Stylistic (rhetorical) - figures of speech are designed to enhance the expressiveness of speech and works of art.

Types of stylistic figures

The name of the syntactic construction	Description
Anaphora	The use of the same syntactic constructions at the beginning of adjacent sentences. Allows you to logically highlight a section of text or a sentence.
Epiphora	The use of the same words and expressions at the end of adjacent sentences. Such figures of speech give the text emotionality, allow you to clearly convey intonations.
Parallelism	Construction of neighboring sentences in the same form. Often used to reinforce a rhetorical exclamation or question.
Ellipsis	Deliberate exclusion of an implied member of a sentence. Makes speech more lively.
gradation	Each subsequent word in the sentence reinforces the meaning of the previous one.
Inversion	The arrangement of words in a sentence is not in direct order. Reception allows you to enhance the expressiveness of speech. Give the phrase a new sound.
Default	Conscious understatement in the text. It is designed to awaken deep feelings and thoughts in the reader.
Rhetorical address	Emphasized appeal to a person or inanimate objects.
Rhetorical question	A question that does not imply an answer, its purpose is to attract the attention of the reader or listener.
Rhetorical exclamation	Special figures of speech to convey expression, tension of speech. Make the text emotional. Grab the reader's or listener's attention.
polyunion	Repeated repetition of the same unions to enhance the expressiveness of speech.
Asyndeton	Intentional omission of unions. This technique gives dynamism to speech.
Antithesis	Sharp opposition of images, concepts. The technique is used to create a contrast, it expresses the author's attitude to the event being described.

Tropes, figures of speech, stylistic means of expression, phraseological statements make speech convincing and vivid. Such turns are indispensable in public speeches, election campaigns, rallies, presentations. In scientific publications and official business speech, such means are inappropriate - accuracy and persuasiveness in these cases is more important than emotions.

Literary discipline, the subject of which is artistic speech, is called stylistics.

The speech of verbal and artistic works, like a sponge, intensively absorbs a variety of forms of speech activity, both oral and written. For many centuries, writers and poets were actively influenced by oratory and the principles of rhetoric. Rhetoric has given rich nourishment to literature. Artistic speech formation for a number of centuries (especially in the field of high genres, such as epic, tragedy, ode) was guided by the experience of public, oratorical speech, subject to the recommendations and rules of rhetoric. And it is no coincidence that the "pre-romantic" eras (from antiquity to classicism inclusive) are characterized as a stage of rhetorical culture. At the time of romanticism (and later), rhetoric in its significance for literature began to cause doubt and mistrust. European culture during the XVII-XIX centuries. evolved from an attitude towards compliance with rules and norms - from rhetorical complexity (classicism) to stylistic simplicity. And at the forefront of verbal art, speech was more and more insistently put forward, casually colloquial, not dictated by the settings of rhetoric.

Conversational speech is associated with communication (conversations) of people, primarily in their private lives. It is free from regulation and tends to change its forms depending on the situation. Conversation (conversation) as the most important form of human culture has been consolidated and declared itself already in antiquity. Conversation as the most important kind of communication between people and the colloquial speech that carries it out are widely reflected in Russian classical literature. Let us recall “Woe from Wit”, “Eugene Onegin”, poems by N.A. Nekrasov, novels and stories by N.S. Leskov, plays by A.N. Ostrovsky and AP. Chekhov. It is significant that in the XIX-XX centuries. Literature as a whole is perceived by writers and scientists as a peculiar form of interview (conversation) between the author and the reader. The verbal fabric of literary works, as can be seen, is deeply connected with oral speech and is actively stimulated by it. Artistic speech often also translates the written forms of non-artistic speech (numerous novels and stories of an epistolary nature, prose in the form of diaries and memoirs). In the history of world culture, writing is primary in relation to oral speech, it is based on the game of consciousness, looking for a "sign expression". This game is called archewriting.

“Absorbing” various forms of non-fiction speech, literature easily and willingly allows deviations from the linguistic norm and implements innovations in the field of speech activity.

Composition of artistic speech

Artistic and speech means are heterogeneous and multifaceted. They make up the system.

These are, firstly, lexico-phraseological means, i.e. selection of words and phrases that have different origins and emotional "sound": both common and non-common, including neoplasms; both primordially domestic and foreign languages; both those that meet the norm of the literary language, and those that deviate from it, sometimes quite radically, such as vulgarisms and “obscene” vocabulary. Morphological (actually grammatical) phenomena of the language adjoin lexico-phraseological units. Such, for example, are diminutive suffixes rooted in Russian folklore.

This, secondly, is speech semantics in the narrow sense of the word: figurative meanings of words, allegories, tropes, first of all, metaphors and metonymies, in which A.A. Potebnya saw the main, even the only source of poetry and imagery. In this aspect, artistic literature transforms and further creates those verbal associations with which the speech activity of the people and society is rich.

In many cases (especially characteristic of 20th-century poetry), the boundary between direct and figurative meanings is erased, and words, one might say, begin to wander freely around objects without directly designating them. In most of the poems, St. Mallarmé, A.A. Blok, M.I. Tsvetaeva, O.E. Mandelstam, B.L. Pasternak is dominated not by ordered reflections or descriptions, but by an outwardly confused self-expression - a speech "enthusiastically", extremely saturated with unexpected associations. These poets liberated verbal art from the norms of logically organized speech. The experience began to be embodied in words freely and uninhibitedly.

Further (thirdly, fourthly, fifthly...) artistic speech includes layers addressed to the reader's inner ear. These are the beginnings of intonational-syntactic, phonetic, rhythmic, to which we will turn.

Auditory perception of speech

Verbal and artistic works are addressed to the auditory imagination of readers. Artistically significant (especially in poetic speech) is the phonetic side of the works, on which German "auditory philology" was concentrated at the beginning of our century, and after it - representatives of the Russian formal school. The sound of artistic speech is interpreted by scientists in different ways. In some cases, it is argued that the speech sounds themselves (phonemes) are carriers of a certain emotional meaning (for example, L. Sabaneev believed that “A” is a joyful and open sound, and “U” expresses anxiety and horror, etc.). In other cases, on the contrary, it is said that the speech sounds themselves are emotionally and semantically neutral, and the artistic and semantic effect is created by combining a given sound composition with the subject-logical meaning of the statement. B.L. Pasternak argued: "The music of the word is not an acoustic phenomenon at all and does not consist in the harmony of vowels and consonants taken separately, but in the ratio of the meaning of speech and its sound." The connection in the artistic word of sound and meaning (name and object), denoted by the terms onomatopoeia and sound meaning, was examined in detail by V.V. Weidle. The scientist argued that the sound meaning is born from the organic combination of the sounds of words with intonation, rhythm, as well as the direct meaning of the statement - its "banal meaning".

In the light of such an interpretation of artistic phonetics (as it is often called - euphonies, or sound writing), the concept of paronymy, which is widely used in modern philology, turns out to be vital. Paronyms are words that are different in meaning (single-root or heterogeneous), but close or even identical in sound (betray - sell, campaign - company). In poetry (especially of our century: Khlebnikov, Tsvetaeva, Mayakovsky) they act (along with allegories and comparisons) as a productive and economical way of emotionally-semantic saturation of speech.

Phonetic repetitions are present in the verbal art of all countries and eras. A.N. Veselovsky convincingly showed that folk poetry has long been intently attentive to the consonance of words, that sound parallelism, often in the form of rhyme, is widely represented in songs.

Along with the acoustic-phonetic, another, closely related, intonation-voice aspect of artistic speech is also important. “That artist of prose or verse is bad, who does not hear the intonation of the voice that puts together a phrase for him,” A. Bely noted. The same is true of the reader of works of art. Intonation is a set of expressive and significant changes in the sound of the human voice. The physical (acoustic) "carriers" of intonation are the timbre and tempo of the sound of speech, the strength and pitch of the sound. A written text (if it is subjectively colored and expressive) bears a trace of intonation, which is felt primarily in the syntax of the utterance. The writer's favorite type of phrase, the alternation of sentences of various kinds, deviations from the syntactic "stereotype" of emotionally neutral speech (inversions, repetitions, rhetorical questions, exclamations, appeals) - all this creates the effect of the presence of a living voice in a literary and artistic text. B.M. Eikhenbaum "Melody of Russian lyrical verse". The intonation-voice expressiveness of speech gives it a special quality - the color of unintentionality and improvisation: there is a feeling of a momentary emergence of the statement, the illusion of its creation, as it were, in our presence. At the same time, the intonation-voice beginnings of artistic speech (as well as phonetic ones) give it an aesthetic character in the original and strict sense: the reader perceives the work not only with the power of imagination (fantasy), but also with inner hearing.

The specifics of artistic speech

The speech of verbal and artistic works is much more than other types of utterances, and, most importantly, it necessarily gravitates towards expressiveness and strict organization. In its best examples, it is maximally saturated with meaning, and therefore does not tolerate any re-registration, restructuring. In this regard, artistic speech requires from the perceiver close attention not only to the subject of the message, but also to its own forms, to its integral fabric, to its shades and nuances. “In poetry,” wrote P.O. Jacobson, - any speech element turns into a figure of poetic speech.

In many literary works (especially poetic ones), the verbal fabric differs sharply from other kinds of statements (the verses of Mandelstam, the early Pasternak, extremely saturated with allegories); in others, on the contrary, outwardly it is indistinguishable from “everyday”, colloquial and everyday speech (a number of artistic and prose texts of the 19th-20th centuries). But in the works of verbal art there is invariably (albeit implicitly) expressiveness and orderliness of speech; here its aesthetic function comes to the fore.

Poetry and prose

Artistic speech realizes itself in two forms: poetic (poetry) and non-poetry (prose).

Initially, the poetic form decisively prevailed both in ritual and sacred, and in artistic texts. The ability of poetic (poetic) speech to live in our memory (much greater) than that of prose is one of its most important and undeniably valuable properties, which determined its historical primacy in the composition of artistic culture.

In the era of antiquity, verbal art made its way from mythological and divinely inspired poetry (whether epics or tragedies) to prose, which, however, was still not really artistic, but oratorical and business (Demosthenes), philosophical (Plato and Aristotle), historical (Plutarch , Tacitus). Artistic prose, on the other hand, existed more as part of folklore (parables, fables, fairy tales) and was not promoted to the forefront of verbal art. She won the rights very slowly. Only in modern times did poetry and prose in the art of the word begin to coexist "on an equal footing", with the latter sometimes coming to the fore (such, in particular, was Russian literature of the 19th century, starting from the 30s).

Nowadays, not only the external (formal, proper speech) differences between poetry and prose (the consistently implemented rhythm of poetic speech; the need for a rhythmic pause between the verses that make up the main unit of rhythm - and the absence, at least the optionality and episodic nature of all this in artistic -prose text), but also functional dissimilarity.

The forms of poetic speech are very diverse. They have been carefully studied. Verse forms (primarily meters and sizes) are unique in their emotional sound and semantic content. M.L. Gasparov, one of the most authoritative modern versifiers, argues that poetic meters are not semantically identical, that a certain “semantic halo” is inherent in a number of metrical forms: “The rarer the size, the more expressively it reminds of the precedents of its use: the semantic saturation of the Russian hexameter or imitations epic verse is great iambic tetrameter (the most common in Russian poetry. - V.Kh.) is insignificant. In a wide range between these two extremes are located almost all sizes with their varieties. Let us add to this that the “tonality” and emotional atmosphere of the three-syllable (greater stability and rigor of the flow of speech) and two-syllable (due to the abundance of pyrrhias - great dynamism of rhythm and unconstrained variability in the nature of speech) are to some extent different; poems with a large number of stops (solemnity of sound, as, for example, in Pushkin's "Monument") and small (color of playful lightness: "Play, Adele, / Do not know sadness"). Further, the coloring of iambic and chorea is different (the foot of the latter, where its beginning is a rhythmically strong place, is akin to a musical beat; it is no coincidence that the melodious-dance part is always choreic), syllabo-tonic verses (given "evenness" of the speech tempo) and actually tonic, accent (necessary, preordained alternation of speech slowdowns and pauses - and a kind of "patter"). Etc...

Techniques for changing the basic meaning of a word are called tropes. Tropes tend to awaken an emotional attitude to the topic, inspire certain feelings, have a sensory-evaluative meaning. In tropes, two main cases are distinguished: metaphor and metonymy.

The verse form "squeezes" the maximum of expressive possibilities out of words, with particular force draws attention to the verbal fabric as such and the sound of the statement, giving it, as it were, the ultimate emotional and semantic richness.

But fiction also has its own unique and undeniably valuable properties, which poetic literature possesses to a much lesser extent. When referring to prose, the author reveals the wide possibilities of linguistic diversity, the combination in the same text of different ways of thinking and speaking: in prose artistry (most fully manifested in the novel), the “dialogical orientation of a word among other people’s words” is important, while poetry to heteroglossia, as a rule, is not inclined and is more monologue.

Poetry, therefore, is characterized by an emphasis on verbal expression; a creative, speech-creative principle is clearly expressed here. In prose, however, the verbal fabric can turn out to be, as it were, neutral: prose writers often gravitate toward a stating, denoting word, non-emotional and "non-styled." In prose, the visual and cognitive possibilities of speech are most fully and widely used, while in poetry its expressive and aesthetic principles are accentuated. This functional difference between poetry and prose is already fixed by the initial meanings of these words - their etymology (the other Greek word "poetry" is formed from the verb to make, "to speak"; "prose" - from the Latin adjective "direct", "simple ").

figures of speech, or stylistic figures, or rhetorical figures- syntactic constructions used to enhance the expressiveness of the statement.

Figures of speech are a powerful and effective means of influencing the reader or listener. Their main field of action is syntax, and the main expressive effects are achieved through a special construction of sentences and texts. In artistic speech, figures of speech such as antithesis, oxymoron, gradation, inversion, anaphora, epiphora, junction figure, parallelism, period, silence, rhetorical question, rhetorical appeal .

Antithesis(from Greek. anti- against, thesa- position) - opposition of individual concepts, positions, images: Business - time, fun - an hour; Softly spread, but hard to sleep.

The antithesis is based on a pair (sometimes several pairs) of linguistic or contextual Antonyms (see), placed in one syntactic structure: both parts of the opposition seem to highlight each other, which gives thought a special capacity and expressive power.

Oxymoron(from Greek. oxymoron- witty-stupid) - a combination of two words that contradict each other in meaning: living corpse (L. Tolstoy), eternal moment (A. Blok), hot snow (Yu. Bondarev) etc.

An oxymoron is based on a deliberate violation of the logical law of non-contradiction, according to which a judgment and its negation ( alive - dead; eternal - instant; hot Cold) cannot be both true for the same object. The purpose of using an oxymoron is to show the complexity, inconsistency of the described subject of speech.

gradation(from lat. gradient- gradual change) - the arrangement of parts of the statement in the order of change in the degree of intensity of their expressive meaning.

The essence of gradation is that each subsequent element of speech - a word, phrase, phrase - in comparison with the previous one contains an increasing (ascending gradation) or decreasing (descending gradation) emotional meaning, due to which the overall impression of the statement increases: Arriving home, Laevsky and Nadezhda Fedorovna entered their dark, stuffy, boring rooms (A. Chekhov).

Inversion(from lat. inversion- permutation) - a change in the usual order of words and phrases that make up the sentence: I erected a monument to myself not made by hands (A. Pushkin).

Thanks to inversion, a word that occupies an unusual place stands out and attracts the attention of the listener or reader.

Anaphora(from Greek. anaphora- bringing up) - monotony, repetition of individual words or phrases at the beginning of several phrases following one after another: I swear by the first day of creation, I swear by its last day, I swear by the shame of crime And the triumph of eternal truth (M. Lermontov).

The purpose of the anaphora is to put forward repeated words, as the most important, in the first place, to focus the attention of the listener or reader on them.

Epiphora(from Greek. epiphora from epi- after and phoros- carrier) - repetition of the final elements of successive phrases: But the tsar looked at everything through the eyes of Godunov, listened to everything with the ears of Godunov (A. Pushkin).

Being the opposite of Anaphora (see), the epiphora enhances the meaning of the final word in the sentence.

Seam figure- repetition at the beginning of the next phrase of the final element of the previous one: Oh, spring without end and without edge - Without end and without edge dream! (A. Blok).

The junction figure is essentially a combination of Epiphora (see) and Anaphora (cm), which is why it is sometimes called an epanophora.

Parallelism- the use of two or more adjacent elements of speech (paragraphs, phrases, parts of sentences) that have the same or the same type of syntactic structure. For example:

I don't feel sorry for you, my spring year,

Leaked in dreams of love in vain,–

I don't feel sorry for you, oh mysteries of the nights,

Sung by the voluptuous tseve... (A. Pushkin)

The main artistic functions of parallelism are the rhythmic and intonational organization of the utterance and the emotional and logical separation.

Period(from Greek. periodos- bypass, circle, rotation) - a complex syntactic construction, characterized by the rhythm and order of parts, as well as the completeness and completeness of the content.

Usually the period consists of two parts - ascending and descending; they are separated by a culmination - the highest point, marked during pronunciation by a rise in voice and a pause. The first part of the period consists of syntactic units of the same type (most often these are homogeneous subordinate clauses), in which a detailed, detailed justification of the author's thought is given, the second is the main sentence that briefly formulates this idea. For example: I was so cheerful and proud all that day, I so vividly kept on my face the feeling of Zinaida's kisses, I recalled her every word with such a shudder of delight, I cherished my unexpected happiness so much that I even became afraid, did not even want to see her - the culprit of these new sensations (I. Turgenev).

Default – deliberate break in the statement, conveying emotionality, excitement of speech and suggesting that the reader (listener) will guess what exactly was left unsaid: Not; I wanted ... maybe you ... I thought that it was time for the baron to die (A. Pushkin).

Rhetorical question- a statement in the form of a question or a question addressed to an inanimate object, animal or absent person and therefore does not require an answer: Is it fun to hear a bad opinion about yourself? (N. Gogol); Where are you going, proud horse? And where will you lower your hooves? (A. Pushkin).

Rhetorical address- an appeal to someone who cannot give an answer: to God, an absent or deceased person, animal, object: Golden ring, Beloved, dear! Bright memory of love look into black eyes (A. Koltsov).

Terms Index

Allegory 28

Alliteration 24

Anaphora 31

Antithesis 30

Antonyms 21

Argotisms 18

Archaisms 17

Assonance 24

Wealth 15

Barbarisms 19

Variants of the language, see Forms of language existence

Expression 15

Hyperbole 27

Speaking 9

Gradation 30

Dialect 5

Dialectisms 18

Jargon 18

Borrowed vocabulary, see Foreign vocabulary

Soundwriting 23

Inversion 31

Foreign vocabulary 19

Internationalisms 19

Native Russian vocabulary 18

Historicisms 17

Stationery 23

Cognitive function of language see Functions of language

Communicative situation 11

Communicative function of language see Functions of language

Communicative qualities of speech 12

Winged words 22

Culture of speech 8

Cumulative language function see Language functions

Vocabulary 16

Limited vocabulary 17

Lexical norms, see Literary and linguistic norm

Lexical level of language, see Word

For lexical homonyms, see Homonyms

Lexical meaning 19

Literary and linguistic norm 6

Literary language 6

Consistency 13

Metaphor 26

Metonymy 29

Polysemy, see Polysemy

Monologue 10

Morpheme see Part of a word

Morphological norms, see Literary and linguistic norm

Morphological level of language, see Word

Scientific style 7

Neutral vocabulary see Common vocabulary

Neologisms 17

Nominative function of language see Functions of language

Common vocabulary 17

Single-root antonyms, see Antonyms

Oxymoron 30

Avatar 26

Homographs see Homonyms

Homonyms 21

Homophones see Homonyms

Homoforms see Homonyms

Spelling norms, see Literary and linguistic norm

Orthoepic norms, see Literary and linguistic norm

Formal business style 6

Concurrency 31

Paronyms 21

figurative value 20

Polylogue 11

Polysemy 20

Correctness 13

Suggestion 5

Professionalisms 18

Professional Language Option 5

Journalistic style 7

For punctuation norms, see Literary and linguistic norm

Conversational style 8

For heterogeneous antonyms, see Antonyms

Speech activity 9

Speech ethics 12

Speech cliché 22

Voice communication 11

Speech act, see Speech communication

Speech stamp 23

Speech etiquette 12

Rhetorical question 32

Rhetorical figures, see Figures of speech

Rhetorical Address 33

For semantic synonyms, see Synonyms

For semantic-stylistic synonyms, see Synonyms

Synecdoche 29

Synonyms see Synonyms

Synonyms 20

Syntactic level of the language, see Phrase, Sentence

For syntactic norms, see Literary and linguistic norm

Language system 4

Dominant word, see Synonyms

Word-formation norms, see Literary and linguistic norm

Word-formation level of the language, see Part of the word

Phrase 4

Hearing 9

Comparison 24

Stylistic norms, see Literary and linguistic norm

For stylistic synonyms, see Synonyms

Stylistic figures, see Figures of speech

Terms 18

Accuracy 13

Relevance 14

Default 32

Joint figure 31

Figures of speech 29

Phoneme see sound

Phonetic level of the language, see Sound

Forms of language existence 5

Phraseologisms 22

Functional style 6

Language features 3

Artistic style 8

Word part 4

Purity 16

Epiphora 31

Language system see Language system

Clarity 16

List of used literature

1. Vvedenskaya L. A., Pavlova L. G., Kashaeva E. Yu. Russian language and culture of speech. R/n/D, 2003.

2. Vvedenskaya L. A., Cherkasova M. N. Russian language and culture of speech. R/n/D, 2007.

3. Golub I. B. Russian language and speech culture. M., 2004.

4. Ippolitova N. A., Knyazeva O. Yu., Savova M. R. Russian language and speech culture. M., 2007.

5. Kasatkin L. L., Klobukov E. V., Lekant P. A. Brief reference book on the modern Russian language / Ed. P. A. Lekanta. M., 1991.

6. Culture of Russian speech / Ed. L. K. Graudina, E. N. Shiryaeva. M., 2002.

7. Culture of Russian speech: encyclopedic dictionary-reference book. M., 2003.

8. Matveeva T.V. Educational dictionary: Russian language, culture of speech, style, rhetoric. M., 2003.

9. Moskvin V. P. Expressive means of modern Russian speech: Tropes and figures. General and private classifications. Terminological dictionary. M., 2006.

10. Pedagogical speech science: Dictionary-reference book. / Ed. T. A. Ladyzhenskaya and A. K. Mikhalskaya. - M., 1998.

11. Rosenthal D. E., Golub I. B., Telenkova M. A. Modern Russian language. M., 1994.

12. Rosenthal D. E., Telenkova M. A. Dictionary-reference book of linguistic terms. - M., 1986.

13. Rudnev V. N., Egorov P. A. Russian language and culture of speech: a terminological linguistic dictionary. M., 2004.

14. Russian language and speech culture / Ed. prof. V. I. Maksimova. M., 2003.

15. Russian language. Encyclopedia / Ch. ed. Yu. N. Karaulov. M., 1997.

16. Skvortsov L. I. Culture of Russian speech: Dictionary-reference book. - M., 1995.

17. Tikhonov A. N., Tikhonova E. N., Tikhonov S. A. Dictionary-reference book on the Russian language / Ed. A. N. Tikhonova. - M., 1999.

Educational edition

Smetanina N.P.

"Russian language and culture of speech":

Antithesis(see tropes) is a syntactic figure if parts of a sentence are contrasted, and not individual words (antonyms) (No Parisian toilets - a stern sweater and a long gray skirt tied with a wide belt(about M. Tsvetaeva)).

Anaphora- repetition of identical words or consonances at the beginning of a poetic line or prose phrase, for example: I look for the future with fear, // I look to the past with longing(M. Yu. Lermontov).

Asyndeton- deliberate omission of coordinating conjunctions to give the phrase more dynamics. For example: Booths, women, Boys, shops, lanterns, Palaces, gardens, monasteries, Bukharians, sleighs, vegetable gardens, Merchants, shacks, peasants, Boulevards, towers, Cossacks, Pharmacies; fashion stores, balconies, lions on the gates...(A. S. Pushkin).

Introductory words and phrases- a word, combination of words or sentences not related to other words; can express the feelings of the writer (joy, regret, surprise, etc.) in connection with the message: fortunately, fortunately, unfortunately, unfortunately and etc.; also express the speaker's assessment of the degree of reality of what is being reported (confidence, assumption, possibility, uncertainty, etc.): of course, of course, it seems, of course, of course, apparently and etc.; indicate the connection of thoughts, the sequence of presentation and the source of the reported: consequently, in particular, for example, in addition, therefore, first of all and etc.; in my opinion ..., in my opinion ..., they say, I remember, they say, they say and etc.; represent an appeal to the interlocutor or reader in order to draw his attention to what is being reported, to inspire a certain attitude to the facts presented: you see, understand, imagine, please, suppose, suppose and etc.; show the degree of commonness of what is being said (it happens, happens, usually etc.), to express the expressiveness of the statement (in fairness, in conscience, it's funny to say etc.) For example: “Watch your comrades during a dispute, discussion, polemic - you will, of course, make sure that they behave differently”(L. Pavlova).

Question-answer move (hypophora)- this is a segment of monologue speech that combines a rhetorical question (or a series of questions) and an answer to them; a question of thought. The question-answer move consists in the fact that the speaker, as if anticipating the objections of the listeners, guessing their possible questions, formulates such questions himself, answers them himself. This technique involves the addressee in a dialogue, makes a participant in the search for truth. It is also used as an effective means in hidden controversy. Example: Tens of thousands of soldiers disappeared without a trace, not a shred of flesh was left of them, they really disappeared without a trace. They cannot be buried! And what? Do not consider a single war in history over? Isn't it easier to assume: you didn't understand what Suvorov said!

gradation- a turn of poetic speech, consisting in a deliberate grouping of homogeneous members of a sentence in a sequential order of increasing or decreasing semantic or emotional significance; a means that allows you to recreate events and actions, thoughts and feelings in the process, in development (from small to large - direct gradation - or from large to small - reverse gradation.), to convey the growing tension of feelings, experiences. For example: “Fu, the abyss, what a mess! .. It is impossible to describe: velvet! silver! the fire!"(N. V. Gogol); I called you, but you did not look back, I shed tears, but you did not descend(A. Blok). Gradation can become a compositional device for constructing the entire text (for example, in the fairy tales "Terem-Teremok", "Gingerbread Man", "About Dedka and Turnip").

Inversion- violation of the sequence of speech, the generally accepted word order, rearrangement of parts of the phrase; gives the phrase a new expressive shade, a special solemnity to the sound and meaning of the sentence: The aching spirit heals the hymn(E. Baratynsky).

polyunion- intentional repetition of identical unions. For example: And the heart beats in ecstasy, And for him resurrected again And the deity, and inspiration, And life, and tears, and love(A. S. Pushkin).

Parallelism- comparison of natural phenomena and human life. For example: Grass overgrows graves - pain overgrows with prescription(M. Sholokhov).

Parceling- a stylistic device for using incomplete sentences (sentences that lack one or more members The forest bird has already flown away. The swamp followed her.); breaking down a whole sentence into separate parts (Maybe our hero became a millionaire. Or an artist. Or just a fun beggar) enhances their semantic weight, gives speech a special emotionality.

subtext- unspoken directly in the text, but as if arising from individual remarks, remarks, details, etc., the attitude of the author to the material presented. In a scientific style or in business papers, subtext would be a disadvantage that interferes with the perception of the objective content of the text, but in a work of art or journalism it is an integral part.

Rhetorical question- a question addressed to the reader that does not require an answer; used to attract, enhance reader attention; enhances the emotion of the speech. The same role is played appeals, exclamations. For example: Why don't people fly? I say why don't people fly like birds?(A. N. Ostrovsky "Thunderstorm"); “What lofty prose this is! And so many times they will quote it!”(I. Andronikov). Rhetorical address differs from the usual address in that it names the inanimate object that is being addressed: Greetings, desert corner,… (A. S. Pushkin).

Syntactic constructions of colloquial style - constructions used primarily in colloquial speech, which is characterized by the use of simple and incomplete sentences. The constructions of colloquial speech are compressed, capacious, concise. Violation of style grabs the reader's attention. Short, jerky sentences, omission of individual words give speech dynamism, ease, looseness, create the effect of "impromptu", unpreparedness, a feeling of direct communication, dialogue. The use of interrogative sentences, typical for oral speech, enlivens, facilitates the perception of the material by the reader, serves to polemically sharpen the proposed problems. For example: “Incorporation is the transfer of the workshop into the ownership of the collective. Reaction? No! The workshop and so, in fact, was the property of the workers. Another option. Privatization in one hand. The main question is what? To shadow structures or to one of the workers?

Syntax parallelism- homogeneous syntactic construction of sentences. For example: "Your mind is deep, that the sea// Your spirit is high that mountains.“The stars are shining in the blue sky, The waves are splashing in the blue sea, A cloud is moving across the sky, A barrel is floating on the sea” ( A.S. Pushkin); Diamond is polished by diamond, // The line is dictated by the line(S. Podelkov).

Default- a figure of speech in which the statement is deliberately not completed so that the reader himself thinks out the missing words, and can also be a means of expressing a special emotional state. An ellipsis is often used as a default. For example: Here he will get to you ... Oh, if not for these relatives! ..

Ellipse- a speech construction in which a word or several words are missing, easily restored either from the context, or according to a specific situation, or due to the communicative experience of the speakers. Helps to enhance the emotional richness of the statement, giving it conciseness. For example: “Here, it’s true, a little man [is walking], two women [are] following him ...”(A. S. Pushkin).

Epiphora- stylistic figure of repetition; repetition at the end of a segment of speech of the same word (lexical epiphora), word form (grammatical epiphora) or synonymous word (semantic epiphora) Example: “Scallops, all scallops: scallop cape, scalloped sleeves, scalloped epaulettes, scallops below, scallops everywhere”(N.V. Gogol).

1.3 MORPHEMICS. WORD FORMATION (task B1 of the USE test)

Morphemics- a branch of linguistics that studies the system of morphemes of a language and the morphemic structure of words and their forms. Morpheme- This minimal significant part of a word (root, prefix, suffix, ending).

word formation- a branch of linguistics, which studies the formal semantic derivative of the words of the language, means and methods of word formation.