Psychology of a person's personal security

Personal security of a person and his psychology. In the prevention of criminal events, a certain place belongs to the understanding by the person himself of the need to ensure personal security. It is based on the picture of the world that he has formed for himself, and the place that he consciously or unconsciously assigned to himself in this picture. The more objectively and accurately a person reflects the laws that govern the processes and states of things happening around him and with him, the safer his position in the world around him. This is based on knowledge of the patterns of being, but no less, and often more important is an accurate intuitive feeling or understanding of the general direction of the course of events.

Of particular importance is the ability anticipate the consequences of developments, in which a person finds himself, especially if these consequences are colored by a sense of danger both for himself and for the people associated with him. For example, the conclusion of dubious transactions can bring trouble to completely uninvolved persons. The best protection against danger is the ability to anticipate it both in the situation itself and in its consequences and take the right actions. However, inaction can be no less effective means of protection, i.e. the absence of any or at least expressed actions in response to the current situation.

Any action introduces additional perturbations into the situation, and if its consequences are not realized, then the results can be unexpected, including dangerous. The difficulty of not taking any action (inaction) lies in the fact that some situations seem to hurt, draw a person in, provoke him to react. At the same time, they arise and develop according to their own laws, which are not always well known to man. Situations can be exhausted or fade away by themselves, without active intervention. Therefore, it is important be able to assess the moment when action is an inevitable and necessary way of responding.

A powerful means of ensuring personal security can be knowledge of the psychological laws governing human behavior. Let's point out some of them.

At every moment of his life, a person is included in a certain socio-psychological context, in a certain system of interactions and relations between people, regardless of whether he realizes it or not. His behavior is determined by the degree of awareness, understanding of real relations by him and strongly depends on the degree of their subjective distortion. The higher the degree of such distortion, the less the results of his actions fit into the general context, therefore, the higher the degree of tension in the situation, and hence the sharp increase in the likelihood of an acute and potentially dangerous reaction.

Each person has a basic system of personal values, which he seeks to preserve, strengthen and protect. The main of these values ​​is self-esteem, which is manifested in how a person behaves towards others and what he expects (or requires) from others in relation to himself. Potential danger is felt initially as a threat to self-esteem. Being hurt, this feeling can push a person to the most extreme actions.

The main regulators of interpersonal behavior are such moral and psychological formations as conscience, shame, guilt and responsibility. All of them are essentially interconnected, but the primary and deepest is the feeling of shame. A person with a defect in the sense of shame or with its complete absence is unpredictable in his actions and is completely antisocial. For him, feelings of guilt and responsibility do not exist, and the corresponding words are an empty phrase. The danger often comes from this particular category of people, and they most often do not realize themselves in this capacity.

A strong influence on people's behavior is exerted by informal social norms that exist in the circle where people are brought up and live. Ultimately, they reflect the living conditions of people, established traditions, customs and mores, and together they express the culture of a given community. Society is highly differentiated in terms of the nature of these norms and the strength of their impact. Informal cultural traditions sometimes differ so much that it is almost impossible for representatives of different communities to understand each other: what is allowed (or at least not prohibited) in one culture seems barbaric and wild to representatives of another.

The general principle of the relationship of different cultures - mutual respect, unconditional acceptance of the norms of another community. Only in this psychological context is a conflict-free existence possible.

In the social conditions of the current stage of national history, the problem of finding a position of personal security is only exacerbated. Not everyone can surround themselves with bodyguards and buy an armored car. The weapon of the majority should be another means - knowledge of the mechanisms of relationships between people and a much more thorough understanding of their position in a poorly ordered stream of events and their consequences.

Studying the question of why a person becomes object of aggression leads to a general conclusion: because he became an obstacle in the way of action, the achievement of some goal by another person. This is based on several factors and circumstances, primarily the loss of control over the development of the situation. The loss of such control is not an accidental circumstance and is due either to an unconscious desire to provoke aggression against oneself and get the opportunity to provide active resistance, or to reasons of a deeper nature. Among the latter, it is necessary to include, on the whole, an increased victimization person under certain conditions. The tendency to become the object of attack is mainly due to the fact that the person is the bearer of some hidden guilt, whether he is aware of it or not. Therefore, attacking him (in physical or psychological form) is more of a punishment for something that may not be directly related to the situation in which it occurs. The true roots lie somewhere else or on a different plane. This is about the same as the diseases that some people fall ill with and which are not amenable to any treatment. Such patients themselves almost never realize the causes of their misfortunes, but look for them in something else - in living conditions, other people, etc. Hospitals and prisons are filled with such people. The formation of protection against falling into such situations is a matter of very serious and lengthy work, carried out, as a rule, together with another person, in particular, with a qualified psychologist, psychotherapist, etc.

Psychological features of ensuring personal security in the conditions of material and monetary relations. At present, one of the most powerful forces controlling the behavior of large masses of people is becoming desire for material enrichment. In itself, it is quite acceptable, it is fraught with a serious threat to personal safety. This threat is connected with some properties of money. Being a universal equivalent, money can become a universal measure of any values, including the value of human life.

It has long been known that where money begins, human relationships end. More precisely, where money begins, there human relations imperceptibly turn into monetary ones, only camouflaged in the form of human ones. In the conditions of market relations, especially the initial and transitional periods, the relationship between money still looks like a relationship between people and it is easy to confuse them. Meanwhile, the relationship between money is fundamentally different from human relationships.

Money lives according to its own laws, according to which they are produced and circulated. People think they run the lives of money, when in fact money runs the lives of people. Persons just entering the world of money, as a rule, are poorly aware that they are included in a completely different system of relations, where other laws operate, the main of which is an increase in the mass of money. Unlike people, money "has" only one "need" - to increase its influence. Due to this, they gradually rebuild the entire system of relations between people, subordinate their lives to themselves, dictating their own rules to it.

Under these conditions, human life itself becomes only a means, a way of producing money, although it would seem that it should be the other way around - money should be a means of production and reproduction of life. In the world of commodity-money relations there are no such things as compassion and forgiveness, sacrifice and mercy. They are unique to the human world. In the world of money, they are not needed and are doomed to extinction.

Involving in the system of new relations, primarily material and monetary, in order to ensure personal security, it is necessary to keep in mind the following:

In any situation, understand who controls it, who controls the flow of money and material values; in what link of the system and what place does a person occupy; what rules are built relationships between surrounding people;

Understand the conditions and requirements that must be met in order to remain a member of the system;

Understand the interests and aspirations of other people who may be affected by certain actions, assess the likelihood of being in the position of someone's competitor and the ability to enter into a competitive relationship;

Particular attention should be paid to the system of people's interdependence, its nature and strength, especially material, kindred, friendly, friendly dependence; the danger comes from people who find themselves in situations of severe dependence;

Dangerous are persons who have information that compromises someone; a direct threat is posed by actions provoking the disclosure of compromising information.

Most people tend to feel the line beyond which the situation becomes tense and dangerous, and they try not to cross it. Here they are helped by awareness or at least a sense of the possible consequences of the brewing situation. Their psyche almost automatically evaluates these consequences, the ability to cope with them without tangible damage to themselves. This mental mechanism for evaluating the consequences is the basis of behavior in conflict situations and maintaining personal security.

Everyone who wants to protect himself must clearly imagine those factors and circumstances that cause him stress, tension, accompanied by feelings of anxiety, fear, "mental blindness" etc. Life experience teaches to recognize these circumstances, which over time gives a true guideline in ensuring personal security. When analyzing such situations, a person must resolve the following questions for himself: was there anything in his behavior that could conflict or even conflict with the rights of other people; whether the emergence of a tense situation is the result of frivolity and the hope that a critical situation may not arise; whether there was another variant of behavior and whether it was possible to choose it; under what circumstances a different course of action was not chosen.

Usually, people who give a negative answer to the above questions are highly victimized, i.e. vulnerable to negative, aggressive influence from outside. They do not learn well from their own experience, life does not teach them anything. Because of these qualities, they are in a certain sense dangerous to others, as they tend to drag them into unpleasant situations.

The weakest of all possible types of psychological defense is the tendency to see the source of all one's troubles and misfortunes in other people or in circumstances beyond the control of this person. Ancient wisdom says: "Nothing can touch a person, the cause of which would not be himself." Everything that happens to a person is caused by his own actions.

At the same time, no danger is global (except, perhaps, a global catastrophe). Any factors, conditions, circumstances act selectively, drawing only certain people into the orbit of their action. Psychologically, this is expressed in a predisposition to be drawn into this or that trouble. There is even a whole science of crime victims - victimology, one of the tasks of which is to clarify such predispositions. Knowledge about them serves as a psychological defense weapon against falling into acute, conflict or criminal situations with negative or serious consequences. The following ideological attitudes are very powerful means of psychological defense:

The world around is not malicious and does not aim to cause suffering;

Nothing can happen to any single person that has not already happened to many other people;

What happens to each individual person is exactly what should happen to him, and nothing more;

In any and every specific situation, a person finds himself not by chance and not senselessly, but with the aim of solving a certain life task, although it is extremely difficult to understand this task in most cases.

The state of personal security is sharply weakened if a person loses control over the situation as containing a potential threat to him; if he does not evaluate and does not foresee the consequences of his actions; if he possesses benefits or rights that belong to him not by right, unfairly, or as a result of direct crime.

Control over the situation consists mainly in understanding and accurately assessing the interests of the people who surround a person, regardless of whether the contact is temporary and short-term or long-term and permanent.

An accurate assessment of the situation is most often hindered by the person's own desires and goals, which he seeks to satisfy or achieve at all costs. Blinded by the prospect of achieving a goal, a person ceases to see others, to take into account that they can have the same goals and aspirations and no less rights to them, and even more opportunities to achieve them. In this situation, conflict is usually inevitable.

A special situation arises if a person is connected with other people by relations of kinship or material dependence. The situation becomes more complicated if one of them would like to have what he owns, and at the same time he is sure that he needs it more. Such relations often develop between relatives on the basis of property rights and in the future can develop into crimes. In order not to end up in the position of a victim, it is necessary to clarify mutual claims and jointly look for ways to satisfy them mutually and, in any case, enlist legal support.

An important means of ensuring personal security is a set of techniques and skills, collectively denoted visual psychodiagnostics, those. the ability to determine the psychological characteristics of a person by visually perceived features of his appearance and forms of behavior. Psychodiagnostic judgments concern, as a rule, the personality traits of another person, traits of his character, but mainly - motives, motivating forces of behavior.

For the purposes of maintaining a safe personal position in everyday, daily communication, it is useful to know some of the signs of behavior that potentially contribute to the complication, increase in tension in the interaction and communication of people.

An aggressive attitude towards other people is manifested in the posture of a person, especially in crossing his arms and legs. Crossing your legs in a sitting position is a sign of resistance, if at the same time your arms are crossed on your chest, then you have an opponent in front of you. Other signs of the enemy are body tilt back, head tilt forward, sideways glance, hands on hips or left elbow resting on the knee, and the right hand resting on the thigh or knee. Approaching the opponent, reducing the distance, entering the personal space of another is also characteristic.

Approximately the same meaning is expressed by gestures and actions expressing a claim to territorial rights: a person puts his foot on the arm of a chair, a table, puts luggage on empty seats in a transport, a waiting room. There may be other ways to capture space. Intrusion into the space of another person always causes tension and is fraught with conflict.

psychological distance. The concept of distance, distance between people has not only physical, but also a deep socio-psychological meaning. Knowledge and understanding of it is directly related to the personal safety of a person.

Psychological distance is determined by many factors, but the main ones are people's ideas about themselves, from the positions of which they interact with each other. Determining the distance at which it is advisable to stay when entering into communication with a specific person requires a certain amount of time and skills. In any case, the best tactic for this is an externally friendly, but internally neutral attitude towards any person. Under these conditions, the other person will more quickly show signs of the socio-psychological status to which he considers himself, and thus will make it possible to determine the distance at which it is advisable to keep in communication with him.

There is a certain limit, a barrier beyond which a person's personal space and in which he would not want to let anyone in. This space is strictly guarded by each person both from discovery by other people and from intrusion into it. Arrogance, lack of a sense of tact - this is a violation of the distance and the system of internal, personal values ​​of a person.

Modern mass culture, implanted by the media, is making every effort not only to reduce the distance between people, but also to destroy it. The exclusion from speech communication of people's patronymics and the treatment of everyone only by their first names, the imposition of a form of address on "you", regardless of age and position, the disclosure of details of people's personal lives, the imposition of obscene language, etc. - all these are ways of removing distance, leveling people “one size fits all”, disregarding such a psychological reality as self-esteem.

For example, people who have served sentences in the form of imprisonment are very conflicted in everyday communication, they themselves are used to managing the situation and deciding who to let into their personal space and who not to let in. The complexity of the relationship with them lies in the fact that they are very sensitive to the slightest signs of violation of the distance and react to it very sharply. The other person "in his simplicity" did not even have in his thoughts to violate something, but when he is decisively "pushed aside" physically or psychologically, it may well be that he has crossed the permitted border of rapprochement.

The formulated rules of good manners require: do not get too close to a person. Although the conditions of life in which most people are placed daily pit them against each other and dull the sense of distance, they do not completely destroy it. Most people tend to take a position in space, if possible, out of direct contact with others.

Currently, in the scientific community, more and more research is devoted to the problem of psychological safety. At the same time, this phenomenon can be considered from the point of view of the safety of the environment and in the personal aspect. In most modern works, various personal characteristics related to human security in a given situation are considered. At the same time, it is rather difficult to single out a specific set of personality traits and qualities that certainly ensure the security of a person in society. However, we can talk about individual characteristics, to a greater or lesser extent guaranteeing an adequate perception of changing external conditions by a person.

Baeva I.A. notes that in modern studies on security issues, this concept has a different interpretation. “In some, security is the quality of any system, which determines its possibility and ability to self-preservation. In others, it is a system of guarantees that ensure sustainable development and protection against internal and external threats. Most definitions confirm that security is aimed at preserving the system, at ensuring its normal functioning.

In the works of different years, the problems of creating conditions under which the environment would be psychologically the safest were studied. A significant contribution to understanding the psychology of the environment was made by: V.V. Avdeev, B.G. Ananiev, G.M. Andreeva, I.V. Dubrovina, E.I. Isaev, E.A. Klimov, B.F. Lomov, V.A. Levin, M.V. Osorina, A.A. Rean, V.I. Slobodchikov, D.I. Feldstein, E.Fromm, D.B. Elkonin, V.A. Yasvin and others.

The issues of modeling a psychologically safe educational environment, creating conditions in which a person feels secure, is able to satisfy basic needs and function freely, were studied by such scientists as I.A. Baeva, M.R. Bityanova, N.V. Gruzdeva, Ya.A. Comenius, G.A. Mkrtychan, V.I. Panov and others.

At the same time, the psychologization of the environment, the increase in the pedagogical and psychological competence of teachers and parents will not lead to unambiguously positive results in the development of a psychologically uninjured personality of a child without taking into account his individual characteristics, personal characteristics and qualities, as well as inclinations to manifest psychological stability and resistance. All this determines the need to consider the psychological safety of the child's personality in the process of education.

There are several interpretations of the concept of "Psychological security of the individual". Often, the psychological safety of a person is considered as a separate scientific branch that studies the patterns of adequate reflection of danger and constructive regulation of behavior in order to preserve the integrity and stability of a person or a group of people as psychological systems. With this interpretation of this process, the “external threat” / “dangerous situation” becomes the central phenomenon.

Research conducted in this direction focuses on the study of external factors that provoke psychological insecurity and traumatization of the child's personality. In this case, we can say that the target of psychological and pedagogical influence in this approach will be the so-called "risk factors" that carry a psychological danger to the physical and mental health of the child. Here, educators, psychologists and parents should concentrate on identifying, understanding and reducing the impact of such factors. In our opinion, this is practically impossible to do. Only one attempt to classify all possible micro- and macro-factors that threaten the psychological security of an individual will never be recognized by scientists as completely satisfactory. On the other hand, such a final classification of threat factors is not possible for reasons of individuality and non-constant personality. In other words, the same situation can be perceived ambiguously not only by different people, but even by the same person can be assessed as safe-neutral-dangerous in different periods.

In this regard, there is a need for a more detailed consideration of the individual psychological characteristics of the child's personality, which contribute to the perception and manifestation of the psychological security of the personality, regardless of the factors influencing it.

In such an approach, the psychological security of a person manifests itself as "its ability to maintain stability in an environment with certain patterns, including those with psycho-traumatic influences, resistance to destructive internal and external influences, and is reflected in the experience of one's security / insecurity in a particular life situation."

In science, there are several basic approaches to the formation of the psychological security of the individual.

Representatives of the psychoanalytic approach propose to form the psychological security of the individual through work with psychological defenses (A. Freud); through overcoming the inferiority complex (A. Adler); by adjusting or improving already established models of safe behavior (E. Erickson).

The behavioral approach, (from the English behavior - behavior), involves taking into account the subjective nature of the child's experience of a state of danger-security (M.K. Jones). In this approach, it is proposed to form behavior that contributes to psychological safety through the passage of a series of psycho-trainings (D. Utson); through the system of social learning (A. Bandura); positive reinforcement of constructive behavior (B. Skinner).

The contribution to the theory of the formation of psychological security was made by representatives of Gestalt psychology. For the development of the theory of psychological security, the concept of living space by K. Levin, which in turn is part of the "field theory", was of particular importance. According to T.V. Exacusto from the point of view of security psychology, an attempt to study the field of possible events and the field of forces, undertaken by K. Levin, can be perceived as an attempt to determine the level of security / insecurity of certain systems.

A special place among the approaches to the formation of the psychological security of the individual is occupied by the existential-humanistic direction (S. Muddy, K. Rogers, V. Frankl, etc.). Within this direction, we can talk about the possibility of modern psychology to understand the psychological security of the individual as a person's desire for satisfaction the basic need for security through social fulfillment. When a person is considered as capable of creating his own destiny, gaining active life experience, responding to dangers with a conscious system of behavior, and, thereby, resisting them.

The analysis of a large number of scientific works allowed us to identify the components, or indicators of the psychological safety of the individual:

1. The stability of the individual in the environment, including in the traumatic period.

Security is understood as a manifestation of various material and social systems to maintain stability in the face of various negative phenomena (N.N. Rybalkin).

The ability to control oneself, manage one's behavior (Yu.S. Manuilov)

— The ability to manage your emotions (Yu.S. Manuilov)

— Self-confidence, self-esteem (L.I. Bozhovich)

— Orientation of the individual (L.I. Bozhovich), focus on achieving collective goals (V.E. Chudnovsky)

— Ability to establish interpersonal relationships (A.N. Leontiev)

2. Resistance (resilience) to external and internal influences.

Security is understood as a property of a personality that characterizes its protection from destructive influences due to internal resources of resistance (I.A. Baeva).

— Self-satisfaction, self-confidence (L.A. Regush, E.V.

Expressiveness, cheerfulness (L.A. Regush, E.V. Ruzu)

— Emotionality, a tendency to empathy (L.A. Regush, E.V. Ruzu)

- Feeling of control (S. Maddy)

— Engagement (S.Maddy), manifested in the presence of life goals (S.Ionescu)

— Challenge (S.Maddi), having ideas about how to behave in a given situation (S.Ionescu)

— Communication skills, sociability (N.Garmezy)

— Having a positive experience in problem solving (A.S.Masten, K.M.Best, N.Garmezy)

3. Experience of security / insecurity of the individual. Security is manifested as an individual's experience of positive / negative mental states, the absence / presence of anxiety, anxiety

— Mental states (A. O. Prokhorov)

- Emotional anxiety, anxiety (V.L. Marishchuk)

4. Operational efficiency

Psychological safety is considered through an indicator of the effectiveness of the activity in which the person is included (I.A. Baeva)

The presented components of the psychological safety of the individual require a separate scientific study in the direction of identifying their age dynamics, interrelationship and individual characteristics of manifestation. At the same time, there are already works that directly point to the need for the earliest possible formation in the child of such personality traits and forms of behavior that will allow him to maintain his “I”, socialize, adapt, and in some cases protect himself from negative external influences. .

Thus, modern parents, teachers and scientists are faced with the question of the best ways to form (develop, preserve) the psychological safety of the child's personality. At the same time, the analysis of approaches and trends in psychological theory and practice allows us to talk about significant differences in the basic assumptions, and, consequently, in the mechanisms and means of forming the psychological security of the individual.

L.M. Kostina (St. Petersburg)

Continuity of Psychological Science in Russia: Traditions and Innovations: Proceedings of the International Scientific and Practical Conference Dedicated to the 215th Anniversary of Herzen University. - St. Petersburg: Publishing house of the Russian State Pedagogical University im. A.I. Herzen, 2012.

Psychological safety of the individual

1. Psychological safety of the individual: structure, criteria

Issues of psychological security during the period of change in the socio-economic structure and the instability of society are of particular relevance. Psychological safety is the most important condition for the full development of a person, the preservation and strengthening of his psychological health. Psychological health, in turn, is the basis of viability, a condition for success in life and a guarantee of a person's well-being in life.

Modern science has extensive material on various aspects of psychological security. There are the following main approaches to the study of human security:

The initial concept is "the physical environment: external objective impacts", the sources of danger-security are at the macro level man-made impacts, natural disasters, at the micro level - unfavorable conditions of activity. The object of danger-security is the body, the result is a somatic state (physical integrity), a psychosomatic state.

The initial concept is "psychological environment", the sources of danger-security are at the macro level political, socio-economic threats, informational impact, at the micro level - manipulation, insult, threats from others, unstable social ties. The object of danger-security is a person as an object of influence, his psyche, consciousness, behavior, the result is a functional and psychological state.

The initial concept is "a person (subject)", the sources of danger-security are at the macro level the totality of individual psychological and spiritual and moral characteristics of the individual, at the micro level - the attitude towards the world, oneself and others. The object of danger-security is a person as an object of influence, his psyche, consciousness, behavior, the result is psychological health.

The latter direction is one of the most promising, since it is a person (subject), the totality of his individual psychological characteristics, the system of his views, worldviews, attitudes towards the world that creates a certain resource, potential, a set of opportunities that help to overcome various kinds of adverse effects to ensure their security .

Psychological safety is considered as a person’s security, which, along with external, implies internal security conditions, which include elements of the subject’s experience that develop into the ability and readiness to recognize, foresee and avoid dangers, involving at least the possession of relevant knowledge, skills and abilities, a certain level development of perceptual, mnemonic, intellectual and other abilities, as well as the formed motivation to ensure life safety.

The structure of psychological security includes: the attitude of the subject (to himself, society, others), his satisfaction with life and social activity, which creates a space of protection from threats. Thus, psychological security is a state of dynamic balance of the subject's relations to the world, himself, others, his activity and satisfaction, corresponding to various (threatening) influences of the external and internal world. Psychological security allows the subject to maintain integrity, self-develop, realize their own goals and values ​​in the process of life.

The criteria for psychological safety are the individual psychological characteristics of a person, manifested in the conditions of the situation, and the individual experience of a person. The variety of safety criteria is determined by the conditions of the relationship between a person and the environment. One of the defining criteria of security is the integrity of a person: physical, psychological, mental (including spiritual). Another criterion of psychological security is the personal growth and development of a person (as a result of overcoming various kinds of dangers and maintaining integrity). The development of a person in the conditions of overcoming threatening, dangerous circumstances is an opportunity for the formation of oneself and one's life path, self-actualization of the individual. Harmony with oneself contributes to a more holistic and adequate response to various kinds of threats, which is an important factor in the development of the individual and contributes to her psychological security.

The basis of modern models of psychological security is the psychological health of the individual and the possibility of its development - spiritual, moral.

Psychological health is a state of mental well-being as a result of the absence of painful mental manifestations and adequate adaptation to current living conditions. The use of the concept of "psychological health" emphasizes the inseparability of the bodily and mental in a person, the need for both for full functioning, as a result of which O.V. Khukhlaeva draws up a generalized "portrait" of a psychologically healthy person. "A psychologically healthy person is, first of all, a spontaneous and creative person, cheerful and cheerful, open and knowing himself and the world around him not only with his mind, but also with feelings, intuition. He fully accepts himself and at the same time recognizes the value and uniqueness of the people around him "Such a person places responsibility for his life primarily on himself and learns from adverse situations. His life is filled with meaning, although he does not always formulate it for himself. He is in constant development and, of course, contributes to the development of other people. His life the path may not be very easy, and sometimes very difficult, but he perfectly adapts to rapidly changing conditions of life. And what is important - he knows how to be in a situation of uncertainty, trusting what will happen to him tomorrow. " Thus, the word "harmony" or "balance" is chosen as the "key" word for describing psychological health. This is harmony between the various components of the person himself: emotional and intellectual, bodily and mental, and also harmony between the person and the surrounding people, nature, space. At the same time, harmony is considered not as a static state, but as a process. Thus, psychological health is a dynamic set of human mental properties that ensure harmony between the needs of the individual and society, which are a prerequisite for the orientation of the individual to fulfill his life task.

In the studies of G.S. Nikiforov, the criteria for psychological health are mental processes, states and personality traits.

Mental processes as health criteria are: the maximum approximation of subjective images to the reflected objects of reality (the adequacy of mental reflection), adequate perception of oneself, the ability to concentrate on an object, retaining information in memory, the ability to logically process information, critical thinking, creativity.

Mental states as health criteria include: emotional stability (self-control), maturity of feelings according to age, coping with negative emotions (fear, anger), free, natural expression of feelings and emotions.

Personal properties that determine her health: optimism, concentration (lack of fussiness), poise, morality (honesty), an adequate level of claims, a sense of duty, self-confidence, insensitivity (the ability to get rid of hidden grievances), independence, spontaneity (naturalness), feeling humor, benevolence, self-respect, adequate self-esteem, self-control, activity, purposefulness (finding the meaning of life).

Summary

Psychological security is a state of dynamic balance of the subject's relations to the world, himself, others, his activity and satisfaction, corresponding to various (threatening) influences of the external and internal world, which allows the subject to maintain integrity, self-develop, realize their own goals and values ​​in the process of life. The criteria for psychological safety are the integrity of a person (physical, psychological, mental), personal growth and development of a person. The basis of modern models of psychological security is the psychological health of the individual and the possibility of its development.

2. Personal qualities that determine psychological safety

A secure person has the following qualities:

Individual typological features (critical thinking, attentiveness, the predominance of the volitional sphere, emotional stability, the ability to counteract fatigue, creative thinking, etc.).

Personal characteristics (adequate self-esteem (self-attitude), self-actualization, cognitive complexity, reflection, a high level of self-awareness, self-confidence, adaptability, self-affirmation activity, communication, identity (reflects the integrity of the individual), responsibility, "flexible" consciousness, the ability to self-development, resilience, self-control and self-confidence, etc.).

Subjective (social-psychological) features (subjectivity, a formed system of semantic regulation of life, etc.).

A safe personality can be conceptually defined as a person who builds his life in the context of unity with society and nature, realizes his potential, his ideals and aspirations with the help of a formed system of semantic regulation of life, and also has a readiness to ensure security and is able to maintain his security due to transformation of dangers into a factor of own development.

The type of psychological security is a certain variant of the ratio (or a set of features) of the subject's relations (to the world, himself, others), his activity and satisfaction.

A person's attitude to the world, his activity and satisfaction exist in close relationship with the deep dispositions and orientations of the personality. Dispositions and orientations, as structural formations of a personality, are components of the internal resources of the subject's capabilities, his personal potential. Thus, personal potential is the basis of psychological security. In turn, personal potential includes the qualities of a person's subjectivity.

Subjectivity is a psychological formation, the basis of which is a person's attitude towards himself as a doer. The attitude of a person towards himself as a doer implies recognition and acceptance not only in himself, but also in another person of activity, consciousness associated with the ability to set goals and reflection, freedom of choice and responsibility for it, uniqueness. Subjectivity factors are motivation with a humanistic orientation and an internal locus of control and a positive, flexible, open self-concept. Taken together, they determine the internal conditions for the development of a person's attitude towards himself as a doer. Subjectivity arises and develops as a result of the interaction of people in the implementation of activities.

One of the possible grounds for systematizing the characteristics of subjectness can be a structure that includes static, dynamic and productive components.

The static component of subjectivity is a set of worldview positions, self-consciousness, objective attitude towards oneself, ideas about oneself as a strong personality with sufficient freedom of choice to build one’s life in accordance with one’s goals and ideas about its meaning, beliefs that a person is given control over his life, freely make decisions and implement them. Value-semantic and spiritual-moral orientations act as the main components of the considered component.

The dynamic component of subjectivity includes different types of activity - self-regulation, cognition, actions aimed at the implementation of value-semantic orientations. The main components of the component under consideration are self-regulation, the need for knowledge, the realization of external and internal values, and personal growth.

The effective component of subjectivity is characterized by self-realization, reaching the pinnacle in development. The main components of the considered component are resilience, self-efficacy, autonomy.

Summary

Personal qualities that determine psychological safety are divided into individual psychological (critical thinking, mindfulness, predominance of the volitional sphere, emotional stability), personal (adequate self-esteem, self-actualization, cognitive complexity, reflection, high level of self-consciousness) and socio-psychological (subjectivity). An important characteristic that determines the safety of a person is his subjectivity.

3. Individual psychological characteristics of a person "predisposed to danger"

Indicators of a person's predisposition to danger:

Anthropological features (lack of necessary physical data).

Individual typological features (emotional instability, emotional tension, low attention properties, low endurance, insufficient sensorimotor coordination, low powers of observation, etc.).

Personal characteristics (excessively high or low propensity to risk, inadequate attitude to danger (lack of anxiety or hyperbole of anxiety), self-confidence, low adaptability, low psychological flexibility, rigidity (personal), lack of desire for development, gullibility, inability to foresee danger, victim qualities, increased suggestibility, cognitive simplicity, deformations in the value-semantic sphere, violation of self-regulation, constant dissatisfaction, the presence of an inferiority complex, low self-confidence, low degree of integration of the picture of the world, low degree of integration of the image of the "I", low volitional potential of the individual, the presence of inadequate ways to meet needs, the loss of the meaning of life, the loss of a sense of the intrinsic value of life, etc.)

Socio-psychological features (tendency to illegal actions, low discipline, disrespect for authority, independence, disrespect and lack of sensitivity to other people, low socio-psychological competence (communicative, perceptual, interactive), passivity, inability to resist the will of another, loss of subjectivity, autonomy and etc.).

Let's take a closer look at some of these features.

Emotional instability is manifested by mood swings, impulsiveness, inconsistency in actions, lack of self-control, affective outbursts, and excessive irritability. Moreover, these properties are manifested constantly, regardless of the situation, natural fluctuations or stress factors. From the outside, it seems that a person simply cannot control himself.

People with emotional instability often cannot cope with their dissatisfaction with what is happening, they are looking for reasons to get a discharge of their emotions. At the same time, they do not tolerate objections or criticism, they are overly impatient and intolerant of other people's opinions.

Changeability of mood and instability of emotional reactions was noted in the works of K.K. Platonov and L.M. Schwartz, who are emotionally unstable include hyperexcitable, sensitive people prone to frequent changes in emotional states. They indicate the specifics of the dynamics of the emotional sphere, as well as the volitional qualities of the individual.

The same opinion about emotional instability is shared by V.G. Norakidze, describing it with the help of the mechanism of changing emotions of opposite signs. In the works of V.G. Norakidze, P.B. Gannushkin and A.E. Lichko indicator of emotional instability is used to diagnose various mental illnesses.

Emotional instability correlates with the dynamism of moods and emotions in the studies of N.D. Levitova. It was Levitov who considered her as a character trait.

The predominance of negative emotional assessments as a feature of emotional instability was in the works of D. Watson and L. Clark, where it was noted that people with such accentuation are characterized by high negative affectivity, experiencing discomfort for a long period in many situations that do not even carry a threat.

Propensity for risky behavior. In the psychological literature, there are two approaches to the study of the concept of "risk". In the first case, risk is regarded as a focus on a particularly attractive goal, the achievement of which is associated with physical danger, in the second case, risk means making an alternative choice in a situation of uncertainty, where success/failure depends on chance, and failure manifests itself in failure to achieve the desired result.

The first approach is focused on the analysis of such cases when the subject chooses more dangerous goals or more dangerous ways to achieve them compared to other goals or ways in which such a danger is less or completely absent.

In the second approach, the problem of risk is considered in connection with the difficulties of choice and the dangers of not achieving the goal due to poor choice. Here, risk is already regarded as a gambling decision-making process, as an act of preferring hard-to-reach goals to the detriment of goals, the achievement of which is guaranteed. In line with this approach, general cases of alternative choice are studied, when the subject is aimed at achieving the goal (or avoiding failure) and there are different chances of success and failure. It allows you to determine such an important quality of a person as the level of her claims, which is of great importance when interpreting the subject's behavior in conditions of danger. These qualities are reflected in the general strategy of his behavior in emergency situations and turn out to be no less important than the qualities of self-preservation, manifested in conditions of immediate physical danger.

Risk may be the goal of an activity, for example, when a person specifically takes risks just to make sure or show others that he is not afraid of danger. In this case, risk is a means of self-affirmation or creating a desired opinion about oneself. Risk can also act as a motive, in cases where a person himself chooses a dangerous situation for the sake of the risk itself and the thrills associated with it. Sometimes people talk about risk as some kind of need, manifested in the attraction to danger inherent in people who are prone to risk. Thus, risk can perform various psychological functions, manifest itself in different ways in activity, and affect its course and results in different ways.

Risky behavior is determined, on the one hand, by objectively acting situational factors, and on the other hand, by the individual qualities of the subject.

There are two types of risk:

) motivated (situational) - for the sake of achieving certain benefits (winning, obtaining approval, etc.). Such a risk is a means of adaptation, adaptation to a dangerous situation;

) unmotivated, aimed at counteracting the danger, at its elimination.

In this case, when meeting with danger, a person seeks to show that it can be resisted, and therefore, to prove that it simply does not exist for him. Therefore, he does not refuse risk, but specifically chooses a course of action that is considered dangerous in order to prove that he is capable of ensuring safety in this situation as well. The manifestation of unmotivated risk is facilitated by the prevailing social attitudes that affirm the value of such a strategy of behavior (this is also confirmed by the sayings: "risk is a noble cause", "a coward does not risk", etc.). By demonstrating such a strategy of behavior, a person, as it were, joins social norms, sacrificing his individual interests, neglecting his personal safety.

The analysis of behavior in emergency situations and the frequency of accidents can also be determined by such an individual feature as readiness for risk. With age, the willingness to take risks decreases, for more experienced workers it is lower than for less experienced ones; in women it is realized in more specific situations than in men. The nature of work activity also affects the readiness for risk, for example, it is higher among the military than among students.

In addition, social factors matter. Thus, the growth of the subject's rejection increases his willingness to take risks; in a group, the willingness to take risks is more pronounced than when acting alone. The indicator of readiness for risk includes, along with individual qualities, also various situational factors arising from the real conditions of activity.

Self-confidence - excessive, excessive confidence in oneself, in one's infallibility, in one's own strengths, capabilities and concomitant luck. It should be distinguished from the concept of "self-confidence" - a personality trait, the core of which is a positive assessment by the individual of his own skills and abilities as sufficient to achieve significant goals for him and meet his needs. Self-confidence and self-confidence can lead to a negative assessment of the individual by others, the emergence of difficult and dangerous situations.

Victimization (from lat. victima - victim; victim complex, victim role) - the subject's tendency to conduct behavior that increases the chances of committing a crime against him. Victimization as a deviation from the norms of safe behavior is realized in a combination of social (status characteristics of role victims and behavioral deviations from the norms of individual and social security), mental (pathological victimization, fear of crime and other anomalies) and moral (internalization of victimogenic norms, rules of behavior of victim and criminal subculture, victim intrapersonal conflicts) manifestations.

Victim qualities characterize the motivation of human behavior. For example, excessive achievement motivation, combined with an overestimated self-esteem of a person, leads to the emergence of a "shift to risk" already as a victim quality, a tendency to but justified and unjustified risky behavior. Cognitive victim qualities are associated with deficiencies in attention (difficulties in the distribution and concentration of attention), perception, thinking (rigidity of thinking, its lack of flexibility and efficiency, low intelligence) and imagination. Emotional victim qualities - emotional imbalance and impulsiveness, increased anxiety and fear, a tendency to affective response. Some qualities that characterize the motor activity of an employee can be attributed to the victim ones: slow reaction, insufficient dexterity in movements, violations of the connection between the cognitive and motor components of the activity, a tendency to inhibitory reactions. Among the victim include a number of socio-psychological qualities shown by employees in professional communication: excessive gullibility, over-conformity, increased suggestibility, shyness, arrogance, aggressiveness, rudeness, cruelty, etc.

Summary

Personal qualities that determine her "predisposition to danger" are divided into anthropological (lack of necessary physical data), individual typological (emotional instability, low endurance), personal (excessively high or low propensity to risk, inadequate attitude to danger, self-confidence, victim qualities) and socio-psychological (passivity, inability to resist the will of another, loss of subjectivity, autonomy).

4. Psychological aspects of human behavior in an emergency

An emergency situation is a situation in a certain territory that has developed as a result of an accident, a natural hazard, a catastrophe, a natural or other disaster, including the use by a potential enemy of weapons that may (or have) caused human casualties, damage to human health or the environment. natural environment, significant material losses and violation of the living conditions of people.

Along with various damaging factors, people in extreme emergency situations are also affected by psycho-traumatic circumstances, which are usually a complex of superstrong stimuli that cause mental impairment in the form of reactive (psychogenic) states.

The psychogenic impact of extreme conditions consists not only of a direct, immediate threat to human life, but also indirect, associated with the expectation of its implementation. Emergencies cause great emotional excitement in people, require high moral and psychological stamina, endurance and determination, readiness to provide assistance to the victims. The psychologically unprepared have a feeling of fear and the desire to escape from a dangerous place, while others have a psychological shock, accompanied by muscle numbness. At this moment, the process of normal thinking is disrupted, the control of consciousness over feelings and will is weakened or completely lost. Nervous processes (excitation or inhibition) manifest themselves in different ways. For example, some pupils dilate - they say, "the eyes of fear are large", breathing is disturbed, the heartbeat begins - "the heart is ready to burst out of the chest", spasms of peripheral blood vessels - "turned white as chalk", cold sweat appears, muscles weaken - "fell hands or knees buckled", the timbre of the voice changes, and sometimes the gift of speech is lost. There are even cases of death with sudden fear from a sharp disruption of the cardiovascular system. This state can be quite long - from several hours to several days.

Rescuers note that during the elimination of the consequences of earthquakes and accidents, one sometimes has to observe people who are in a state of mental depression, who can wander aimlessly through the ruins for a long time. The reasons for such behavior may be the unexpected occurrence of danger, ignorance of the nature and possible consequences of a natural disaster or accident, the rules of conduct in this situation, lack of experience and skills in dealing with the elements, poor moral and psychological preparation.

There are the following types of behavior of people in an emergency:

Rational, adaptive human behavior with mental control and management of the emotional state. Such people can remain calm and carry out measures of protection, mutual assistance, and carry out activities that restore the disturbed order of life.

The degree of awareness of the situation and the adequacy of behavior in the event of an emergency are largely determined by individual psychological (critical thinking, mindfulness, the predominance of the volitional sphere, emotional stability), personal (adequate self-esteem, self-actualization, reflection, a high level of self-consciousness) and socio-psychological (subjectivity) personality traits.

The attitude towards an emergency situation is made up of the meaning of danger, which is attributed to it by society, and its personal meaning for a person (Fig. 1).

Rice. 1. Factors in the formation of attitudes towards a dangerous situation

The components of personal meaning are intellectual and emotional perception. A person not only assesses the degree of danger - it causes him emotional experiences.

The emotional side of the attitude to a dangerous situation consists of significance-value and significance-anxiety. Significance-value determines the experiences caused by the expected or achieved success in the activity. Significance-anxiety determines the experiences generated by the difficulties, dangers and consequences of the situation, as a rule, this is a feeling of anxiety. Anxiety is caused by difficulties, dangers and possible consequences of the situation. Anxiety levels may increase in a person who has had a negative experience of dealing with an emergency in the past. On the other hand, lack of professional and life experience, lack of self-confidence and insecurity also generate anxiety.

An individual's awareness of the situation as life-threatening can cause him excessively strong excitement and contribute to a decrease in his psychophysiological capabilities. If the danger is recognized, but not overestimated, then it can contribute to the mobilization of forces.

Thus, the degree of influence of an emergency situation on human behavior is determined by:

· the attitude of the individual to the situation, which consists of its significance for him, the experience of being and interacting in it, as well as the result of this interaction for the individual;

· the social significance of the situation, an indicator of which is the public assessment of the danger of the situation and its consequences for both the individual and society as a whole.

Personal security depends on its ability to self-regulate.

There are four factors, or levels, that determine the possibilities of self-regulation:

) biological properties of a person, manifested in unconscious regulation;

) individual features of mental reflection and mental functions of a person;

) experience, skills, knowledge, as well as the ability to solve various problems safely;

) the orientation of a person, i.e. his motives, interests, attitudes, etc.

The last two factors are formed in the process of training and education. Their action intensifies with the growth of professional and life experience. A significant role is also played by the creative abilities of a person, allowing him to use new methods for safely solving a problem in a wide variety of and unexpected situations. An accident can occur not only due to lack of experience, but also due to negligence - as a result of not using available opportunities due to underestimation of the complexity of tasks and overestimation of one's qualities. The reasons for careless behavior can be incomplete information about dangerous factors, distracting circumstances, excessive self-confidence, which can lead to a decrease in attention, caution, neglect of rules, means of protection. Carelessness increases the possibility of danger.

A person's ability to adequately respond to an emergency situation is determined by his individual characteristics, in particular the properties of the nervous system. The ability to actively work for a long time and counteract fatigue, to emergency mobilization in an emergency, as well as the ability to successfully operate under interference depends on the individual endurance of a person. A person's ability to safely and confidently behave in an emergency is determined by the properties of his temperament. Under these conditions, it is necessary to quickly switch attention and respond to dangerous signals. The behavior of a person in a dangerous situation is also affected by his mental and physical condition. Practice shows that people who are most prone to accidents are aggressive, impulsive, distracted, emotionally unbalanced. The conditions for safe behavior are critical thinking, attentiveness and the predominance of the volitional sphere over the emotional, the ability of a person to compensate for such factors that disrupt activity, such as fatigue, drowsiness and bad mood.

The study of cases of injuries showed that, other things being equal, women, as a rule, are injured by negligence much less often than men, although there are more violations and errors in their work. This is due to their greater diligence and conscientiousness in the implementation of the rules. In men, accidents most often occur due to overestimation of their capabilities, while women usually get into trouble due to insecurity, underestimation of their strengths and abilities, excessive caution. It has been established that women work more reliably and safely than men only as long as they operate under normal conditions. If working conditions become more difficult, unforeseen circumstances arise, or an extreme work regime is established, the reliability and safety of women's work is significantly reduced compared to men. The same thing happens under the influence of fatigue. In addition, women react more sharply than men to social conflicts, domestic troubles, which can have a negative impact on behavior in an emergency.

The issue of psychological readiness for emergency situations deserves special attention. A modern person is more or less prepared for such events as a traffic accident, fire, bandit attack, natural disaster, epidemic, etc., and some people, by virtue of their profession, are on high alert for such events (firefighters, policemen, rescuers, doctors and etc.).

The state of psychological unpreparedness for an adequate perception of emergencies can be explained by the following reasons:

) the uniqueness of the emergency, which creates extreme tension in assessing this event;

) poor preparation of the overwhelming majority of people for rational actions in case of danger;

) the lack of specific information, which often determines the spontaneous and unreasonable behavior of many people, the low threshold of criticality to incoming information (rumors);

) emotional instability, caused, in particular, by directive forms of management, inhibition of one's own initiative, which manifests itself in conditions of violation of control channels (leftover to oneself in difficult conditions is experienced especially acutely).

Summary

The degree of awareness of the situation and the adequacy of behavior in the event of an emergency are largely determined by the individual psychological, personal and socio-psychological qualities of the individual. Types of people's behavior in an emergency: 1) rational, adaptive human behavior with mental control and management of the emotional state of behavior and 2) negative, pathological, characterized by a lack of adaptation to the environment.

5. Post-traumatic stress disorder as a psychological consequence of an emergency

The complex of symptoms observed in those who experienced traumatic stress as a result of an emergency was called "post-traumatic stress disorder" - PTSD (Posttraumatic Stress Disorder).

Traumatic stress is a special form of the general stress response. When stress overloads the psychological, physiological, adaptive capabilities of a person and destroys his defenses, it becomes traumatic. Traumatic stress is a normal reaction to abnormal circumstances. Not every event can cause traumatic stress. Psychological trauma is possible if: the event that occurred is conscious, i.e. a person knows what happened to him and because of what his psychological state worsened, the experience destroys the usual way of life.

However, post-traumatic stress disorder does not occur in all emergency participants. It depends on a number of factors:

· personality traits, the significance of the situation for a person;

· biopsychic characteristics of the individual (features of the nervous system, gender and age characteristics);

· experience of being in an emergency;

· the presence of mental trauma in a person;

· various forms of addictive behavior or inclination to them;

· the absence or presence of support from significant persons.

Not every traumatic event can cause PTSD. There are four characteristics of mental trauma:

) the event that has occurred is recognized, i.e. a person understands the causes of his condition, remembers the traumatic event itself and sees the possible consequences of the trauma for himself, his loved ones, etc.;

) the traumatic event is caused by external circumstances;

) the traumatic situation destroys the habitual way of life for a person;

) the experienced event causes horror, a feeling of helplessness, impotence.

Post-traumatic stress disorder can develop following traumatic events that are outside of normal human experience.

The stressors that cause PTSD include: natural disasters, man-made disasters, as well as events that are the result of targeted, often criminal activities (sabotage, terrorist attacks, torture, mass violence, military operations, getting into a "hostage" situation, destruction of one's own home and etc.). There are the following types of PTSD:

) acute, developing in terms of up to three months;

) chronic, lasting more than three months;

) delayed, when the disorder occurred six or more months after the injury.

Post-traumatic stress disorder affects the rest of a person’s life, therefore, correction of this condition is required in order to mitigate its consequences.

The stages of formation of post-stress disorders are shown in fig. 2.

Rice. 2. Stages of formation of post-stress disorders

(Source: Solomin V.P., Shatrovoy O.V., Mikhailov L.A., Malikova T.V. Psychological safety. - M., 2008)

The dynamics of psychopathological consequences is considered in three aspects:

) awareness of a traumatic reality;

) long-term pathological changes in the psyche of participants in an emergency - mental and psychosomatic disorders (disturbances in the body under the influence of negative psychological influences);

) social behavior disorders.

After the first affective-shock (acute) reactions, signs of primary traumatic ego-stress appear:

frustration regression. The fact of being in an emergency situation is accompanied by an automatic decrease in the psyche to the level of a puberty crisis, which is manifested in emphasized discipline, subordination, subordination, while the likelihood of violent outbreaks of destructive or chaotic foolish behavior, confusion of speech increases. A special place is occupied by the frustration of the needs of self-determination (restriction of rights and freedom).

The affect of painful bewilderment, which is characteristic of the initial period of ego-stress and reflects the presence of persistent and unsuccessful attempts to comprehend a new, psycho-traumatic reality.

The affect of psychalgia is an inexpressible experience of mental pain, suffering, which is characterized by duration, secrecy with a touch of recognition of hopelessness, irrevocable. Prolonged psychalgia can cause outwardly unmotivated outbreaks of alcohol and substance abuse excesses, suicides. This is possible in an emergency of any nature.

Among the first psychopathological consequences of emergencies include:

· painful experiences of guilt, shame, disgust;

· episodic experiences of horror, paralyzing fear under the influence of a deterrent factor;

· the emergence and development of "survivor's guilt", "corporate guilt" and the expectation of punishment for what happened;

· situational phobias and the formation of a phobic syndrome with elements of narcissism and regression.

Then the process of psychosomatic disability develops, the loss of health progresses, the duration and quality of life of all participants in the emergency decreases, alcohol and drug addiction develops, and the number of suicides increases.

From the remote psychopathological consequences of emergencies, there are:

· affective disorders (inability to rejoice);

· the gradual transition of psychosomatic disorders to the chronic stage and the formation of serious diseases - hypertension and peptic ulcer;

· loss of professionalism and intellectual performance;

· the rapid development of alcoholism (unbridled drunkenness, loss of the ability to adequately respond emotionally, a tendency to anxious and suspicious mood);

· a steady increase in antisocial psychopathy.

Thus, the immediate and long-term psychopathological consequences of traumatic situations are manifested in a variety of mental and psychosomatic disorders, a steady increase in social maladaptation, psychopathological disorders, disability, and premature death.

All of the above indicates that the core of the dynamics of the personality of a participant in a traumatic situation is neurotic evolution. There are several options for the pathological development of personality:

· alienation - alienation, severing ties with universal reality, autistic personality deformation;

· psychosomatic evolution, atypical for age, that is, the development of somatic diseases that occur under normal conditions at a much later age;

· substance abuse evolution - the development of dependence on various psychoactive substances (surfactants);

· epileptoid deformation, which is expressed in the formation of a gloomy and dreary mood, anger, potential readiness for unmotivated destructive outbursts of aggression.

The following symptoms of PTSD are observed: re-experiencing, avoidance, physiological hyperactivation.

The symptom of re-experiencing includes:

· constant, repetitive experiences of an event that a person tries to forget, but everything around him constantly, in one form or another, reminds of him;

· recurring nightmares duplicating the traumatic situation;

· intense negative experiences when confronted with something that resembles a traumatic event;

· physiological reactivity (stomach cramps, headaches that occur when reminded of an event).

The symptom of avoidance is manifested in the fact that the traumatic experience is repressed. A person tends not to get into such situations, avoids thoughts, conversations, actions, people, reminiscent of the experience. He has a feeling of alienation, detachment, a feeling of loneliness, he loses the ability to establish close and friendly relations with others, and often already established ties are destroyed. The level of aggression rises.

Physiological hyperactivation is manifested in the difficulty of falling asleep and concentrating, increased irritability, constant readiness to escape.

Summary

Post-traumatic stress disorder occurs when stress exceeds the psychological, physiological, adaptive capabilities of a person and destroys the defense. The manifestation of post-traumatic stress disorder depends on the characteristics of the individual, the significance of the situation for the person; its features of the nervous system; experience of being in an emergency; the presence of mental trauma; various forms of addictive behavior; the absence or presence of support from significant persons. Dynamics of psychopathological consequences of emergencies: awareness of psychotraumatic reality; mental and psychosomatic disorders; social behavior disorders.

6. Psychological means of protecting the individual from dangers

Psychological protection is an activity that prevents the violation of the internal stability of the individual and the social community, the normal course of the psychological life of a person and his behavior under the influence of external influences.

Psychological protection is divided into social-group and individual-personal.

Social group protection is determined by the presence of information flows within and between formal and informal groups in which the individual interacts, group norms, requirements and a system of sanctions. It assumes the security of a particular group.

Individual-personal protection - the degree of personal protection of the individual. It is provided by a complex of protective mechanisms of the personality, strategies of behavior and interaction with others and is divided into three main groups: interpersonal protection, mental self-regulation and intrapersonal protection (Fig. 3).

Interpersonal psychological defense is an activity of the individual in order to maintain its integrity by changing the nature of external interaction.

There are several types of protection against external influences. They are divided according to the level of awareness, the number of subjects of protection, in relation to objective reality.

According to the level of awareness, intentional and unintentional defense are distinguished.

Deliberate protection is carried out at a conscious level in accordance with the goals and intentions of those who are affected. An individual who is affected by certain external stimuli and circumstances consciously chooses a certain type of defensive behavior aimed at resolving the situation.

Rice. 3. Individual-personal means of protection

(Source: Solomin V.P., Shatrovoy O.V., Mikhailov L.A., Malikova T.V. Psychological safety. - M., 2008)

Unintentional defense is behavior associated with a learned stereotype.

According to the number of subjects of protection, individual and group protection are distinguished.

Individual protection is associated with the protective behavior of one person, group protection implies the protective behavior of a group as a subject of interaction. In this case, a whole group of people acts according to a single plan, their behavior is based on a common agreement.

In relation to objective reality, a general and selective defensive strategy is distinguished. With a general strategy, the criticality of the individual in relation to the entire set of external influences is realized. In the case of selective defense, a person is fixed on a specific object of influence and develops a specific reaction to it.

In the process of socialization of the individual, various strategies of behavior are formed, both constructive and passive.

Constructive behavior is active actions to eliminate a traumatic situation, the result of which is an adequate perception of reality. Passivity, non-constructiveness imply escape, escape from a traumatic situation, as a result of which a person has an illusory feeling of security, which does not give confidence in the stability of reality.

Depending on the degree of participation of the individual, behavior is divided into suppression, displacement of negative stimuli from consciousness, avoidance of a disturbing situation (for example, into the fantasy world), search for information, and implementation of direct actions to solve the difficulties that have arisen.

Behavior can be formed in response to a specific situation, in this case it will not necessarily be repeated in the future. However, it can also be long-term, stable, stereotyped, and repetitive. Depending on the goals of behavior, it can be divided according to the focus on oneself or others.

According to the significance of the results, behavior is divided into the regulation of one's own emotional states or the restoration of interpersonal relationships. The forms of manifestation of behavior can be plastic, capable of changing depending on the situation, or they can be formed as stereotypes, be "ossified", rigid.

The strategy of behavior is formed as a result of the systemic interaction of the cognitive (intellectual), emotional and behavioral spheres of the psyche. At the level of the cognitive sphere, the significance of the situation for a person is determined. If it is caused by external circumstances, it is perceived as inevitable. A person may feel personally responsible for the situation, blame himself for its occurrence. At the same time, he either does not see a constructive way out of the current situation, or assesses the significance of the traumatic situation for himself, looking for a positive way out of it. In the event that the responsibility for the occurrence of such a situation is assigned to others, then its resolution becomes their prerogative.

At the level of the emotional sphere, a person's ability to control his emotions is realized. Here the determining role is played by the degree of individual emotional significance of the emergency, the experience of successfully resolving a similar situation in the past, and the readiness of the individual for its occurrence. The emotional perception of what happened depends on these factors, which can vary from maintaining self-control to a state of hysteria or passivity, inaction.

The behavioral response of a person depends on the cognitive assessment of the situation (as a result of thinking about the event) and its emotional perception. The degree of awareness of the critical moment depends on a number of factors: personality traits; physical and social environment; available information; own cognitive structures of reality.

There are two types of cognitive assessment: primary - what can be expected from a stressor - threat or prosperity; secondary - assessment of one's own resources and capabilities to solve the problem.

In accordance with them, a certain strategy of behavior is formed - coping, i.e. development of mechanisms for resolving the situation (Fig. 4). As a result of coping, the assessment of the situation changes, and the person's well-being improves.

Rice. 4 . The process of forming coping behavior

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Psychology of a person's personal security

Personal security of a person and his psychology. In the prevention of criminal events, a certain place belongs to the understanding by the person himself of the need to ensure personal security. It is based on the picture of the world that he has formed for himself, and the place that he consciously or unconsciously assigned to himself in this picture. The more objectively and accurately a person reflects the laws that govern the processes and states of things happening around him and with him, the safer his position in the world around him. This is based on knowledge of the patterns of being, but no less, and often more important is an accurate intuitive feeling or understanding of the general direction of the course of events.

Of particular importance is the ability anticipate the consequences of developments, in which a person finds himself, especially if these consequences are colored by a sense of danger both for himself and for the people associated with him. For example, the conclusion of dubious transactions can bring trouble to completely uninvolved persons. The best protection against danger is the ability to anticipate it both in the situation itself and in its consequences and take the right actions. However, inaction can be no less effective means of protection, i.e. the absence of any or at least expressed actions in response to the current situation.

Any action introduces additional perturbations into the situation, and if its consequences are not realized, then the results can be unexpected, including dangerous. The difficulty of not taking any action (inaction) lies in the fact that some situations seem to hurt, draw a person in, provoke him to react. At the same time, they arise and develop according to their own laws, which are not always well known to man. Situations can be exhausted or fade away by themselves, without active intervention. Therefore, it is important be able to assess the moment when action is an inevitable and necessary way of responding.

A powerful means of ensuring personal security can be knowledge of the psychological laws governing human behavior. Let's point out some of them.

At every moment of his life, a person is included in a certain socio-psychological context, in a certain system of interactions and relations between people, regardless of whether he realizes it or not. His behavior is determined by the degree of awareness, understanding of real relations by him and strongly depends on the degree of their subjective distortion. The higher the degree of such distortion, the less the results of his actions fit into the general context, therefore, the higher the degree of tension in the situation, and hence the sharp increase in the likelihood of an acute and potentially dangerous reaction.

Each person has a basic system of personal values, which he seeks to preserve, strengthen and protect. The main of these values ​​is self-esteem, which is manifested in how a person behaves towards others and what he expects (or requires) from others in relation to himself. Potential danger is felt initially as a threat to self-esteem. Being hurt, this feeling can push a person to the most extreme actions.

The main regulators of interpersonal behavior are such moral and psychological formations as conscience, shame, guilt and responsibility. All of them are essentially interconnected, but the primary and deepest is the feeling of shame. A person with a defect in the sense of shame or with its complete absence is unpredictable in his actions and is completely antisocial. For him, feelings of guilt and responsibility do not exist, and the corresponding words are an empty phrase. The danger often comes from this particular category of people, and they most often do not realize themselves in this capacity.

A strong influence on people's behavior is exerted by informal social norms that exist in the circle where people are brought up and live. Ultimately, they reflect the living conditions of people, established traditions, customs and mores, and together they express the culture of a given community. Society is highly differentiated in terms of the nature of these norms and the strength of their impact. Informal cultural traditions sometimes differ so much that it is almost impossible for representatives of different communities to understand each other: what is allowed (or at least not prohibited) in one culture seems barbaric and wild to representatives of another.

The general principle of the relationship of different cultures - mutual respect, unconditional acceptance of the norms of another community. Only in this psychological context is a conflict-free existence possible.

In the social conditions of the current stage of national history, the problem of finding a position of personal security is only exacerbated. Not everyone can surround themselves with bodyguards and buy an armored car. The weapon of the majority should be another means - knowledge of the mechanisms of relationships between people and a much more thorough understanding of their position in a poorly ordered stream of events and their consequences.

Studying the question of why a person becomes object of aggression leads to a general conclusion: because he became an obstacle in the way of action, the achievement of some goal by another person. This is based on several factors and circumstances, primarily the loss of control over the development of the situation. The loss of such control is not an accidental circumstance and is due either to an unconscious desire to provoke aggression against oneself and get the opportunity to provide active resistance, or to reasons of a deeper nature. Among the latter, it is necessary to include, on the whole, an increased victimization person under certain conditions. The tendency to become the object of attack is mainly due to the fact that the person is the bearer of some hidden guilt, whether he is aware of it or not. Therefore, attacking him (in physical or psychological form) is more of a punishment for something that may not be directly related to the situation in which it occurs. The true roots lie somewhere else or on a different plane. This is about the same as the diseases that some people fall ill with and which are not amenable to any treatment. Such patients themselves almost never realize the causes of their misfortunes, but look for them in something else - in living conditions, other people, etc. Hospitals and prisons are filled with such people. The formation of protection against falling into such situations is a matter of very serious and lengthy work, carried out, as a rule, together with another person, in particular, with a qualified psychologist, psychotherapist, etc.

Psychological safety is the most important condition for the full development of a person, the preservation and strengthening of his psychological health. Psychological health, in turn, is the basis of viability, a condition for success in life and a guarantee of human well-being in life. There are the following main approaches to the study of human security. Psychological security is considered as a person's security, which, along with external, implies internal security conditions, which include elements of the subject's experience ...

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Psychological safety of the individual

1. Psychological safety of the individual: structure, criteria

Issues of psychological security during the period of change in the socio-economic structure and the instability of society are of particular relevance. Psychological safety is the most important condition for the full development of a person, the preservation and strengthening of his psychological health. Psychological health, in turn, is the basis of viability, a condition for success in life and a guarantee of human well-being in life.

Modern science has extensive material on various aspects of psychological security. There are the following main approaches to the study of human security:

1. The initial concept is “the physical environment: external objective impacts”, the sources of danger-security are at the macro level man-made impacts, natural disasters, at the micro level - unfavorable conditions of activity. The object of danger-security is the body, the result is a somatic state (physical integrity), a psychosomatic state.

2. The initial concept is “psychological environment”, the sources of danger-security are at the macro level political, socio-economic threats, information impact, at the micro level - manipulation, insult, threats from others, unstable social ties. The object of danger-security is a person as an object of influence, his psyche, consciousness, behavior, the result is a functional and psychological state.

3. The initial concept is “a person (subject)”, the sources of danger-security are at the macro level the totality of individual psychological and spiritual and moral characteristics of the individual, at the micro level - the attitude towards the world, oneself and others. The object of danger-security is a person as an object of influence, his psyche, consciousness, behavior, the result is psychological health.

The latter direction is one of the most promising, since it is a person (subject), the totality of his individual psychological characteristics, the system of his views, worldviews, attitudes towards the world that creates a certain resource, potential, a set of opportunities that help to overcome various kinds of adverse effects to ensure their security .

Psychological safetyis considered as a person's security, which, along with external, implies internal conditions of security, which include elements of the subject's experience that develop into the ability and readiness to recognize, foresee and avoid dangers, involving at least the possession of relevant knowledge, skills and abilities, a certain level of development of perceptual , mnemonic, intellectual and other abilities, as well as formed motivation to ensure life safety.

Structure of psychological safetyincludes: the attitude of the subject (to himself, society, others), his satisfaction with life and social activity, which creates a space of protection from threats. Thus, psychological security is a state of dynamic balance of the subject's relations to the world, himself, others, his activity and satisfaction, corresponding to various (threatening) influences of the external and internal world. Psychological security allows the subject to maintain integrity, self-develop, realize their own goals and values ​​in the process of life.

Psychological safety criteriabecome individual psychological characteristics of a person, manifested in the conditions of the situation, and the individual experience of a person. The variety of safety criteria is determined by the conditions of the relationship between a person and the environment. One of the defining criteria of security is the integrity of a person: physical, psychological, mental (including spiritual). Another criterion of psychological security is the personal growth and development of a person (as a result of overcoming various kinds of dangers and maintaining integrity). The development of a person in the conditions of overcoming threatening, dangerous circumstances is an opportunity for the formation of oneself and one's life path, self-actualization of the individual. Harmony with oneself contributes to a more holistic and adequate response to various kinds of threats, which is an important factor in the development of the individual and contributes to her psychological security.

The basis of modern models of psychological security is the psychological health of the individual and the possibility of its development - spiritual, moral.

mental health- this is a state of mental well-being as a result of the absence of painful mental manifestations and adequate adaptation to the actual conditions of life. The use of the concept of “mental health” emphasizes the inseparability of the bodily and mental in a person, the need for both for full functioning, as a result of which O.V. Khukhlaeva draws up a generalized "portrait" of a psychologically healthy person. “A psychologically healthy person is, first of all, a spontaneous and creative person, cheerful and cheerful, open and knowing himself and the world around him not only with his mind, but also with feelings, intuition. He fully accepts himself and at the same time recognizes the value and uniqueness of the people around him. Such a person places responsibility for his life primarily on himself and learns from adverse situations. His life is filled with meaning, although he does not always formulate it for himself. He is in constant development and, of course, contributes to the development of other people. His life path may not be entirely easy, and sometimes very difficult, but he perfectly adapts to rapidly changing living conditions. And what is important - he knows how to be in a situation of uncertainty, trusting what will happen to him tomorrow. Thus, the word "harmony" or "balance" is chosen as the "key" word for describing psychological health. This is harmony between the various components of the person himself: emotional and intellectual, bodily and mental, and also harmony between the person and the surrounding people, nature, space. At the same time, harmony is considered not as a static state, but as a process. Thus, psychological health is a dynamic set of human mental properties that ensure harmony between the needs of the individual and society, which are a prerequisite for the orientation of the individual to fulfill his life task.

In the studies of G.S. Nikiforov, the criteria for psychological health are mental processes, states and personality traits.

Mental processes as health criteria are: the maximum approximation of subjective images to the reflected objects of reality (the adequacy of mental reflection), adequate perception of oneself, the ability to concentrate on an object, retaining information in memory, the ability to logically process information, critical thinking, creativity.

Mental states as health criteria include: emotional stability (self-control), maturity of feelings according to age, coping with negative emotions (fear, anger), free, natural expression of feelings and emotions.

Personal properties that determine her health: optimism, concentration (lack of fussiness), poise, morality (honesty), an adequate level of claims, a sense of duty, self-confidence, insensitivity (the ability to get rid of hidden grievances), independence, spontaneity (naturalness), feeling humor, benevolence, self-respect, adequate self-esteem, self-control, activity, purposefulness (finding the meaning of life).

Summary

Psychological security is a state of dynamic balance of the subject's relations to the world, himself, others, his activity and satisfaction, corresponding to various (threatening) influences of the external and internal world, which allows the subject to maintain integrity, self-develop, realize their own goals and values ​​in the process of life.The criteria for psychological safety are the integrity of a person (physical, psychological, mental), personal growth and development of a person. The basis of modern models of psychological security is the psychological health of the individual and the possibility of its development.

2. Personal qualities that determine psychological safety

A secure person has the following qualities:

1. (critical thinking, mindfulness, the predominance of the volitional sphere, emotional stability, the ability to counteract fatigue, creative thinking, etc.).

2. personality traits(adequate self-esteem (self-attitude), self-actualization, cognitive complexity, reflection, a high level of self-awareness, self-confidence, adaptability, self-affirmation activity, communication, identity (reflects the integrity of the individual), responsibility, "flexible" consciousness, the ability to self-development, resilience, self-control and self-confidence, etc.).

3. Subjective (socio-psychological) peculiarities (subjectivity, a formed system of semantic regulation of life, etc.).

A safe personality can be conceptually defined as a person who builds his life in the context of unity with society and nature, realizes his potential, his ideals and aspirations with the help of a formed system of semantic regulation of life, and also has a readiness to ensure security and is able to maintain his security due to transformation of dangers into a factor of own development.

Type of psychological security- this is a certain variant of the correlation (or a set of signs) of the subject's relations (to the world, himself, others), his activity and satisfaction.

A person's attitude to the world, his activity and satisfaction exist in close relationship with the deep dispositions and orientations of the personality. Dispositions and orientations, as structural formations of a personality, are components of the internal resources of the subject's capabilities, his personal potential. Thus, personal potential is the basis of psychological security. In turn, personal potential includes the qualities of a person's subjectivity.

Subjectivity is a psychological formation, the basis of which is the attitude of a person towards himself as a doer. The attitude of a person towards himself as a doer implies recognition and acceptance not only in himself, but also in another person of activity, consciousness associated with the ability to set goals and reflection, freedom of choice and responsibility for it, uniqueness. Subjectivity factors are motivation with a humanistic orientation and an internal locus of control and a positive, flexible, open self-concept. Taken together, they determine the internal conditions for the development of a person's attitude towards himself as a doer. Subjectivity arises and develops as a result of the interaction of people in the implementation of activities.

One of the possible grounds for systematizing the characteristics of subjectness can be a structure that includes static, dynamic and productive components.

The static component of subjectivityis a combination of worldview positions, self-awareness, objective attitude towards oneself, ideas about oneself as a strong personality with sufficient freedom of choice to build one’s life in accordance with one’s goals and ideas about its meaning, beliefs that a person is given control their lives, freely make decisions and implement them. Value-semantic and spiritual-moral orientations act as the main components of the considered component.

Dynamic component of subjectivityincludes different types of activity - self-regulation, cognition, actions aimed at the implementation of value-semantic orientations. The main components of the component under consideration are self-regulation, the need for knowledge, the realization of external and internal values, and personal growth.

Productive component of subjectivitycharacterized by self-realization, reaching the pinnacle in development. The main components of the considered component are resilience, self-efficacy, autonomy.

Summary

Personal qualities that determine psychological safety are divided into individual psychological (critical thinking, mindfulness, predominance of the volitional sphere, emotional stability), personal (adequate self-esteem, self-actualization, cognitive complexity, reflection, high level of self-consciousness) and socio-psychological (subjectivity). An important characteristic that determines the safety of a person is his subjectivity.

3. Individual psychological characteristics of a person "predisposed to danger"

Indicators of a person's predisposition to danger:

1. Anthropological features(lack of necessary physical data).

2. Individual typological features(emotional instability, emotional tension, low attention properties, low endurance, insufficient sensorimotor coordination, low observation, etc.).

3. personality traits(excessively high or low propensity to risk, inadequate attitude to danger (lack of anxiety or hyperbole of anxiety), self-confidence, low adaptability, low psychological flexibility, rigidity (personal), lack of desire for development, gullibility, inability to foresee danger, victim qualities , increased suggestibility, cognitive simplicity, deformations in the value-semantic sphere, violation of self-regulation, constant dissatisfaction, the presence of an inferiority complex, low self-confidence, low degree of integration of the worldview, low degree of integration of the image of the "I", low volitional potential of the individual, the presence of inadequate ways to satisfy needs, loss of the meaning of life, loss of a sense of the intrinsic value of life, etc.)

4. Socio-psychological features(tendency to illegal actions, low discipline, disrespect for authority, independence, disrespect and lack of sensitivity to other people, low socio-psychological competence (communicative, perceptual, interactive), passivity, inability to resist the will of another, loss of subjectivity, autonomy, etc. .).

Let's take a closer look at some of these features.

Emotional instabilitymanifested by mood swings, impulsiveness, inconsistency of actions, lack of self-control, affective outbursts, excessive irritability. Moreover, these properties are manifested constantly, regardless of the situation, natural fluctuations or stress factors. From the outside, it seems that a person simply cannot control himself.

People with emotional instability often cannot cope with their dissatisfaction with what is happening, they are looking for reasons to get a discharge of their emotions. At the same time, they do not tolerate objections or criticism, they are overly impatient and intolerant of other people's opinions.

Changeability of mood and instability of emotional reactions was noted in the works of K.K. Platonov and L.M. Schwartz, which include highly excitable, sensitive people who are prone to frequent changes in emotional states as emotionally unstable. They indicate the specifics of the dynamics of the emotional sphere, as well as the volitional qualities of the individual.

The same opinion about emotional instability is shared by V.G. Norakidze, describing it with the help of the mechanism of changing emotions of opposite signs. In the works of V.G. Norakidze, P.B. Gannushkin and A.E. Lichko indicator of emotional instability is used to diagnose various mental illnesses.

Emotional instability correlates with the dynamism of moods and emotions in the studies of N.D. Levitova. It was Levitov who considered her as a character trait.

The predominance of negative emotional assessments as a feature of emotional instability was in the works of D. Watson and L. Clark, where it was noted that people with such accentuation are characterized by high negative affectivity, experiencing discomfort for a long period in many situations that do not even carry a threat.

Propensity for risky behavior. In the psychological literature, there are two approaches to the study of the concept of "risk". In the first case, risk is regarded as a focus on a particularly attractive goal, the achievement of which is associated with physical danger, in the second case, risk means making an alternative choice in a situation of uncertainty, where success/failure depends on chance, and failure manifests itself in failure to achieve the desired result.

The first approach is focused on the analysis of such cases when the subject chooses more dangerous goals or more dangerous ways to achieve them compared to other goals or ways in which such a danger is less or completely absent.

In the second approach, the problem of risk is considered in connection with the difficulties of choice and the dangers of not achieving the goal due to poor choice. Here, risk is already regarded as a gambling decision-making process, as an act of preferring hard-to-reach goals to the detriment of goals, the achievement of which is guaranteed. In line with this approach, general cases of alternative choice are studied, when the subject is aimed at achieving the goal (or avoiding failure) and there are different chances of success and failure. It allows you to determine such an important quality of a person as the level of her claims, which is of great importance when interpreting the subject's behavior in conditions of danger. These qualities are reflected in the general strategy of his behavior in emergency situations and turn out to be no less important than the qualities of self-preservation, manifested in conditions of immediate physical danger.

Risk may be the goal of an activity, for example, when a person specifically takes risks just to make sure or show others that he is not afraid of danger. In this case, risk is a means of self-affirmation or creating a desired opinion about oneself. Risk can also act as a motive, in cases where a person himself chooses a dangerous situation for the sake of the risk itself and the thrills associated with it. Sometimes people talk about risk as some kind of need, manifested in the attraction to danger inherent in people who are prone to risk. Thus, risk can perform various psychological functions, manifest itself in different ways in activity, and affect its course and results in different ways.

Risky behavior is determined, on the one hand, by objectively acting situational factors, and on the other hand, by the individual qualities of the subject.

There are two types of risk: 1) motivated (situational) - for the sake of achieving certain benefits (winning, obtaining approval, etc.). Such a risk is a means of adaptation, adaptation to a dangerous situation; 2) unmotivated, aimed at counteracting the danger, at its elimination. In this case, when meeting with danger, a person seeks to show that it can be resisted, and therefore, to prove that it simply does not exist for him. Therefore, he does not refuse risk, but specifically chooses a course of action that is considered dangerous in order to prove that he is capable of ensuring safety in this situation as well. The manifestation of unmotivated risk is facilitated by the prevailing social attitudes that affirm the value of such a strategy of behavior (this is also confirmed by the sayings: “risk is a noble cause”, “a coward does not risk”, etc.). By demonstrating such a strategy of behavior, a person, as it were, joins social norms, sacrificing his individual interests, neglecting his personal safety.

The analysis of behavior in emergency situations and the frequency of accidents can also be determined by such an individual feature as readiness for risk. With age, the willingness to take risks decreases, for more experienced workers it is lower than for less experienced ones; in women it is realized in more specific situations than in men. The nature of work activity also affects the readiness for risk, for example, it is higher among the military than among students.

In addition, social factors matter. Thus, the growth of the subject's rejection increases his willingness to take risks; in a group, the willingness to take risks is more pronounced than when acting alone. The indicator of readiness for risk includes, along with individual qualities, also various situational factors arising from the real conditions of activity.

self-confidence- excessive, excessive confidence in oneself, in one's infallibility, in one's own strengths, capabilities and concomitant luck. It should be distinguished from the concept of "self-confidence" - a personality trait, the core of which is a positive assessment by the individual of his own skills and abilities as sufficient to achieve significant goals for him and meet his needs. Self-confidence and self-confidence can lead to a negative assessment of the individual by others, the emergence of difficult and dangerous situations.

Victimization (from lat. victima - victim; victim complex, victim role) - the tendency of the subject to behave, increasing the chances of committing a crime against him. Victimization as a deviation from the norms of safe behavior is realized in a combination of social (status characteristics of role victims and behavioral deviations from the norms of individual and social security), mental (pathological victimization, fear of crime and other anomalies) and moral (internalization of victimogenic norms, rules of behavior of victim and criminal subculture, victim intrapersonal conflicts) manifestations.

Victim qualitiescharacterize the motivation of human behavior. For example, excessive achievement motivation, combined with an overestimated self-esteem of a person, leads to the emergence of a “shift to risk” already as a victim quality, a tendency to but justified and unjustified risky behavior. Cognitive victim qualities are associated with deficiencies in attention (difficulties in the distribution and concentration of attention), perception, thinking (rigidity of thinking, its lack of flexibility and efficiency, low intelligence) and imagination. Emotional victim qualities - emotional imbalance and impulsiveness, increased anxiety and fear, a tendency to affective response. Some qualities that characterize the motor activity of an employee can be attributed to the victim ones: slow reaction, insufficient dexterity in movements, violations of the connection between the cognitive and motor components of the activity, a tendency to inhibitory reactions. Among the victim include a number of socio-psychological qualities shown by employees in professional communication: excessive gullibility, over-conformity, increased suggestibility, shyness, arrogance, aggressiveness, rudeness, cruelty, etc.

Summary

Personal qualities that determine her "predisposition to danger" are divided into anthropological (lack of necessary physical data), individual typological (emotional instability, low endurance), personal (excessively high or low propensity to risk, inadequate attitude to danger, self-confidence, victim qualities) and socio-psychological (passivity, inability to resist the will of another, loss of subjectivity, autonomy).

4. Psychological aspects of human behavior in an emergency

Emergency– the situation in a certain territory that has developed as a result of an accident, natural hazard, catastrophe, natural or other disaster, including the use by a potential enemy of weapons that may (or have) caused human casualties, damage to human health or the natural environment, significant material losses and violation of the living conditions of people.

Along with various damaging factors, people in extreme emergency situations are also affected by psycho-traumatic circumstances, which are usually a complex of superstrong stimuli that cause mental impairment in the form of reactive (psychogenic) states.

The psychogenic impact of extreme conditions consists not only of a direct, immediate threat to human life, but also indirect, associated with the expectation of its implementation.Emergencies cause great emotional excitement in people, require high moral and psychological stamina, endurance and determination, readiness to provide assistance to the victims. The psychologically unprepared have a feeling of fear and the desire to escape from a dangerous place, while others have a psychological shock, accompanied by muscle numbness. At this moment, the process of normal thinking is disrupted, the control of consciousness over feelings and will is weakened or completely lost. Nervous processes (excitation or inhibition) manifest themselves in different ways. For example, some pupils dilate - they say, “fear has large eyes”, breathing is disturbed, the heartbeat begins - “the heart is ready to burst out of the chest”, spasms of peripheral blood vessels - “turned white as chalk”, cold sweat appears, muscles weaken - “fell hands or knees are bent”, the timbre of the voice changes, and sometimes the gift of speech is lost. There are even cases of death with sudden fear from a sharp disruption of the cardiovascular system. This condition can be quite long - from several hours to several days.

Rescuers note that during the elimination of the consequences of earthquakes and accidents, one sometimes has to observe people who are in a state of mental depression, who can wander aimlessly through the ruins for a long time. The reasons for such behavior may be the unexpected occurrence of danger, ignorance of the nature and possible consequences of a natural disaster or accident, the rules of conduct in this situation, lack of experience and skills in dealing with the elements, poor moral and psychological preparation.

There are the following types of behavior of people in an emergency:

1. Rational, adaptive human behavior with mental control and management of the emotional state. Such people can remain calm and carry out measures of protection, mutual assistance, and carry out activities that restore the disturbed order of life.

2. Irrational behavior of a negative, pathological nature, which is characterized by a lack of adaptation to the environment. In this case, “shock inhibition” may occur, when a mass of people become confused and lack of initiative, or even simply distraught. A special case of "shock inhibition" is panic, when the fear of danger takes possession of a group of people.

The degree of awareness of the situation and the adequacy of behavior in the event of an emergency are largely determined by individual psychological (critical thinking, mindfulness, the predominance of the volitional sphere, emotional stability), personal (adequate self-esteem, self-actualization, reflection, a high level of self-consciousness) and socio-psychological (subjectivity) personality traits.

Relation to the emergencyconsists of the meaning of danger, which is attributed to it by society, and its personal meaning for a person (Fig. 1).

Rice. 1. Factors in the formation of attitudes towards a dangerous situation

The components of personal meaning are intellectual and emotional perception. A person not only assesses the degree of danger - it causes him emotional experiences.

The emotional side of the attitude to a dangerous situation consists of significance-value and significance-anxiety. Significance-value determines the experiences caused by the expected or achieved success in the activity. Significance-anxiety determines the experiences generated by the difficulties, dangers and consequences of the situation, as a rule, this is a feeling of anxiety. Anxiety is caused by difficulties, dangers and possible consequences of the situation. Anxiety levels may increase in a person who has had a negative experience of dealing with an emergency in the past. On the other hand, lack of professional and life experience, lack of self-confidence and insecurity also generate anxiety.

An individual's awareness of the situation as life-threatening can cause him excessively strong excitement and contribute to a decrease in his psychophysiological capabilities. If the danger is recognized, but not overestimated, then it can contribute to the mobilization of forces.

Thus, the degree of influence of an emergency situation on human behavior is determined by:

• the attitude of the individual to the situation, which consists of its significance for him, the experience of being and interacting in it, as well as the result of this interaction for the individual;
• the social significance of the situation, an indicator of which is the public assessment of the danger of the situation and its consequences for both the individual and society as a whole.

Personal security depends on its ability to self-regulate.

There are four factors, or levels, that determine the possibilities of self-regulation: 1) the biological properties of a person, manifested in unconscious regulation; 2) individual features of mental reflection and mental functions of a person; 3) experience, skills, knowledge, as well as the ability to solve various problems safely; 4) the orientation of a person, i.e. his motives, interests, attitudes, etc.

The last two factors are formed in the process of training and education. Their action intensifies with the growth of professional and life experience. A significant role is also played by the creative abilities of a person, allowing him to use new methods for safely solving a problem in a wide variety of and unexpected situations. An accident can occur not only due to lack of experience, but also through negligence - as a result of not using available opportunities due to underestimation of the complexity of tasks and overestimation of one's qualities. The reasons for careless behavior can be incomplete information about dangerous factors, distracting circumstances, excessive self-confidence, which can lead to a decrease in attention, caution, neglect of rules, means of protection. Carelessness increases the possibility of danger.

A person's ability to adequately respond to an emergency situation is determined by his individual characteristics, in particular the properties of the nervous system. The ability to actively work for a long time and counteract fatigue, to emergency mobilization in an emergency, as well as the ability to successfully operate under interference depends on the individual endurance of a person. A person's ability to safely and confidently behave in an emergency is determined by the properties of his temperament. Under these conditions, it is necessary to quickly switch attention and respond to dangerous signals. The behavior of a person in a dangerous situation is also affected by his mental and physical condition. Practice shows that people who are most prone to accidents are aggressive, impulsive, distracted, emotionally unbalanced. The conditions for safe behavior are critical thinking, attentiveness and the predominance of the volitional sphere over the emotional, the ability of a person to compensate for such factors that disrupt activity, such as fatigue, drowsiness and bad mood.

The study of cases of injuries showed that, other things being equal, women, as a rule, are injured by negligence much less often than men, although there are more violations and errors in their work. This is due to their greater diligence and conscientiousness in the implementation of the rules. In men, accidents most often occur due to overestimation of their capabilities, while women usually get into trouble due to insecurity, underestimation of their strengths and abilities, excessive caution. It has been established that women work more reliably and safely than men only as long as they operate under normal conditions. If working conditions become more difficult, unforeseen circumstances arise, or an extreme work regime is established, the reliability and safety of women's work is significantly reduced compared to men. The same thing happens under the influence of fatigue. In addition, women react more sharply than men to social conflicts, domestic troubles, which can have a negative impact on behavior in an emergency.

The issue of psychological readiness for emergency situations deserves special attention. A modern person is more or less prepared for such events as a traffic accident, fire, bandit attack, natural disaster, epidemic, etc., and some people, by virtue of their profession, are on high alert for such events (firefighters, policemen, rescuers, doctors and etc.).

The state of psychological unpreparedness for an adequate perception of emergencies can be explained by the following reasons:

1) the uniqueness of the emergency, which creates extreme stress when assessing this event;

2) poor preparation of the overwhelming majority of people for rational actions in case of danger;

3) the lack of specific information, which often determines the spontaneous and unreasonable behavior of many people, the low threshold of criticality to incoming information (rumors);

4) emotional instability, caused, in particular, by directive forms of management, inhibition of one's own initiative, which manifests itself in conditions of violation of control channels (leftover to oneself in difficult conditions is experienced especially acutely).

Summary

The degree of awareness of the situation and the adequacy of behavior in the event of an emergency are largely determined by the individual psychological, personal and socio-psychological qualities of the individual. Types of people's behavior in an emergency: 1) rational, adaptive human behavior with mental control and management of the emotional state of behavior and 2) negative, pathological, characterized by a lack of adaptation to the environment.

5. Post-traumatic stress disorder as a psychological consequence of an emergency

The complex of symptoms observed in those who experienced traumatic stress as a result of an emergency was called “post-traumatic stress disorder” - PTSD (Posttraumatic Stress Disorder).

traumatic stress- a special form of general stress reaction. When stress overloads the psychological, physiological, adaptive capabilities of a person and destroys his defenses, it becomes traumatic. Traumatic stress is a normal reaction to abnormal circumstances. Not every event can cause traumatic stress. Psychological trauma is possible if: the event that occurred is conscious, i.e. a person knows what happened to him and because of what his psychological state worsened, the experience destroys the usual way of life.

However, post-traumatic stress disorder does not occur in all emergency participants. It depends on a number of factors:

• personality traits, the significance of the situation for a person;
• biopsychic characteristics of the individual (features of the nervous system, gender and age characteristics);
• experience of being in an emergency;
• the presence of mental trauma in a person;
• various forms of addictive behavior or inclination to them;
• the absence or presence of support from significant persons.

Not every traumatic event can cause PTSD. Allocate fourcharacteristics of mental trauma:

1) the event that has occurred is realized, i.e. the person understands the reasons for his condition, remembers the traumatic event itself and sees the possible consequences of the injury for himself, his loved ones, etc.;

2) the traumatic event is caused by external circumstances;

3) the traumatic situation destroys the habitual way of life for a person;

4) the experienced event causes horror, a feeling of helplessness, impotence.

Post-traumatic stress disorder can develop following traumatic events that are outside of normal human experience.

The stressors that cause PTSD include: natural disasters, man-made disasters, as well as events that are the result of targeted, often criminal activities (sabotage, terrorist attacks, torture, mass violence, military operations, getting into a “hostage” situation, destruction of one’s own home and etc.). There are the following types PTSD:

1) acute, developing in terms of up to three months;

2) chronic, lasting more than three months;

3) delayed, when the disorder occurred six or more months after the injury.

Post-traumatic stress disorder affects the rest of a person’s life, therefore, correction of this condition is required in order to mitigate its consequences. The stages of formation of post-stress disorders are shown in Fig. 2.

Rice. 2. Stages of formation of post-stress disorders

(Source: Solomin V.P., Shatrovoy O.V., Mikhailov L.A., Malikova T.V. Psychological safety. - M., 2008)

The dynamics of psychopathological consequences is considered in three aspects:

1) awareness of a traumatic reality;

2) long-term pathological changes in the psyche of participants in an emergency - mental and psychosomatic disorders (disturbances in the body under the influence of negative psychological influences);

3) social behavior disorders.

After the first affective-shock (acute) reactions, signs of primary traumatic ego-stress appear:

1. Frustration Regression. The fact of being in an emergency situation is accompanied by an automatic decrease in the psyche to the level of a puberty crisis, which is manifested in emphasized discipline, subordination, subordination, while the likelihood of violent outbreaks of destructive or chaotic foolish behavior, confusion of speech increases. A special place is occupied by the frustration of the needs of self-determination (restriction of rights and freedom).

2. The affect of painful bewilderment, which is typical for the initial period of ego-stress and reflects the presence of persistent and unsuccessful attempts to comprehend a new, psycho-traumatic reality.

3. Psychalgia affect- an inexpressible experience of mental pain, suffering, which is characterized by duration, secrecy with a touch of recognition of hopelessness, irrevocable. Prolonged psychalgia can cause outwardly unmotivated outbreaks of alcohol and substance abuse excesses, suicides. This is possible in an emergency of any nature.

Among the first psychopathological consequences of emergencies include:

• painful experiences of guilt, shame, disgust;
• episodic experiences of horror, paralyzing fear under the influence of a deterrent factor;
• the emergence and development of "survivor's guilt", "corporate guilt" and the expectation of punishment for what happened;
• situational phobias and the formation of a phobic syndrome with elements of narcissism and regression.

Then the process of psychosomatic disability develops, the loss of health progresses, the duration and quality of life of all participants in the emergency decreases, alcohol and drug addiction develops, and the number of suicides increases.

From the remote psychopathological consequences of emergencies, there are:

• affective disorders (inability to rejoice);
• gradual transition of psychosomatic disorders to the chronic stage and the formation of serious diseases - hypertension and peptic ulcer;
• steady growth of social maladaptation (separation, alienation, autism);
• loss of professionalism and intellectual performance;
• the rapid development of alcoholism (unbridled drunkenness, loss of the ability to adequately respond emotionally, a tendency to anxious and suspicious mood);
• a steady increase in antisocial psychopathy.

Thus, the immediate and long-term psychopathological consequences of traumatic situations are manifested in a variety of mental and psychosomatic disorders, a steady increase in social maladaptation, psychopathological disorders, disability, and premature death.

All of the above indicates that the core of the dynamics of the personality of a participant in a traumatic situation is neurotic evolution. There are several options for the pathological development of personality:

• alienation - Alienation, rupture of ties with universal reality, autistic deformation of the personality;
• psychosomatic evolution, atypical for age, i.e., the development of somatic diseases that occur under normal conditions at a much later age;
• substance abuse evolution- development of dependence on various psychoactive substances (PSA);
• epileptoid deformity, which is expressed in the formation of a gloomy and dreary mood, anger, potential readiness for unmotivated destructive outbursts of aggression.

The following symptoms of PTSD are observed: re-experiencing, avoidance, physiological hyperactivation.

Re-experiencing symptomincludes:

• constant, repetitive experiences of an event that a person tries to forget, but everything around him constantly, in one form or another, reminds of him;
• recurring nightmares duplicating the traumatic situation;
• intense negative experiences when confronted with something that resembles a traumatic event;
• physiological reactivity (stomach cramps, headaches that occur when reminded of an event).

avoidance symptommanifests itself in the fact that the traumatic experience is repressed. A person tends not to get into such situations, avoids thoughts, conversations, actions, people, reminiscent of the experience. He has a feeling of alienation, detachment, a feeling of loneliness, he loses the ability to establish close and friendly relations with others, and often already established ties are destroyed. The level of aggression rises.

Physiological hyperactivationmanifested in the difficulty of falling asleep and concentrating, increased irritability, constant readiness to escape.

Summary

Post-traumatic stress disorder occurs when stress exceeds the psychological, physiological, adaptive capabilities of a person and destroys the defense. The manifestation of post-traumatic stress disorder depends on the characteristics of the individual, the significance of the situation for the person; its features of the nervous system; experience of being in an emergency; the presence of mental trauma; various forms of addictive behavior; the absence or presence of support from significant persons. Dynamics of psychopathological consequences of emergencies: awareness of psychotraumatic reality; mental and psychosomatic disorders; social behavior disorders.

6. Psychological means of protecting the individual from dangers

Psychological protection- an activity that prevents the violation of the internal stability of the individual and the social community, the normal course of the psychological life of a person and his behavior under the influence of external influences.

Psychological protection is divided into social-group and individual-personal.

Social group protectionis determined by the presence of information flows within and between formal and informal groups in which the individual interacts, group norms, requirements, and a system of sanctions. It assumes the security of a particular group.

Individual-personal protection- the degree of personal security of the individual. It is provided by a complex of protective mechanisms of the personality, strategies of behavior and interaction with others and is divided into three main groups: interpersonal protection, mental self-regulation and intrapersonal protection (Fig. 3).

Interpersonal psychological defenseis an activity of the individual in order to maintain its integrity by changing the nature of external interaction.

There are several types of protection against external influences. They are divided according to the level of awareness, the number of subjects of protection, in relation to objective reality.

1. By level of awarenessdistinguish between intentional and unintentional protection.

Intentional defensecarried out at a conscious level in accordance with the goals and intentions of those who are affected. An individual who is affected by certain external stimuli and circumstances consciously chooses a certain type of defensive behavior aimed at resolving the situation.

Rice. 3. Individual-personal means of protection

(Source: Solomin V.P., Shatrovoy O.V., Mikhailov L.A., Malikova T.V. Psychological safety. - M., 2008)

Unintentional protectionis a behavior associated with a learned stereotype.

2. By the number of subjects of protectiondistinguish individual and group protection.

Personal protectionassociated with the protective behavior of one person,group defenseimplies the protective behavior of the group as the subject of interaction. In this case, a whole group of people acts according to a single plan, their behavior is based on a common agreement.

3. In relation to objective realityallocate a general and selective defensive strategy. At overall strategy the criticality of the individual in relation to the totality of external influences is realized. Whenelectoral protectionthe personality is fixed on a specific object of influence and develops a specific reaction to it.

In the process of socialization of the individual, various strategies of behavior are formed, both constructive and passive.

Constructive behavior- these are active actions to eliminate the traumatic situation, the result of which is an adequate perception of reality.Passivity, nonconstructivenessthey suggest an escape, an escape from a traumatic situation, as a result of which a person has an illusory feeling of security, which does not give confidence in the stability of reality.

Depending on the degree of participation of the individual, behavior is divided into suppression, displacement of negative stimuli from consciousness, avoidance of a disturbing situation (for example, into the fantasy world), search for information, and implementation of direct actions to solve the difficulties that have arisen.

Behavior can be formed in response to a specific situation, in this case it will not necessarily be repeated in the future. However, it can also be long-term, stable, stereotyped, and repetitive. Depending on the goals of behavior, it can be divided according to the focus on oneself or others.

According to the significance of the results, behavior is divided into the regulation of one's own emotional states or the restoration of interpersonal relationships. The forms of manifestation of behavior can be plastic, capable of changing depending on the situation, or they can be formed as stereotypes, be “ossified”, rigid.

The strategy of behavior is formed as a result of the systemic interaction of the cognitive (intellectual), emotional and behavioral spheres of the psyche. At the level of the cognitive sphere, the significance of the situation for a person is determined. If it is caused by external circumstances, it is perceived as inevitable. A person may feel personally responsible for the situation, blame himself for its occurrence. At the same time, he either does not see a constructive way out of the current situation, or assesses the significance of the traumatic situation for himself, looking for a positive way out of it. In the event that the responsibility for the occurrence of such a situation is assigned to others, then its resolution becomes their prerogative.

At the level of the emotional sphere, a person's ability to control his emotions is realized. Here the determining role is played by the degree of individual emotional significance of the emergency, the experience of successfully resolving a similar situation in the past, and the readiness of the individual for its occurrence. The emotional perception of what happened depends on these factors, which can vary from maintaining self-control to a state of hysteria or passivity, inaction.

The behavioral response of a person depends on the cognitive assessment of the situation (as a result of thinking about the event) and its emotional perception. The degree of awareness of the critical moment depends on a number of factors: personality traits; physical and social environment; available information; own cognitive structures of reality.

There are two types of cognitive assessment: primary - what can be expected from the stressor - threat or prosperity; secondary - assessment of one's own resources and capabilities to solve the problem.

In accordance with them, a certain strategy of behavior is formed - coping, i.e., the development of mechanisms for resolving the situation (Fig. 4). As a result of coping, the assessment of the situation changes, and the person's well-being improves.

Rice. 4 . The process of forming coping behavior

(Source: Solomin V.P., Shatrovoy O.V., Mikhailov L.A., Malikova T.V. Psychological safety. - M., 2008)

Interpersonal Defensecan be implemented in various forms that contribute to the resolution of a traumatic situation - withdrawal, expulsion (displacement), blocking, management (control), hiding, masking, informing. These forms are the same in cases of the impact of the individual on the individual, the impact of entertainment events and the media on the individual.

The whole gamut of interpersonal relations, ways of resolving various situations of a social or natural nature and interaction in them is determined by the personality itself, using internal defense mechanisms for this.

Intrapersonal psychological protection.For the first time, the concept of "psychological defense" was used by 3. Freud to designate ways of a person's struggle with ideas that are unpleasant and unbearable for consciousness. The task of psychological defense is to minimize and even completely eliminate unpleasant affects.

The main factors in the formation of protective mechanisms include disharmonious family education, character accentuations and adaptation problems. The social environment poses four adaptation problems for a person: territoriality, temporality, identity, hierarchy.

With disharmonious upbringing, which includes indulgent and dominant hyperprotection, hypoprotection, emotional rejection, increased moral responsibility, the needs of the individual are frustrated, making it impossible to adequately satisfy the actualized needs. Their prolonged blocking leads to a stable violation of social adaptation and adaptation to the environment. In this case, a person is forced to apply some kind of psychological defense to maintain the positivity of his "I", that is, a positive self-esteem. The chosen defensive behavior may not correspond to reality.

The set of psychological defenses depends on which of the parts that make up the positive "I" was under threat, as well as which of the types of disharmonic upbringing suppressed this or that need of the individual.

All defense mechanisms that are formed as a result of certain life events can be conditionally divided into four groups.

First group determined by the lack of information processing. It includes: repression, blocking, denial, suppression.

For the second group transformation (distortion) of the content of thoughts, feelings, behavior is characteristic. It includes: transfer, withdrawal, rationalization, intellectualization, projection, identification, alienation, reactive formations, compensation and hypercompensation.

Third group defense mechanisms are distinguished by the discharge of negative emotional stress. It includes: realization in action, somatization of anxiety, sublimation.

Fourth groupis determined by the presence of manipulative actions: regression, "care for the disease", fantasizing.

Let us consider each of these groups in more detail, characterizing the protective mechanisms included in it.

The first group of defense mechanisms is the lack of information processing.

1. Displacement is a process, the result of which is the rejection by the individual of certain experiences, emotions, memories, thoughts, psychological states that “settle” in the sphere of the unconscious, but at the same time continue to have a certain influence on behavioral acts and the psyche of the individual. There are several options for repression: the repression of attraction, the repression of reality and the repression of the instructions of the "Super-I".

The repression of a drive does not remove the drive itself. His energy remains and strives for satisfaction, sometimes fatally influencing human behavior. "Super-I" constantly controls attraction. Energy is wasted, and therefore fatigue occurs, control is lost, irritability, tearfulness appear. The repression of attraction excludes the possibility of a person's sociocultural development. Often this happens in the form of a socially dangerous affect - explosive reactions, unmotivated affects, hysterical seizures, etc.

The displacement of reality contributes to the distortion, displacement of unpleasant information, which distorts a person's idea of ​​himself. The repression mechanism works during illness, manifesting itself in the fact that the individual does not notice the ever-increasing number of symptoms. The information that the environment returns to a person in a form that contradicts his knowledge of himself is displaced. The displacement of impartial information occurs as a result of cognitive dissonance - a discrepancy between two concepts about oneself. For example, a student with low self-esteem does not believe in a good grade. Repression of reality is manifested in forgetting names, situations, events. The rejection of reality is sometimes so strong that it can lead to the death of the individual.

The repression of the instructions of the "Super-I" is expressed in satisfaction with what has been done and, as a result, gaining comfort or receiving secondary displeasure, which can lead to asthenic symptoms: insomnia, an existential crisis.

2. Blocking involves the temporary repression of negative, disturbing thoughts, emotions, actions.

3. Denial - a procedure by which the subject expresses one of his previously repressed desires, thoughts, feelings, continuing to seek protection from him and denying that these are his own desires, thoughts, feelings. Denial is the most primitive type of defense. It develops in order to contain the emotions of others if they demonstrate emotional indifference or rejection. Denial implies an infantile substitution of acceptance of others by attention from their side, and any negative aspects of attention are blocked at the stage of perception. As a result, a person gets the opportunity to painlessly express a sense of acceptance of the world and himself, but for this he must attract the attention of others by all available means. Features of defensive behavior in the mechanism of denial are egocentrism, suggestibility, affectivity, easy tolerance of criticism.

4. Suppression - a protective mechanism by which unwanted thoughts, impulses and emotions that have reached consciousness are eliminated by him. Suppression develops when restraining the emotion of fear, the manifestations of which are unacceptable for positive self-perception and threaten to directly fall into dependence on the aggressor. Fear is blocked by forgetting the real stimulus and the objects associated with it. Normally, defensive behavior manifests itself in the form of careful avoidance of situations that can become problematic and cause fear of inability to defend one's position in a dispute, conciliation, humility.

The second group of defense mechanisms is the transformation (distortion) of the content of thoughts, feelings, behavior.

1. Transfer - this is the impact of a previously formed operational action skill on mastering new operational-instrumental actions, skills. The reason for the transfer is in affective pinchedness, undeveloped past relationships. For example, if there was a tense relationship with the father, and the boss reminds him, then the relationship is reproduced.

One of the simplest and most common types of transference is displacement - a manifestation of aggression and resentment towards objects that are not direct stimuli. For example, a subordinate has been reprimanded by his superior and is looking for an uncomplaining object - another employee with the same or lower status. Displacement can be directed outward - then the surrounding people or objects become the object of aggression, or it can be directed at oneself, in this case aggression manifests itself in causing damage to oneself, self-torture. It is typical for a person who implements the displacement mechanism to put himself at risk, or, if this becomes possible, then the individual himself becomes an aggressor.

The next type of transfer is substitution - symptoms or formations (erroneous actions, character traits, etc.) that replace unconscious desires. It can be directed at oneself, in this case one speaks of narcissism. Substitution controls anger. Features of protective behavior are normal: impulsiveness, irritability, exactingness, uncharacteristic feelings of guilt, activities associated with risk.

2. Care (avoidance, flight). In this case, the perception of one's own incompetence leads to a retreat into the area where control over reality is maintained. Avoidance of solving the problem can be justified by one's own busyness, as well as the lack of the necessary skills for this. Withdrawal is often characterized by an "escape" into a fantasy world.

3. Rationalization arises as a result of unacceptable behavior for the individual, when there is a need for its justification. Rational explanation as a defense mechanism is not aimed at resolving the situation, but at relieving tension. Rationalization can be included: in the absence of information, when a person begins to build his hypotheses; at the manifestation of unexpected and ridiculous actions, both their own and the actions of others; with inconsistency of views on the same object; in the absence of the meaning of activity.

The behavior of people with a rationalization mechanism is strictly regulated, rational, without deviations. This behavior can lead to obsessions. Rationalization is primarily aimed at maintaining personal status. Rationalizing the situation, a person closes the way to the reflection of the situation, to a new choice, violates relations with people (someone is always to blame for his failures).

Irony can be a kind of rationalization. As a mental process, irony transforms the disturbing and terrifying into the funny. What has become funny cannot be dangerous.

4. Intellectualizationdevelops in adolescence and is formed in connection with frustrations that are associated with failures in competition with peers, problems in communication. The process of intellectualization involves the arbitrary schematization of events in order to develop a sense of subjective control over any situation. In behavior and communication, the mechanism of intellectualization is manifested primarily in the predominance of abstract thinking over the experience and non-recognition of affects and fantasies.

5. Projection mechanismdevelops to contain the feeling of rejection of oneself and others that arises as a result of emotional rejection on their part. The projection is used in case of containment (stopping) of the feeling of rejection of oneself, it is associated with the repression of one's own desires and inclinations.

Projection is easier on the person whose situation, personality traits are similar to the one projecting.

There are the following types of projection:

• attributive - unconscious rejection of one's own negative qualities and attributing them to others;
• rationalistic - awareness of one's qualities and projection according to the type "everyone does it";
• complimentary - the interpretation of their shortcomings as advantages;
• simulative - attributing shortcomings by similarity, for example, a parent - a child.

6. Identification - a protective mechanism that is associated with identifying oneself with some kind of image (imago). As the child grows up, certain ideas about the immediate environment arise. They are a criterion for assessing the social environment.

The situation of identification is characterized by the following: it is a situation of hierarchical relations (the one with whom I identify is at the top, I am at the bottom); the one who is identified is in rigid dependence on the superior; the superior sets a rigid algorithm of behavior, punishes for deviations.

Identification forms such a protection mechanism as transfer, which was discussed above.

7. Alienation (isolation) - a defense mechanism that leads to isolation within the consciousness of individual zones associated with a traumatic factor. The unified consciousness is split. Separate consciousnesses arise, each of which can have its own perception, memory, attitudes. Some events are perceived separately, the emotional connections between them are not reproduced. At the same time, there is a detachment from that part of the personality that provokes unbearable experiences. The mechanism of isolation often manifests itself in obsessional neuroses: the isolation of any thought or action, the severing of their connections with other thoughts or other aspects of the subject's life.

8. Jet formationsexpressed in a psychological attitude or habit, which is something diametrically opposed to the repressed desire, a reaction to it in the form of the so-called inversion of desire. For example, shame instead of an unconsciously repressed desire to demonstrate oneself. The mechanism involves the development and maintenance in the behavior of a directly opposite attitude.

9. Compensation and overcompensation- the latest defense mechanism designed to contain feelings of sadness, anxiety, grief over real or imaginary loss, inferiority, inability to possess anything. It is used, as a rule, consciously. If, when problems arise in one area, the subject begins to develop in the area in which, in his opinion, he will achieve the greatest success, then this mechanism is called compensation. If the subject begins to develop in the area where he feels unsuccessful, then this is a manifestation of the hypercompensation mechanism.

The third group of defense mechanisms is the discharge of negative emotions.

1. Implementation in actioninvolves affective discharge in the form of expressive behavior. It often manifests itself under the influence of psychoactive substances, forms a tendency to various types of addictive (dependent) and aggressive behavior.

2. Somatization of anxiety(formation of symptoms). The probability of occurrence of this protective mechanism is the higher, the stronger and longer the impact of external and internal blocks of desire and the less the ability to eliminate these blocks. It occurs when it is impossible to remove the frustrator and vent aggression on the culprit or substitute object. Then the subject itself becomes the object. At the somatic level, it manifests itself in the appearance of a rash, spots, blindness, deafness, loss of sensitivity.

3. Sublimation - transferring the energy of attraction or aggression into a socially acceptable channel. The feeling of anxiety is reduced, comes to a socially acceptable result.

The fourth group of defense mechanisms is the mechanisms of manipulative action.

1. Regression – return to individual-childish forms of behavior, to transitions-transformations to the previous levels-forms of psychoevolution. It is a transition to the less complex, less structured, and less disjointed ways of responding that are characteristic of children. It develops at an early age to contain feelings of insecurity, fear associated with the manifestation of initiative.

Regression includes motor activity - involuntary actions to relieve stress.

2. "Departure into Sickness"- this protective mechanism is manifested in the fact that the presence of a real (psychosomatic disorder), and often an imaginary illness, justifies one's own insolvency, a person refuses to solve his problems on his own. He strives for guardianship and recognition by others of his own soreness, weakness.

3. Fantasizing - an imaginary scenario in which one or another desire of the subject, who seeks to increase the personal significance and significance of his life, to increase his own value and control over others, is fulfilled, albeit in a form distorted by the defense.

Psychological protection contributes to the internal stability of the individual, normalizes the mental state of a person. The need for this kind of protection arises as a result of disharmonious family upbringing, character traits, and difficulties in adapting to environmental conditions. Methods of mental self-regulation help to gain psychological stability.

The fact that muscle activity is connected with the emotional sphere has been noticed for a long time. In colloquial speech, the expressions “petrified face”, “nervous trembling” are quite common. This is how muscle tension is characterized with negative emotions. The expression “laugh until you drop” is quite reasonable, because with a strong laugh, the muscles relax so much that the arms drop, the legs bend, and the person feels the desire to sit down (“fall”).

In 1922, the American neurophysiologist E. Jacobson established that there is a direct connection between muscle tension and mental fatigue: the more a person is mentally tired, the more tense his muscles are. After a good rest and in the absence of increased nervous tension, the muscles relax.

According to the observations of E. Jacobson, each type of emotional arousal corresponds to the tension of a certain muscle group, therefore, in order for the muscles to relax, the brain should be forced to rest. However, you can also cause the opposite effect - relax the muscles and then the brain will begin to rest. Later, E. Jacobson proposed his own therapeutic method, called the "method of progressive progressive relaxation." Relaxation was understood not only as relaxation of the muscles, but also as a state opposite to mental activity - “mental relaxation”.

The ability to relax, to subjectively and psychologically influence muscle tone is an important condition for removing excitement. For this, methods of mental self-regulation are suitable. The process of overcoming the negative impact of a stress factor can be divided into four stages: anticipation, preparation for exposure, confrontation, self-regulation.

At the stage of anticipation of imminent danger, a person must be able to predict the onset of a real danger and take measures to prevent panic. At the stage of preparation for the impact, it is necessary to orient oneself, to make sure that there is an opportunity to cope with the danger. At the stage of confrontation, one should gradually adapt to the situation, determine the optimal method of correction. At the stage of self-regulation, an adequate methodology is applied.

A person who has the skills of mental self-regulation is able to maintain emotional balance in various emergency situations. This is the most optimal and effective form of psychological protection. The quality and magnitude (strength) of the danger of influencing a person with developed skills of psychological self-regulation practically do not matter. However, it is essential to choose the right individual way of self-regulation. A personality test can help with this.

Summary

Psychological protection is considered as an activity that prevents the violation of the internal stability of the individual and social community, the normal course of the psychological life of a person and his behavior under the influence of external influences. Psychological protection is divided into social-group and individual-personal. Individual-personal protection is provided by a complex of protective mechanisms of the individual, strategies of behavior and interaction with others and is divided into interpersonal protection, mental self-regulation and intrapersonal protection.

REFERENCES

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2. Life safety: Textbook for universities / Ed. L. A. Mikhailova. - St. Petersburg, 2005.

3. Volkova E.N. Subjectivity of the teacher: theory and practice. Abstract dis. dr. psych. Sciences. - M., 1998.

4. Lyz N.A. Development of a safe personality in the educational process of the university. - Taganrog, 2005.

5. Malkina-Pykh I.G. extreme situations. - M., 2005.

6. Mikhailov L. A., Solomin V. P., Gubin V. A. Introduction to the psychology of communication: (Non-verbal means of communication): Uch. allowance. - St. Petersburg, 1999.

7. Nazaretyan A. P. Aggressive crowd, mass panic, rumors: Lectures on social and political psychology. - St. Petersburg, 2003.

8. Nikiforov G.S. Psychology of health. - St. Petersburg, 2002.

9. Psychological Dictionary / Ed. V.P. Zinchenko, B.G. Meshcheryakova. - M., 1998.

10. Psychology of extreme situations: Reader / Ed. A.E. Taras, K.V. Selchenok. - M., 2002.

11. Pukhovsky N. N. Psychopathological consequences of emergency situations. - M., 2000.

12. Pushkarev A. L., Domoratsky V. A., Gordeev E. P. Post-traumatic stress disorder: diagnostics, psychopharmacotherapy, psychotherapy. - M., 2000.

13. Mental states: Reader / Ed. L.V. Kulikov. - St. Petersburg: Peter, 2001.

14. Romek V. G., Koptorovich V. A., Krukovich Ya. I. Psychological assistance in crisis situations. - St. Petersburg, 2004.

15. Solovieva S. L. Psychology of extreme conditions. - St. Petersburg, 2003.

16. Solomin V.P., Shatrovoy O.V., Mikhailov L.A., Malikova T.V. Psychological safety. - M., 2008.

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