The theme is the Russian-Turkish war of 1828 1829. The Russian-Turkish war (1828–1829)

Plan
Introduction
1 War statistics
2 Background and cause
3 Military action in 1828
3.1 In the Balkans
3.2 In Transcaucasia

4 Military action in 1829
4.1 In the European theater
4.2 In Asia

5 most striking episodes of the war
6 War heroes
7 Outcomes of the war
Bibliography
Russian-Turkish war (1828-1829)

Introduction

The Russian-Turkish war of 1828-1829 is a military conflict between the Russian and Ottoman Empires that began in April 1828 due to the fact that the Port after the Battle of Navarino (October 1827), in violation of the Akkerman Convention, closed the Bosphorus.

In a broader context, this war was a consequence of the struggle between the great powers, caused by the Greek War of Independence (1821-1830) from the Ottoman Empire. During the war, Russian troops made a number of campaigns in Bulgaria, the Caucasus and the north-east of Anatolia, after which the Porte sued for peace.

1. War statistics

2. Background and reason

The Greeks of the Peloponnese, who rebelled against Ottoman rule in the spring of 1821, were aided by France and England; Russia under Alexander I took a position of non-intervention, but was in alliance with the first according to the agreements of the Aachen Congress ( see also Holy Alliance).

With the accession of Nicholas I, the position of St. Petersburg on the Greek question began to change; but feuds began between the former allies over the division of the possessions of the Ottoman Empire; taking advantage of this, the Port declared itself free from agreements with Russia and expelled Russian subjects from their possessions. Porta invited Persia to continue the war with Russia and forbade Russian ships from entering the Bosporus.

Sultan Mahmud II tried to give the war a religious character; wanting to lead an army to defend Islam, he moved his capital to Adrianople and ordered to strengthen the Danube fortresses. In view of such actions of the Porte, Emperor Nicholas I on April 14 (26), 1828 declared war on the Porte and ordered his troops, who until then had been stationed in Bessarabia, to enter the Ottoman possessions.

3. Military operations in 1828

3.1. in the Balkans

Russia had a 95,000-strong Danube army under the command of P. Kh. Wittgenstein and a 25,000-strong Separate Caucasian Corps under the command of General I. F. Paskevich.

They were opposed by Turkish armies with a total strength of up to 200 thousand people. (150 thousand on the Danube and 50 thousand in the Caucasus); of the fleet, only 10 ships that stood in the Bosphorus survived.

The Danubian army was tasked with occupying Moldova, Wallachia and Dobruja, as well as capturing Shumla and Varna.

Bessarabia was chosen as the basis for Wittgenstein's actions; the principalities (greatly depleted by Turkish rule and the drought of 1827) were supposed to be occupied only to restore order in them and protect them from enemy invasion, as well as to protect the right wing of the army in case of Austrian intervention. Wittgenstein, having crossed the Lower Danube, had to move on Varna and Shumla, cross the Balkans and advance towards Constantinople; a special detachment was to make a landing at Anapa and, after mastering it, join the main forces.

On April 25, the 6th Infantry Corps entered the principalities, and its vanguard, under the command of General Fyodor Geismar, headed for Lesser Wallachia; On May 1, the 7th Infantry Corps besieged the fortress of Brailov; The 3rd Infantry Corps was supposed to cross the Danube between Izmail and Reni, near the village of Satunovo, but the construction of a gati through a lowland flooded with water took about a month, during which the Turks fortified the right bank against the crossing point, placing up to 10 thousand soldiers in their position. troops.

On May 27, in the morning, in the presence of the sovereign, the crossing of Russian troops on ships and boats began. Despite fierce fire, they reached the right bank, and when the advanced Turkish trenches were taken, the enemy fled from the rest. On May 30, the fortress of Isaccea surrendered. Having separated the detachments for the taxation of Machin, Girsov and Tulcha, the main forces of the 3rd Corps reached Karasu on June 6, while their vanguard, under the command of General Fyodor Ridiger, overlaid Kyustendzhi.

The siege of Brailov was rapidly moving forward, and the head of the siege troops, Grand Duke Mikhail Pavlovich, hurrying to finish this business so that the 7th Corps could join the 3rd, decided on June 3 to storm the fortress; the assault was repulsed, but when 3 days later the surrender of Machin followed, the commandant Brailov, seeing himself cut off and having lost hope of help, also surrendered (June 7).

At the same time, a sea expedition to Anapa took place. At Karasu, the 3rd Corps stood for 17 whole days, since no more than 20 thousand remained in it for the allocation of garrisons to the occupied fortresses, as well as other detachments. Only with the addition of some parts of the 7th Corps and with the arrival of the 4th Reserve. cavalry corps, the main forces of the army would reach 60 thousand; but even this was not recognized as sufficient for decisive action, and in early June it was ordered to march from Little Russia to the Danube 2nd infantry. corps (about 30 thousand); in addition, guards regiments (up to 25,000) were already on their way to the theater of war.

After the fall of Brailov, the 7th Corps was sent to link up with the 3rd; General Roth, with two infantry and one cavalry brigades, was ordered to besiege Silistria, and General Borozdin, with six infantry and four cavalry regiments, was ordered to guard Wallachia. Even before the implementation of all these orders, the 3rd Corps moved to Bazardzhik, which, according to the information received, was gathering significant Turkish forces.

Between June 24 and 26, Bazardzhik was occupied, after which two vanguards were advanced: Ridiger - to Kozludzha and Admiral General Count Pavel Sukhtelen - to Varna, to which a detachment of Lieutenant General Alexander Ushakov was also sent from Tulcha. In early July, the 7th joined the 3rd Corps; but their combined forces did not exceed 40 thousand; it was still impossible to count on the assistance of the fleet stationed at Anapa; siege parks were partly located near the named fortress, partly stretched from Brailov.

Meanwhile, the garrisons of Shumla and Varna were gradually reinforced; Ridiger's vanguard was constantly disturbed by the Turks, who tried to interrupt his communications with the main forces. Considering the state of affairs, Wittgenstein decided to confine himself to one observation regarding Varna (for which Ushakov’s detachment was appointed), with the main forces to move to Shumla, try to lure the seraskir out of the fortified camp and, having defeated him, turn to the siege of Varna.

On July 8, the main forces approached Shumla and surrounded it from the eastern side, strongly fortifying their positions in order to interrupt the possibility of communication with Varna. Decisive actions against Shumla were supposed to be postponed until the arrival of the guards. However, our main forces soon found themselves, as it were, in a blockade, since the enemy developed partisan actions in their rear and on the flanks, which greatly hampered the arrival of transports and foraging. Meanwhile, Ushakov's detachment also could not hold out against the superior forces of the garrison of Varna and retreated to Derventkiy.

In mid-July, the Russian fleet arrived from near Anapa to Kovarna and, having landed the troops on board, headed for Varna, against which it stopped. The head of the landing troops, Prince Alexander Menshikov, having attached Ushakov's detachment to himself, on July 22 also approached the named fortress, surrounded it from the north, and on August 6 began siege work. The detachment of General Roth, who stood at Silistria, could not do anything due to insufficient forces and lack of siege artillery. Under Shumla, things also did not move forward, and although the attacks of the Turks undertaken on August 14 and 25 were repelled, this did not lead to any results. Count Wittgenstein already wanted to retreat to Yeni Bazaar, but Emperor Nicholas I, who was with the army, opposed this.

In general, by the end of August, the circumstances in the European theater of war were very unfavorable for the Russians: the siege of Varna, due to the weakness of our forces, did not promise success; illnesses raged among the troops stationed near Shumla, and the horses fell in masses from starvation; meanwhile, the audacity of the Turkish partisans was increasing.

At the same time, upon the arrival of new reinforcements in Shumla, the Turks attacked the town of Pravoda, occupied by the detachment of Admiral General Benckendorff, however, they were repulsed. General Loggin Roth barely held his ground at Silistria, whose garrison had also received reinforcements. Gene. Kornilov, who was watching Zhurzha, had to fight off attacks from there and from Ruschuk, where the enemy's forces also increased. Although the weak detachment of General Geismar (about 6 thousand), although he held on to his position between Calafat and Craiova, he could not prevent the Turkish parties from invading the northwestern part of Wallachia Minor.

The enemy, having concentrated more than 25 thousand at Viddin and Calafat, reinforced the garrisons of Rakhiv and Nikopol. Thus, the Turks everywhere had an advantage in forces, but, fortunately, did not take advantage of this. Meanwhile, in mid-August, the Guards Corps began to approach the Lower Danube, followed by the 2nd Infantry. The latter was ordered to relieve the detachment of Roth at Silistria, which was then drawn under Shumla; the guard is sent to Varna. For the proceeds of this fortress, 30 thousand Turkish corps of Omer-Vrione arrived from the Kamchik River. Several unsuccessful attacks followed from both sides, and when Varna surrendered on September 29, Omer began to hastily retreat, pursued by the detachment of Prince Eugene of Württemberg, and headed for Aidos, where the vizier's troops had retreated even earlier.

Meanwhile, Gr. Wittgenstein continued to stand under Shumla; his troops, for the allocation of reinforcements to Varna and other detachments, had only about 15 thousand; but on the 20th of Sept. the 6th corps approached him. Silistria continued to hold out, since the 2nd Corps, having no siege artillery, could not take decisive action.

Meanwhile, the Turks continued to threaten Wallachia Minor; but the brilliant victory won by Geismar near the village of Boelesti put an end to their attempts. After the fall of Varna, the ultimate goal of the 1828 campaign was the conquest of Silistria, and the 3rd Corps was sent to it. The rest of the troops stationed near Shumla were to winter in the occupied part of the country; the guards returned to Russia. However, the enterprise against Silistria, due to the lack of shells in the siege artillery, did not materialize, and the fortress was subjected to only 2 days of bombardment.

Russo-Turkish War 1828–1829 was caused by Turkey's desire to preserve the decaying Ottoman Empire. Russia, supporting the uprising of the Greek people against Turkish rule, sent a squadron of L.P. Heyden for military operations together with the Anglo-French fleet (see Archipelago expedition of 1827). In December 1827, Turkey declared a “holy war” on Russia. Russian troops successfully operated in both the Caucasian and Balkan theaters of war. In the Caucasus, the troops of I.F. Paskevich was taken by storm to Kars, occupied Akhaltsikhe, Poti, Bayazit (1828), captured Erzurum and went to Trebizond (1829). At the Balkan theater, Russian troops P.Kh. Wittgenstein crossed the Danube and took Varna (1828), under the leadership of I.I. Dibich was defeated by the Turks at Kulevcha, captured Silistria, made a bold and unexpected transition through the Balkans, threatening Istanbul directly (1829). Under a peace treaty, Russia acquired the mouth of the Danube, the Black Sea coast from the Kuban to Adzharia, and other territories.

Archipelago Expedition (1827)

Archipelago expedition of 1827 - campaign of the Russian squadron L.P. Heiden to the shores of Greece to support the Greek anti-Turkish uprising. In September 1827, the squadron joined the Anglo-French fleet in the Mediterranean for joint operations against the Turks. After Turkey rejected the Allied ultimatum to cease hostilities against Greece, the allied fleet in the Battle of Navarino completely destroyed the Turkish fleet. Heiden's squadron distinguished itself in the battle, destroying the center and the right flank of the enemy fleet. During the subsequent Russian-Turkish war of 1828-1829. The Russian squadron blocked the Bosphorus and the Dardanelles.

Navarino naval battle (1827)

The battle in the Bay of Navarino (the southwestern coast of the Peloponnese) between the united squadrons of Russia, England and France, on the one hand, and the Turkish-Egyptian fleet, on the other, took place during the Greek National Liberation Revolution of 1821–1829.

The combined squadrons included: from Russia - 4 battleships, 4 frigates; from England - 3 battleships, 5 corvettes; from France - 3 battleships, 2 frigates, 2 corvettes. Commander - English Vice Admiral E. Codrington. The Turkish-Egyptian squadron under the command of Muharrem Bey consisted of 3 battleships, 23 frigates, 40 corvettes and brigs.

Before the start of the battle, Codrington sent a truce to the Turks, then a second. Both parliamentarians were killed. In response, the united squadrons attacked the enemy on October 8 (20), 1827. The battle of Navarino lasted about 4 hours and ended with the destruction of the Turkish-Egyptian fleet. His losses amounted to about 60 ships and up to 7 thousand people. The Allies did not lose a single ship, with only about 800 men killed and wounded.

During the battle they distinguished themselves: the flagship of the Russian squadron "Azov" under the command of Captain 1st Rank M.P. Lazarev, who destroyed 5 enemy ships. Lieutenant P.S. skillfully acted on this ship. Nakhimov, midshipman V.A. Kornilov and midshipman V.I. Istomin - the future heroes of the battle of Sinop and the defense of Sevastopol in the Crimean War of 1853-1856.

The feat of the brig "Mercury"

The brig "Mercury" was laid down in January 1819 at the shipyard in Sevastopol, launched on May 19, 1820. Performance characteristics: length - 29.5 m, width - 9.4 m, draft - 2.95 m. Armament - 18 24-pounder guns.

There was a Russian-Turkish war of 1828-1829. In May 1829, Mercury, as part of a small detachment under the flag of Lieutenant Commander P.Ya. Sakhnovsky, together with the frigate Shtandart and the brig Orpheus, carried out sentinel service in the Bosphorus region. On the morning of May 26, a Turkish squadron was discovered consisting of 18 ships, including 6 battleships, 2 frigates and 2 corvettes. The overwhelming superiority of the enemy was undeniable, and therefore Sakhnovsky gave a signal not to accept the battle. Raising all the sails, "Standard" and "Orpheus" left the chase. "Mercury", built of heavy Crimean oak, and therefore significantly inferior in speed, lagged behind. The high-speed ships of the Turkish fleet, the 110-gun battleship Selimiye and the 74-gun Real Bay, rushing in pursuit, soon overtook the Russian brig.

Seeing the inevitability of a battle with the enemy, the commander of the brig, Lieutenant Commander A.I. Kazarsky gathered officers. According to tradition, the youngest lieutenant of the corps of naval navigators I.P. Prokofiev expressed a common opinion - to accept the battle, and in the event of a threat to seize the ship - to blow it up, for which purpose a loaded pistol should be left near the hook chamber.

The brig was the first to fire a volley at the enemy. Kazarsky skillfully maneuvered, preventing the Turks from conducting aimed fire. Somewhat later, the Real Bay was still able to take up a firing position from the port side and the Mercury came under crossfire. The Turks showered the brig with cannonballs and brandskugels. Fire started in many places. Part of the team began to extinguish it, but the well-aimed shelling of Turkish ships did not weaken. The Russian gunners managed to inflict such significant damage to the Selimiye that the Turkish ship was forced to drift. But "Real Bay" continued shelling the Russian brig. Finally, he, too, received a cannonball hit in the forward mast and began to fall behind. This unprecedented battle lasted for about 4 hours. "Mercury", despite the fact that they received 22 hits in the hull and about 300 in the rigging and spars, emerged victorious from it and the next day joined the Black Sea squadron. For the feat Lieutenant Commander A.I. Kazarsky was awarded the Order of St. George IV degree and promoted to captain of the 2nd rank, and the ship was awarded the stern St. George flag and pennant. In addition, the imperial rescript stated that “when this brig falls into disrepair, build according to the same drawing and in perfect resemblance to it, the same vessel, named “Mercury”, attributing to the same crew, on which to transfer and St. George's flag with a pennant.

This tradition, which has developed in the Russian fleet, continues to this day. On the wide expanses of the seas and oceans, the sea minesweeper Kazarsky and the hydrographic vessel Pamyat Mercury are flying the Russian flag.

The commander of the legendary brig A.I. Kazarsky in April 1831 was appointed to the retinue of Nicholas I and soon received the rank of captain of the 1st rank. On June 28, 1833, he died suddenly in Nikolaev. In Sevastopol, according to the project of A.P. Bryullov, a monument to the brave sailor was laid. On the stone truncated pyramid there is a stylized model of an ancient warship and a brief inscription: “To Kazar - as an example to posterity.”

In connection with the division of spheres of influence in Turkey, the question of who would really control the Black Sea straits (Bosphorus and Dardanelles) - a sea route in the Mediterranean that is vital for Russia, also arose. In 1827, Russia enters into a coalition with England and France to support the Greeks who rebelled against Turkish rule. The coalition sent an allied squadron to the coast of Greece, which destroyed the Ottoman fleet in the Bay of Navarino. After that, the Turkish Sultan Mahmud IV called for a "holy war" against Russia. Turkey closed the straits for Russian ships and terminated the Akkerman Convention (1826), which regulated Russian-Turkish relations. In response, Emperor Nicholas I on April 14, 1828 declared war on Turkey. This war was fought in two theaters of operations - the Balkan and the Caucasus. Its main events took place on the Balkan Peninsula.

Balkan theater of operations

Campaign of 1828. If in past wars with Turkey the main location of Russian troops was Moldavia and Wallachia, then with the inclusion of Bessarabia in Russia, the situation changed. Now the army could cross the Danube already from Russian territory, from Bessarabia, which became the main place of army base. The significant approach of the supply bases to the theater of operations reduced communications and facilitated the actions of the Russian troops. To attack Turkey, Russia had a 92,000-strong army on the Danube under the command of Field Marshal Peter Wittgenstein. She was opposed by Turkish troops under the overall command of Hussein Pasha (up to 150 thousand people). However, there were less than half of the regular units in them. The 6th corps of General Roth was sent to Moldavia and Wallachia, which occupied Bucharest on April 30, the 7th corps under the command of Grand Duke Mikhail Pavlovich laid siege to the left-bank fortress of Brailov, which surrendered on June 7 (having previously beaten off a fierce assault on June 3). Meanwhile, the main forces led by Wittgenstein and Emperor Nicholas I crossed the Danube west of Ishmael and entered Dobruja. The main actions in the campaign of 1828 unfolded in the northwestern part of Bulgaria, in the triangle between the fortresses of Silistria, Shumla and Varna. Leaving a small barrier (9 thousand people) against the 20,000-strong garrison of Silistria on the Danube, the Russians concentrated their main forces against Shumla, near which the Turkish army stood, and the fortress-port of Varna. Without taking these strongholds, the Russians could not advance further south. The blockade of Shumla, in which there was a garrison of 40,000, was unsuccessful. Firstly, there were not enough forces (35 thousand people) to take this main base of the Turkish troops. Secondly, the Russian army besieging Shumla itself fell into a partial blockade due to supply interruptions. Fever and typhus broke out in the troops. Hospitals were not ready to take a huge number of patients.

Due to the lack of feed, a massive loss of horses began. True, the blockade of Shumla, if not ended in victory, then at least ensured the successful actions of the Russians against the third point of the triangle - Varna. An important role in the blockade of Varna was played by the Black Sea Fleet under the command of Admiral Alexei Greig, who dominated the sea lanes. During the siege of Varna, the Russian army had to repel the offensive of the 30,000th Turkish corps of Omar Vrion Pasha, who was trying to release the besieged garrison. On September 26, a general assault on Varna was undertaken. September 29 Varna capitulated. About 7 thousand people surrendered into captivity. The capture of Varna was the largest success of the Russian troops in the 1828 campaign in the Balkan theater of operations. The siege of Silistria and Shumla had to be lifted in October. The retreat from Shumla took place in difficult conditions due to the active actions of the Turkish cavalry. To break away from her persistent pursuit, the Russians had to abandon their carts. The bulk of the troops (75%) went to winter beyond the Danube. On the right flank of the Russian front on the Danube, hostilities unfolded in the area of the Vidin fortress, from where Turkish troops (26 thousand people) tried in September to go on the offensive against Bucharest. However, in the battle on September 14, 1828 near Boeleshti (now Beileshti), they were repulsed by the division of General Fyodor Geismar (4 thousand people). The Turks retreated across the Danube, losing over 2 thousand people. The victory at Boelesti secured the rear of the Russian troops in Wallachia.

Campaign of 1829. In February, General Ivan Dibich, a supporter of more decisive action, was appointed commander-in-chief instead of Wittgenstein. At the same time, Emperor Nicholas I left the troops, believing that he only fettered the actions of the military command. In the campaign of 1829, Diebitsch decided first of all to do away with Silistria in order to secure his rear for a long-range offensive. The plan of the new commander was to, relying on Varna and the support of the Black Sea Fleet, make a campaign against Constantinople (Istanbul). The Russians were also prompted to take active steps by the international situation associated with the growing hostility of Austria to Russia's successes in the Balkans. Meanwhile, the Turkish command in April launched an offensive against Russian-occupied Varna. But the units of General Roth (14 thousand people) who arrived in time from Dobruja managed to repel the onslaught of the 25 thousandth Turkish army. On May 7, Dibich with the main forces (over 60 thousand people) crossed the Danube and laid siege to Silistria. Meanwhile, the Turkish command in mid-May organized a new campaign against Varna. An army of 40,000 went there under the command of the vizier Reshid Pasha, who replaced Hussein Pasha as commander-in-chief.

Battle of Kulevcha (1829). Dibić decided to avert this serious threat to Varna, the fall of which would have disrupted his campaign plan. The Russian commander left a 30,000-strong army to besiege Silistria, and he himself, with the remaining 30,000 people. swiftly marched south to strike at the flank of Reshid Pasha's army advancing towards Varna. Dibich overtook the Turkish army in the Kulevchi region and decisively attacked it on May 30, 1829. The stubborn battle lasted five hours and ended with the complete defeat of Reshid Pasha. The Russians lost over 2 thousand people, the Turks ~ 7 thousand people. (including 2 thousand prisoners). Reshid Pasha retreated to Shumla and ceased active operations. The defeat of the Turkish army at Kulevcha contributed to the capitulation of Silistria, whose garrison surrendered on June 19. Over 9 thousand people were captured. Success at Kulevcha and Silistria allowed Dibich to begin the main part of his plan.

Trans-Balkan campaign of Dibich (1829). After the victory at Kulevcha and the capture of Silistria, Dibich abandoned the attack on Shumla. Having allocated part of his troops (3rd Corps) for its blockade, Dibich with a 35,000-strong army, secretly from the Turks, went on July 2, 1829, to the Trans-Balkan campaign, which decided the outcome of this war. Dibich was not afraid to leave behind the main Turkish grouping in Shumla and without hesitation moved to Constantinople (Istanbul). For the first time in the history of the Russian-Turkish wars, such a bold and brilliant maneuver was made, which put forward Ivan Ivanovich Dibich among the famous Russian commanders. On July 6-7, Russian troops, having thrown back Turkish barrage detachments, crossed the Kamchia River and moved to the eastern part of the Balkans. This route was not chosen by chance, since here Dibich had the fortress of Varna occupied by the Russians in his rear and could always receive support from the Black Sea Fleet. Moreover, in order to prepare for the campaign, in February, the Russian amphibious assault captured the fortress of Sizopol (south of Burgas) on the coast, having previously made it the main base for the possible supply of Russian troops in southeastern Bulgaria. Attempts by the Turks to recapture Sizopol were repulsed. By mid-July, in the fierce summer heat, when it seemed that the stones were "melting", the Russian soldiers overcame the Balkan steeps and, having thrown back small Turkish detachments, went out onto the plain. On July 12, Dibich immediately captured Burgas, the most important port on the Bulgarian coast. "The Balkans, which were considered impassable for so many centuries, have been passed in three days, and the victorious banners of Your Majesty are fluttering on the walls of Burgas, among the population that met our brave men as liberators and brothers," Dibich informed Nicholas I. He had something to be proud of: in 11 days, his army traveled over 150 km, while overcoming barely passable, unfamiliar mountain steeps. The support of the population contributed to the success of the movement of troops. Using the friendly disposition of the Christians, Dibich at the same time neutralized the possible hostility of the Muslims, deliberately freeing their houses from the quarters of their soldiers.

Having learned about the Russian campaign for the Balkans, the Turkish command moved two large detachments from Shumla to the rear of the Dibich army: Khalil Pasha (20 thousand people) to Sliven and Ibrahim Pasha (12 thousand people) to Aytos. Having defeated the detachment of Ibrahim Pasha at Aytos on July 14, Dibich moved west to Sliven with the main forces. On July 31, in the battle near this city, the army of Khalil Pasha was defeated. So, in the rear of the Russians there were no large Turkish forces left, and it was possible to continue the journey to Constantinople. Despite heavy losses in the Russian army (during the campaign, primarily from heat and illness, it was halved), Dibich decided to continue the offensive and moved to Adrianople (now Edirne). Having overcome 120 km in a week, the Russian army on August 7 approached the walls of Adrianople, which had not seen Russian warriors since the campaigns of Svyatoslav (X century). On August 8, the demoralized garrison of the fortress surrendered without a fight. Thus fell the last stronghold on the way to the Turkish capital. On August 26, advanced Russian units were 60-70 km from Constantinople. The rapidity of movement largely predetermined the success of the Trans-Balkan campaign. The rapid and unexpected appearance of Russian troops near Constantinople caused shock and panic there. After all, never before has a foreign army come so close to the Turkish capital. At the same time, in the Caucasian theater of military operations, the corps of General Ivan Paskevich took the fortress of Erzrum.

Peace of Adrianople (1829). Trying to prevent the capture of his capital, Sultan Mahmud IV asked for peace. Peace was signed on September 2, 1829 in Adrianople. For his campaign, Dibich received the honorary prefix Zabalkansky and the rank of field marshal to his surname. It should be noted that the Diebitsch maneuver had a downside. From the incredibly high incidence (scorching heat, bad water, plague, etc.), his victorious army was melting before our eyes. At the time of the signing of peace, it was reduced to 7 thousand people. It can be said that Dibich's triumph could turn into a disaster at any moment. It is possible that this was the reason for the rather moderate demands of Russia. According to the terms of the Adrianople peace, she secured the mouth of the Danube and the eastern coast of the Black Sea. The Principalities of Moldavia and Wallachia (now Romania), as well as Serbia, received autonomy, the guarantor of which was Russia. Greece also received wide autonomy. The right of free passage of Russian ships through the straits was restored.

This war cost the Russians 125 thousand people. dead. Of these, only 12% fell on those who fell in battle. The rest died of illness. In this respect, the Russian-Turkish war of 1828-1829 turned out to be one of the most unfavorable for Russia.

Caucasian theater of operations (1828-1829)

The 25,000-strong corps of General Ivan Paskevich operated in the Caucasus. In the campaign of 1828, he took the most important Turkish fortresses: Kars, Ardagan, Akhalkalaki, Akhaltsikhe, Pota, Bayazet. Leaving his garrisons in them, Paskevich withdrew his troops to winter quarters. In winter, the Russians managed to repel the Turkish onslaught on Akhaltsikhe, and in the summer Paskevich's Erzrum campaign took place, which decided the outcome of the war in the Caucasus.

Erzurum campaign of Paskevich (1829). The campaign against the Turkish city of Erzrum (Arzrum) of the Caucasian Corps of General Paskevich (18 thousand people) took place in June 1829. The Turkish army under the command of the seraskir Hadji-Salekh (70 thousand people) acted against the Russians in this direction. In the spring of 1829, she moved from Erzurum to Kars, hoping to recapture this fortress from the Russians. The offensive was carried out by two detachments: Khaki Pasha (20 thousand people) and Hadji-Salekh (30 thousand people). Another 20 thousand people. was in reserve. Paskevich abandoned defensive tactics and himself came out to meet the Turkish army. Taking advantage of the division of the Turkish forces, the Russian commander attacked them in parts. On June 19, 1829, he defeated the detachment of Hadji-Salekh near the village of Kainly, and on June 20 he attacked the troops of Khaki Pasha and defeated them in the battle of Mille Dyuz. In these two battles, the Turks lost 17 thousand people. (including 12 thousand prisoners). Russian damage amounted to 1 thousand people. Defeated, the Turkish army retreated in disarray to Erzrum. Paskevich actively pursued her to the walls of the city, the garrison of which surrendered almost without resistance on June 27 (on the day of the 120th anniversary of the Battle of Poltava). 15 thousand people were taken prisoner, including the seraskir Hadji-Salekh himself.

After the Erzrum campaign, Paskevich received the rank of field marshal. In this campaign, as a traveler, the poet A.S. Pushkin took part, who left interesting notes about him "Journey to Arzrum". By the way, Pushkin took a personal part in the battle on June 14 at the heights of Saganlu. In the "History of military operations in Asiatic Turkey" by N.I. Ushakov, one can find the following evidence: "Pushkin, animated by the courage so characteristic of a rookie warrior, grabbed the pike of one of the killed Cossacks and rushed against the enemy horsemen." True, he was soon taken out of the battle by Major N.N. Semichev, who was specially sent for this by General N.N.

Shefov N.A. The most famous wars and battles of Russia M. "Veche", 2000.
"From Ancient Russia to the Russian Empire". Shishkin Sergey Petrovich, Ufa.

Russian-Turkish war of 1828-1829

For the first half of the XIX century. significantly increased the urban population in the Crimea. So, in 1850 it reached 85 thousand people. The proportion of the urban population in comparison with the entire population of Crimea increased to 27%.

The development of the country required the availability of free workers. In order to meet the needs of trade and the developing merchant fleet on the Black and Azov Seas, the government is taking measures to create a cadre of sailors free from serfdom. The Decree on Merchant Shipping of 1830 permitted the establishment of workshops for free sailors at the ports of these seas. Since 1834, in the coastal cities and villages of the Tauride, Yekaterinoslav and Kherson provinces, including Sevastopol, societies of free sailors were founded. The decree of the tsarist government explained that such societies should be created from the settlers, philistines released to freedom, and raznochintsy “with the provision of those who entered the sailors with the right to be exempted from all financial and personal duties; moreover, people enrolled in this rank are charged with the duty to serve in the Black Sea (merchant - Ed.) Fleet for five years to acquire the necessary knowledge.

Since 1840, the number of those wishing to become sailors has been increasing. For ten years, the number of free sailors in the Yekaterinoslav province increased to 7422, in the Kherson province - 4675, in the Tauride province - up to 659 people6.

Skippers, navigators and builders of merchant ships were trained by the Merchant Shipping School, founded in 1834 in Kherson. The tsarist government in every way contributed to the development of the bourgeois class in the cities. So, the merchants and artisans of Sevastopol were given benefits for ten years, starting from January 1, 1838. guild service"8. The decree prescribed that merchants from other provinces who were newly registered as merchants of the city, if they built their own houses, did not pay for the guilds for three years from the time the construction was completed. For the next seven years, taxes were to be paid at half the rate. A preferential procedure for the assignment of guild rights was established; depending on the value of the house, an appropriate category was awarded, namely: “for a house worth at least 8 thousand rubles, - the right of a third, at least 20 thousand rubles. - the second and not less than 50 thousand rubles. - the first guild "9. Merchants who built plants or factories in Sevastopol were given the right not to pay for the guilds for ten years after the completion of construction. Regarding the artisans who settled in the city, it was prescribed that during the years of grace, from 1838 to 1848, they were given relief in personal and financial city duties. Just like merchants, craftsmen who built their own houses, after the completion of construction, a privilege was granted for ten years10. In 1831 there were 20 merchants in the city, in 1833 there were already 73, and in 1848 there were 83 merchants11. Merchants conducted retail trade in groceries, manufactory and other goods. A significant part of them were engaged in the quartermaster supply of various goods to the military department (flour, meat, cereals, firewood, etc.). Sevastopol merchants traded in salt, fish and other goods.

The development of the economy of southern Russia, including the Crimea, required the establishment of regular communications between the ports of the Black Sea. The shipping company on the Black Sea was founded back in 1828. The first commercial steamship "Odessa" made raids between Odessa and Yalta through Sevastopol. Soon a permanent steamship service was established between Sevastopol and other cities of the Black Sea region.

In 1825, under the leadership of the engineer Shepilov, a road was built from Simferopol to Alushta at a distance of 45 versts. In the 40s, Colonel Slavich built the road Alushta-Yalta-Sevastopol, 170 versts long13.

In the mid-40s, a postal road was laid to Sevastopol from the Belbek bridge near the station. Duvanka (now Verkhne Sadovoe) through the Mekenziev mountains and Inkerman. Previously, the road approached the northern shore of the Big Bay, from where the boats were ferried to the city. The construction of roads in the Crimea, especially in its mountainous part, cost a lot of work and expense. They were built by soldiers, serfs and state peasants.

The southern regions of Russia, in particular the northern Black Sea region and the Crimea, in the first quarter of the 19th century. were sparsely populated. After the annexation of Crimea to Russia, the question of the settlement of Crimea by Russian and Ukrainian populations acquired exceptional importance. The government, obliging the landlords to settle the Crimean estates, at the same time took measures to resettle state peasants and people of other classes from the central and Ukrainian provinces.

The lack of workers in the south of Ukraine and in the Crimea led to the fact that long before the reform, freelance labor was widely used here, not only in industrial, but also in landlord farms. Already in the 1950s, on most estates, the harvesting of bread and grass was carried out by civilian workers who came here every summer from the central provinces of Russia and Ukraine in search of seasonal work. In spring and summer, many city residents, including residents of Sevastopol, went to work on the landowners' estates. In Crimean agriculture, due to the development of capitalism, there was a very rapid process of specialization. In the 1930s and 1940s, specialized farms appeared.

In 1828 and 1830 special decrees were issued on benefits for persons involved in the cultivation of gardens. Gardening also developed in the vicinity of Sevastopol. On May 22, 1831, the Naval Ministry ordered the commander of the Black Sea Fleet to give all the lands belonging to the Admiralty for gardening, in which “there can be no need”14. By decree of the tsarist government of July 19, 1832, it was allowed to distribute to merchants for gardening, viticulture and horticulture the surplus land of the Sevastopol Admiralty15. In the same year, a joint-stock wine-making company was established in Crimea16.

In the second quarter of the XIX century. the development of light industry in the Crimea has made significant progress compared to the end of the XVIII century. and the beginning of the 19th century.

There were 203 factories and factories in the Tauride province, of which in 1843 there were three factories (two cloth and one headwear) and 166 factories (soap and candle, brick, tile, leather, etc.). They employed 1273 workers17. The number of workers indicates that industrial enterprises were mostly small and differed little from handicraft workshops. Industry was also poorly developed in Sevastopol. Warships were built here, a sugar factory and several small enterprises operated: leather, candle, soap, breweries, brick and tile, etc.

Due to the lack of labor in the Crimea in the second quarter of the XIX century. prisoners were often involved in work at many construction sites and especially important enterprises. They built fortifications, government buildings, port facilities, paved roads, delivered timber from Ukraine, etc.

The living conditions of civilian workers and soldiers were extremely difficult. The Russian scientist Demidov, who traveled around the Crimea in 1837, wrote that 30,000 people were working on the construction of the Sevastopol port facilities.

Sevastopol was ruled by a military governor. In March 1826, by decree of the tsarist government, it was decided to call the city henceforth not Akhtiar, but Sevastopol18. Sevastopol was the largest Crimean city, the population of which at the beginning of the second quarter of the XIX century. together with the military amounted to about 30 thousand people19. According to official figures, in 1844 there were 41,155 inhabitants and 2,057 houses20. The bulk of the population was military: officers, sailors and soldiers. The civilian population consisted mainly of officials, artisans and military families. A relatively large part of the civilian population of Sevastopol was made up of the petty merchant bourgeoisie and artisans (shoemakers, furriers, tailors, hatmakers, barbers, tinkers, etc.).

According to contemporaries and drawings of that time, one can imagine the appearance of Sevastopol in the 30s of the 19th century. The city was located along the shores of the South, Artillery and Ship bays, on three hills separated by deep ravines. The city center was located around the southern hill (now Lenin and Bolshaya Morskaya streets). The main street was Ekaterininskaya, starting from Ekaterininskaya Square (now Lenin Square). Here were the houses of the governor-general Stolypin, the mayor Nosov and merchants, a women's school, a cathedral church, barracks for naval and working crews and a school for naval cabin boys. On the Big. Morskaya Street housed the houses of army and navy quartermasters, naval officers and officials.

The whole city was built of white Inkerman stone. The houses were small mansions surrounded by gardens, fenced from the street with front gardens. The sharp difference between the well-organized center and the impoverished settlements where working people lived was striking. Slobodki began not only immediately behind the main streets (in the area of the current Historical Boulevard), but directly in the center, on the southern hill.

Disarmed ships were placed on both banks of the South Bay, in the Artillery Bay - merchant ships that brought provisions. The South and Ship bays were the military harbor of Sevastopol.

The Admiralty was located on the southwestern side of the South Bay, where ships were repaired and brigs, corvettes and other small ships were built from Crimean oak. At the end of it were placed spare artillery pieces, shells and warehouses. Dismantling of the ships that had become unusable was also carried out here. On two old ships - Poltava and Lesnoy - prisoners were kept, most of whom were sent from various provinces to work in the port of Sevastopol.

On the banks of other bays - Streletskaya, Kamysheva and Kazachya - there were no buildings, except for small batteries and customs cordons.

Most of the sailors lived in dilapidated barracks built under Admiral Ushakov, and only a small part of the sailors were accommodated in two stone two-story barracks (about 2,500 people).

Admirals, ship captains and commanders of military units lived in old government houses. The main part of naval officers, as well as officials, lived in private apartments.

The city did not have enough fresh water: the inhabitants took it from a well in the Admiralty Bay, while the fleet was supplied with water from wells located along the banks of the bay.

The authorities cared little about the development of culture in the city. At the beginning of the second quarter of the XIX century. in Sevastopol there were only two state educational institutions, in addition, the urban bourgeoisie contained several private classes and boarding houses. In 1833, a boarding school for noble maidens was opened in the city21. In the 1940s, district and parish schools and a naval school for children of sailors were opened in the city (Jung School).

The advanced people of Sevastopol and, in particular, some officers of the Black Sea Fleet made a significant contribution to the development of the culture of the Crimea. In 1825-1836. hydrographic work was carried out in the Black and Azov Seas. From the inventories compiled during these works, an atlas of the Black and Azov Seas was published, published in 1842 by the Black Sea Hydrographic Department23.

In the first decades of the XIX century. began the study of the historical past of the Crimea and its archaeological sites. Research and excavations were carried out on the sites of ancient Chersonese (Korsun), Panticapaeum, Scythian Naples. Fleet officers took part in the excavations of Chersonese. These excavations have their own history. Even before the annexation of Crimea to Russia, the officers of the first Russian ships sailing the Black Sea were ordered to pay attention to the antiquities and describe them. The military-historical archives contain several maps and plans of Chersonesos, drawn up by officers of the Black Sea Fleet.

The first excavations were made in 1821, and systematic archaeological research in Chersonese begins with the founding of the Odessa Society of History and Antiquities (1839). The society turned to the commander of the Black Sea Fleet M.P. Lazarev with a request to assist in removing the plan from the surviving remnants of Chersonese and its environs. The admiral instructed Captain Arkas to do this, who a few years later presented to the society a “Description of the Heraclius Peninsula and its antiquities” (with maps and plans)24. Somewhat later, the excavations were carried out by Lieutenant Shemyakin. His finds entered the Odessa Museum. After him, Lieutenant Baryatinsky and others were engaged in research.25 The results of these excavations were a valuable contribution to science.

In the second quarter of the XIX century. the construction of the Sevastopol fortress and port facilities resumed. However, before the entry of M.P. Lazarev to the post of chief of staff of the Black Sea Fleet, and then commander, the construction of fortifications was slow. Although the city in November 1826 was classified as a first-class fortress26, but due to poor engineering work, by the beginning of the Russo-Turkish war of 1828-1829, it was under attack. was insufficiently protected from the sea and almost completely unfortified from the land.

The feudal system hindered the development and introduction of new technology and adversely affected the combat training of the army. The Prussian system of education dominated the army at that time. The army and navy were trained more for parades than for combat operations. The backwardness of military tactics and training of troops had a severe effect on the wars that Russia had to wage in the second quarter of the 19th century.

The international situation at the beginning of the Russian-Turkish war was characterized by the fact that the "Eastern question" became at the center of the foreign policy of both Russia and the countries of Western Europe. “Of the two main goals that the diplomacy of Nicholas I set for itself, one, namely the fight against revolutionary movements in Europe, seemed more or less achieved at the end of the 20s. Therefore, it became possible to put forward another major task of Russian diplomacy: the struggle for mastery of the straits - "the keys to one's own home"27. Russia's desire to capture Constantinople and the straits was, in the words of Marx and Engels, the basis of the "traditional policy of Russia" associated with its historical past, its geographical conditions and the need to have open harbors in the Archipelago and the Baltic Sea28.

England, France and Austria tried each for themselves to decide the fate of Turkey's European possessions, especially the straits. Russia had an advantage in this rivalry for new markets and trade routes: it relied on the sympathetic attitude towards it of the Slavic peoples of the Balkan Peninsula (Serbs, Montenegrins and Bulgarians), who languished under the centuries-old oppression of Turkey and hoped to win state independence with the help of Russia. Tsarism thought least of all of the freedom of the oppressed nationalities, but it skilfully took advantage of the situation in the Balkans, putting forward the task of protecting Orthodox fellow believers.

The peoples of the Balkan Peninsula waged a stubborn struggle for their independence. The military actions of the Russian army contributed to the liberation of the Balkan peoples from the Turkish yoke.

The Russian-Turkish war began in April 1828. The tsarist command assumed that the campaign would be completed by the onset of winter with decisive operations near Constantinople. But the poorly equipped, mediocrely managed Russian army, despite all the courage of the soldiers, could not overcome the resistance of the Turks for a long time.

On the Balkan Peninsula, by the end of 1828, the Russians managed to capture a narrow strip along the Black Sea. Military operations were successfully developing on the eastern coast of the Black Sea, where Sukhum-Kale and Poti were occupied.

On April 11, 1828, the ships of the Black Sea Fleet entered the Sevastopol roadstead consisting of eight battleships, five frigates, 20 sailing ships and three steamships29. On all these ships there were about 12 thousand personnel and a landing corps (up to 5 thousand people).

On April 29, the fleet left Sevastopol and on May 2 approached the Turkish fortress of Anapa. The fortress, attacked by Russian troops from land and by the fleet from the sea, capitulated on June 12. 4,000 Turks surrendered, 80 guns and several ships with landing troops sent to help the Anapa garrison from Trebizond were taken. The capture of Anapa, an important stronghold of the Turks on the Caucasian coast, was a major victory for the Russian fleet.

The military operations of the Russian army in European Turkey were designed to support the fleet, which was supposed to cover the transport ships assigned to bring ammunition and food from Odessa and other ports. The fleet was tasked with occupying a number of coastal fortifications in order to create storage points necessary for the army during the offensive to the south. To do this, in May 1828, a squadron of three ships and two frigates was allocated, heading for the southwestern shores of the Black Sea. After the capture of Anapa, the Russian fleet, together with the landing corps, was sent to the Turkish fortress in Varna in Bulgaria.

In July 1828, Russian troops surrounded it from land and sea. In the siege of the fortress, rowing ships distinguished themselves under the command of the captain of the 2nd rank V.I. Melikhova30, who captured 14 Turkish ships on the night of July 27. The fleet carried out successful bombardments of the fortress. A significant number of naval teams participated in the construction of the trenches. On September 29, after a stubborn defense, the fortress capitulated.

During the siege of Varna in the month of August, a cruiser detachment under the command of a captain of the 1st rank of Crete stormed the coastal fortification of Inada, located 127 kilometers from Constantinople. Fortress guns were loaded onto ships, and the fortifications were blown up. The capture of Inada caused alarm in Constantinople.

In October, the ships returned to Sevastopol for the winter, and in November a detachment of two ships and two vessels was sent to observe the Bosphorus. The military operations of the fleet continued into 1829.

A bright page in the combat operations of the Black Sea Fleet was the feat of the sailors of the Russian brig31 "Mercury" under the command of Lieutenant Commander Kazarsky.

May 14, 1829 at dawn, the 18-gun brig "Mercury", cruising near the Bosphorus, was at close range from the Turkish fleet. Two Turkish ships - one 110-gun and the other 74-gun - set off in pursuit of the mime, hoping to capture the ship. Soon they caught up with the brig "Mercury" and, approaching him to shoot, opened fire. The Russian brig was poorly armed compared to the Turkish ships. Unable to avoid an unequal battle, Lieutenant Commander Kazarsky assembled a military council. The lieutenant of the corps of naval navigators I. Prokofiev spoke in favor of a decisive battle so that in the event of a threat to seize the ship, blow it up. He was supported by all the officers. The team met this decision with approval. Having delivered a short inspiring speech, Kazarsky ordered to prepare for a decisive battle. His last words were covered with a unanimous exclamation: “Hurrah! We are ready for anything, we will not give ourselves to the Turks alive!”32. A loaded pistol was placed in front of the entrance to the powder magazine, so that at a critical moment the last of the surviving officers of the brig would blow up the ship along with the enemy with a shot in a barrel of gunpowder.

It was 13:00. 30 minutes, when the alarm sounded on the brig. The only rescue skiff was thrown into the sea, which interfered with the operation of the stern guns. By firing at the brig from two sides, the enemy intended to force it to surrender, initially hitting it with longitudinal shots from bow guns. To the demand of one of the Turkish ships to surrender, the brig responded with fire from cannons and rifles.

Skillful maneuvering of Kazarsky, who used both sails and oars to prevent the enemy from using his tenfold superiority in artillery, prevented the Turks from conducting aimed fire. The fierce resistance of the Russians was a surprise to the Turks and led them into confusion. Disorderly and continuous firing began from both Turkish ships.

This unequal battle lasted almost four hours. Well-aimed volleys managed to damage the rigging33 and spars of Turkish ships. The enemy ships, having been damaged, feared a meeting with the Russian squadron, which could arrive in time to help the brig. All this forced the Turks to stop fighting. One of the enemy ships was forced to drift to repair damage. The other ship began to fall behind and soon gave up the pursuit.

Having repaired the damage, the Mercury joined the Russian fleet the next day. A small 18-gun brig defeated two Turkish ships of the line thanks to the stamina and courage of the Russian sailors. The brig received 22 holes in the hull and 297 damage in the spars, sails and rigging34.

For the valor shown in battle, all personnel received military awards, and the brig received the stern St. George's flag. According to the order, the Black Sea Fleet was to constantly have a ship with the name “Mercury” or “Memory of Mercury”, successively bearing the St. George flag, associated with the memory of the feat of the brig “Mercury”.

In 1834, in Sevastopol, on Michmansky (now Matrossky) Boulevard, a monument was erected to the commander of the heroic brig, Captain-Lieutenant Kazarsky. On a high pedestal with the inscription on it "For posterity as an example" rises a cast-iron sculpture depicting a trireme - an ancient Greek rowing vessel.

In August 1829, the Russian army entered Adrianople and stood in sight of Constantinople. The Turkish Sultan Mahmud II began peace negotiations.

The ruling circles of England did not want to allow Russia to take possession of the straits and the strengthening of Russian influence in Greece and among the Slavic peoples of the Balkan Peninsula. England was supported by France and Prussia. That is why, when there was an immediate threat of the capture of Constantinople by Russian troops, the ambassadors of England, France and Prussia persistently began to advise the Sultan to accept peace terms in order to prevent Russia from seizing Constantinople and the straits.

After which the Porte sued for peace.

Encyclopedic YouTube

1 / 5

✪ Foreign policy of Nicholas I in 1826 - 1849. Continuation. Video lesson on the history of Russia Grade 8

✪ Russian-Turkish war 1828-1829, part one

✪ Russian-Turkish war. Results. Video lesson on the history of Russia Grade 8

✪ Russian-Persian war 1826-1828, part two.

✪ Russian-Turkish wars (narrated by Andrey Svetenko and Armen Gasparyan)

Subtitles

War statistics

Warring countries	Population (as of 1828)	Soldiers mobilized	Soldiers killed	Soldiers who died of wounds	Wounded soldiers	Soldiers who died of disease
Russian empire	55 883 800	200 000	10 000	5 000	10 000	110 000
Ottoman Empire	25 664 000	280 000	15 000	5 000	15 000	60 000
TOTAL	81 883 800	480 000	25 000	10 000	25 000	170 000

Background and reason

They were opposed by Turkish armies with a total strength of up to 200 thousand people. (150 thousand on the Danube and 50 thousand in the Caucasus); of the fleet, only 10 ships that were stationed in the Bosphorus survived.

On May 27, in the morning, in the presence of the sovereign, the crossing of Russian troops on ships and boats began. Despite fierce fire, they reached the right bank, and when the advanced Turkish trenches were taken, the enemy fled from the rest. On May 30, the fortress of Isaccea surrendered. Having separated the detachments for imposing Machin, Girsov and Tulcha, the main forces of the 3rd Corps reached Karasu on June 6, while their vanguard, under the command of General Fyodor Ridiger, besieged Kyustenji.

At the same time, a sea expedition to Anapa also took place. At Karasu, the 3rd Corps stood for 17 whole days, since no more than 20 thousand remained in it for the allocation of garrisons to the occupied fortresses, as well as other detachments. Only with the addition of some parts of the 7th Corps and with the arrival of the 4th Reserve. cavalry corps, the main forces of the army would reach 60 thousand; but even this was not recognized as sufficient for decisive action, and in early June it was ordered to march from Little Russia to the Danube 2nd infantry. corps (about 30 thousand); in addition, guards regiments (up to 25,000) were already on their way to the theater of war.

Meanwhile, the garrisons of Shumla and Varna were gradually reinforced; Ridiger's vanguard was constantly disturbed by the Turks, who tried to interrupt his communications with the main forces. Considering the state of affairs, Wittgenstein decided to confine himself to Varna with one observation (for which Ushakov’s detachment was appointed), with the main forces to move to Shumla, try to lure the seraskir out of the fortified camp and, having defeated him, turn to the siege of Varna.

On July 8, the main forces approached Shumla and surrounded it from the eastern side, strongly fortifying their positions in order to interrupt the possibility of communication with Varna. Decisive actions against Shumla were supposed to be postponed until the arrival of the guards. However, the main forces of the Russian army soon found themselves, as it were, in a blockade, since the enemy developed partisan actions in their rear and on the flanks, which greatly hampered the arrival of transports and foraging. Meanwhile, Ushakov's detachment also could not hold out against the superior forces of the garrison of Varna and retreated to Derventkiy.

In mid-July, the Russian fleet arrived from near Anapa to Kovarna and, having landed the troops on board, headed for Varna, against which it stopped. The head of the landing troops, Prince Alexander Menshikov, having joined the detachment of Ushakov, on July 22 also approached the named fortress, surrounded it from the north, and on August 6 began siege work. The detachment of General Roth, who stood at Silistria, could not do anything due to insufficient forces and lack of siege artillery. Under Shumla, things also did not move forward, and although the attacks of the Turks undertaken on August 14 and 25 were repelled, this did not lead to any results. Count Wittgenstein already wanted to retreat to Yeni Bazaar, but Emperor Nicholas I, who was with the army, opposed this.

In general, by the end of August, the circumstances in the European theater of war were very unfavorable for the Russians: the siege of Varna, due to the weakness of our forces, did not promise success; illnesses raged among the troops stationed near Shumla, and horses fell in masses from starvation; meanwhile, the audacity of the Turkish partisans was increasing.

At the same time, upon the arrival of new reinforcements in Shumla, the Turks attacked the city of Pravoda, occupied by a detachment of Adjutant General Benkendorf, however, they were repulsed. General Loggin Roth barely held his ground at Silistria, whose garrison had also received reinforcements. Gene. Kornilov, who was watching Zhurzha, had to fight off attacks from there and from Ruschuk, where the enemy's forces also increased. The weak detachment of General Geismar (c. 6 thousand), although he held on to his position between Calafat and Craiova, could not prevent the Turkish parties from invading the northwestern part of Wallachia Minor.

Upon the retreat of the Russian troops from Shumla, the vizier decided to take Varna again and on November 8 he moved to Pravoda, but, having met with a rebuff from the detachment occupying the city, he returned to Shumla. In January 1829, a strong Turkish detachment raided the rear of the 6th Corps, captured Kozludzha and attacked Bazardzhik, but failed there; and after that, the Russian troops drove the enemy out of Kozludzha; in the same month the fortress of Turno was taken. The rest of the winter passed quietly.

In Transcaucasia

A separate Caucasian corps began operations somewhat later; he was ordered to invade Asiatic Turkey.

In Asiatic Turkey, in 1828, things were going well for Russia: Kars was taken on June 23, and after a temporary suspension of hostilities due to the appearance of the plague, Paskevich conquered the Akhalkalaki fortress on July 23, and in early August approached Akhaltsikhe, which surrendered on the 16th of the same month. Then the fortresses of Atskhur and Ardagan surrendered without resistance. At the same time, separate Russian detachments took Poti and Bayazet.

Military action in 1829

During the winter, both sides actively prepared for the resumption of hostilities. By the end of April 1829, the Porte managed to bring its forces in the European theater of war to 150,000 and, in addition, could count on a 40,000-strong Albanian militia assembled by the Scutari Pasha Mustafa. The Russians could counter these forces with no more than 100,000. In Asia, the Turks had up to 100,000 troops against Paskevich's 20,000. Only the Russian Black Sea Fleet (about 60 ships of various ranks) had a decisive superiority over the Turkish; Yes, in the Archipelago (Aegean Sea) another squadron of Count Heiden (35 ships) was cruising.

in the European theater

Appointed to the place of Wittgenstein as commander-in-chief, Count Dibich actively set about replenishing the army and organizing its economic part. Having set out to cross the Balkans, he turned to the assistance of the fleet to provide troops with provisions on the other side of the mountains and asked Admiral Greig to take possession of any harbor convenient for delivering supplies. The choice fell on Sizopol, which, after taking it, was occupied by a 3,000-strong Russian garrison. The attempt made by the Turks at the end of March to capture this city again was not successful, and then they limited themselves to blockading it from a dry path. As for the Ottoman fleet, it left the Bosporus at the beginning of May, however, it kept closer to its shores; at the same time, two Russian warships were inadvertently surrounded by him; of these, one (the 36-gun frigate "Raphael") surrendered, and the other, the brig "Mercury" under the command of Kazarsky, managed to fight off the enemy ships pursuing him and leave.

At the end of May, the squadrons of Greig and Heyden began to blockade the straits and interrupted all sea supplies to Constantinople. Meanwhile, Dibich, in order to ensure his rear before the movement for the Balkans, decided first of all to seize Silistria; but the late onset of spring delayed him, so that only at the end of April he could send the necessary forces across the Danube. On May 7, siege work began, and on May 9 new troops crossed to the right bank, bringing the forces of the siege corps to 30 thousand people.

Around the same time, the vizier Reshid Pasha opened offensive operations with the aim of returning Varna; however, after stubborn dealings with the troops of Gen. The company at Eski-Arnautlar and Pravod, the Turks again retreated to Shumla. In the middle of May, the vizier with his main forces again moved to Varna. Having received news of this, Dibich, leaving one part of his troops at Silistria, with the other went to the rear of the vizier. This maneuver led to the defeat (May 30) of the Ottoman army near the village of Kulevchi.

Although after such a decisive victory one could count on the capture of Shumla, however, it was preferable to confine oneself to observing her. Meanwhile, the siege of Silistria went on successfully, and on June 18 this fortress surrendered. Following that, the 3rd Corps was sent to Shumla, the rest of the Russian troops, intended for the Trans-Balkan campaign, began to covertly converge on Devno and Pravody.

Meanwhile, the vizier, convinced that Dibich would besiege Shumla, gathered troops there from wherever possible - even from the Balkan passages and from coastal points on the Black Sea. The Russian army, meanwhile, was advancing towards Kamchik and after a series of battles both on this river and during further movement in the mountains of the 6th and 7th corps, about mid-July, they crossed the Balkan Range, capturing two fortresses along the way, Misevria and Ahiolo , and the important harbor of Bourgas.

This success, however, was overshadowed by the strong development of diseases, from which the troops noticeably melted. The vizier finally found out where the main forces of the Russian army were heading and sent reinforcements to the pashas Abdurakhman and Yusuf who were acting against them; but it was already too late: the Russians were moving forward uncontrollably; On July 13, the city of Aidos was occupied by them, on 14 Karnabat, and on 31 Dibich attacked the 20 thousand Turkish corps concentrated near the city of Slivno, defeated it and interrupted the communication of Shumla with Adrianople.

Although the commander-in-chief now had at hand no more than 25 thousand, but in view of the friendly disposition of the local population and the complete demoralization of the Turkish troops, he decided to move to Adrianople, hoping to force the sultan to peace with his appearance in the second capital of the Ottoman Empire.

After reinforced transitions, the Russian army approached Adrianople on August 7, and the unexpectedness of its arrival so embarrassed the head of the local garrison that he offered to surrender. The next day, part of the Russian troops was brought into the city, where large stocks of weapons and other things were found.

The occupation of Adrianople and Erzurum, the close blockade of the straits and internal turmoil in Turkey finally shook the stubbornness of the Sultan; Plenipotentiaries came to Dibich's main apartment to negotiate peace. However, these negotiations were deliberately delayed by the Turks, counting on the help of England and Austria; meanwhile, the Russian army was melting more and more, and danger threatened it from all sides. The difficulty of the situation was further increased when Mustafa, the Pasha of Scutari, who until then had shied away from participation in hostilities, now led a 40,000-strong Albanian army into the theater of war.

In mid-August, he occupied Sofia and advanced the vanguard to Philippopolis. Dibich, however, was not embarrassed by the difficulty of his position: he announced to the Turkish representatives that he would give them until September 1 to receive final instructions, and if peace was not concluded after that, hostilities on the Russian side would resume. To reinforce these demands, several detachments were sent to Constantinople and a connection was established between them and the squadrons of Greig and Heiden.

Adjutant General Kiselev, who commanded the Russian troops in the principalities, was sent an order: leaving part of his forces to guard Wallachia, with the rest, cross the Danube and move against Mustafa. The offensive of the Russian detachments to Constantinople had its effect: the alarmed sultan begged the Prussian envoy to go as an intermediary to Dibich. His arguments, supported by letters from other ambassadors, prompted the commander in chief to stop the movement of troops to the Turkish capital. Then the authorized Ports agreed to all the conditions proposed by them, and on September 2 the Peace of Adrianople was signed.

Despite the fact that Mustafa of Scutaria continued his offensive, and in early September his vanguard approached Haskioy, and from there moved to Demotika. The 7th Corps was sent to meet him. Meanwhile, Adjutant General Kiselyov, having crossed the Danube at Rahov, went to Gabrov to act on the flank of the Albanians, and the Geismar detachment was sent through Orkhanie to threaten their rear. Having defeated the side detachment of the Albanians, Geismar occupied Sofia in mid-September, and Mustafa, having learned about it, returned to Philippopolis. Here he remained part of the winter, but after the complete devastation of the city and its environs, he returned to Albania. The detachments of Kiselev and Geismar retreated to Vratsa at the end of September, and in early November the last troops of the Russian main army set out from Adrianople.

In Asia

In the Asian theater of war, the campaign of 1829 opened in a difficult situation: the inhabitants of the occupied regions were every minute ready for a rebellion; already at the end of February, a strong Turkish corps overlaid