The main directions in the development of Russian poetry in the middle of the XIX century

VSEVOLOD SAKHAROV

Russian literature of the 19th (XIX) century

In the 19th century, Russian literature reached unprecedented heights, which is why this period is often called the "golden age"

One of the earliest events was the reissue of the CAP. Following him, 4 volumes of the "Dictionary of the Church Slavonic and Russian Language" were printed. For a century, the world has learned about the most talented prose writers and poets. Their works have taken a worthy place in world culture and influenced the work of foreign writers.

Russian literature of the 18th century was characterized by a very calm development. Throughout the century, poets have sung about the sense of human dignity and tried to inculcate high moral ideals in the reader. Only at the end of the 90s did more daring works begin to appear, the authors of which emphasized the psychology of the individual, feelings and emotions.

Why did Russian literature of the 19th century achieve such a development? This was due to the events that took place in the political and cultural life of the country. This is the war with Turkey, and the invasion of Napoleon's army, and the public execution of oppositionists, and the eradication of serfdom ... All this gave impetus to the emergence of completely different stylistic devices.

A prominent representative of Russian literature of the 19th century is Alexander Sergeevich Pushkin. A comprehensively developed and highly educated person was able to reach the peak in enlightenment. By the age of 37, he was known to the whole world. He became famous thanks to the poem "Ruslan and Lyudmila". And "Eugene Onegin" to this day is associated with a guide to Russian life. Pushkin became the founder of traditions in writing literary works. His heroes, absolutely new and original for that time, won the hearts of millions of contemporaries. Take at least Tatyana Larina! Mind, beauty and features inherent only in the Russian soul - all this was perfectly combined in her image.

Another author who forever entered the history of Russian literature of the 19th century is M. Lermontov. He continued the best traditions of Pushkin. Like his teacher, he tried to understand his destiny. They really wanted to convey their principles to the authorities. Some compared the poets of that time to the prophets. These writers also influenced the development of Russian literature in the 20th century. They gave her the features of publicity.

It is in the 19th century that the establishment of realistic literature falls. Slavophiles and Westernizers constantly argued about the peculiarities of the historical formation of Russia. Since that time, the realistic genre began to develop. Writers began to endow their works with features of psychology and philosophy. The development of the poetry of Russian literature of the 19th century begins to fade away.

At the end of the century, such writers as A.P. Chekhov, A.N. Ostrovsky, N. S. Leskov, M. Gorky. In most of the works, pre-revolutionary moods begin to be traced. The realistic tradition begins to fade into the background. It was supplanted by decadent literature. Her mysticism and religiosity relished both critics and readers.

Style directions of Russian literature of the XIX century:

Romanticism. Romanticism has been known to Russian literature since the Middle Ages. But the 19th century gave it completely different shades. It originated not in Russia, but in Germany, but gradually penetrated into the works of our writers. Russian literature of the 19th century is characterized by romantic moods. They found reflection in Pushkin's poems and can be traced in the very first works of Gogol.
Sentimentalism. Sentimentalism began to develop at the very beginning of the 19th century. He focuses on sensuality. In Russian literature of the 18th century, the first features of this trend were already traced. Karamzin managed to reveal it in all its manifestations. He inspired many authors and they followed his principles.
satirical prose . In the 19th century, satirical and journalistic works began to appear in Russian literature, especially in the works of Gogol. At the very beginning of his journey, he tried to describe his homeland. The main features of his works is the unacceptability of the lack of intelligence and parasitism. It affected all strata of society - landowners, peasants, and officials. He tried to draw the attention of readers to the poverty of the spiritual world of wealthy people.
1. realistic novel . In the second half of the 19th century, Russian literature recognized romantic ideals as absolutely untenable. The authors sought to show the real features of society. The best example is Dostoyevsky's prose. The author reacted sharply to the mood of the people. Depicting the prototypes of friends, Dostoevsky tried to touch upon the most acute problems of society. It was at this time that the image of an “extra person” appeared. There is a reassessment of values. The fate of the people no longer means anything. In the first place are the representatives of society.
folk poem. In Russian literature of the 19th century, folk poetry occupies a secondary place. But, despite this, Nekrasov does not miss the opportunity to create works that combine several genres: revolutionary, peasant and heroic. His voice does not let you forget about the meaning of rhyme. The poem “Who is living well in Russia?” is the best example of the real life of that time.

Late 19th century

At the end of the 19th century, Chekhov was at the peak of his popularity. At the very beginning of his career, critics repeatedly noticed that he was indifferent to acute social topics. But his masterpieces were very popular. He followed the principles of Pushkin. Each representative of Russian literature of the 19th century created a small artistic world. Their heroes wanted to achieve more, fought, experienced ... Some wanted to be needed and happy. Others set out to eradicate social failure. Still others experienced their own tragedy. But each work is remarkable in that it reflects the realities of the century.

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Analysis of Russian literary works of the 19th century

Mikhail Yurievich Lermontov (1814-1841). Poems

M.Yu. Lermontov. The novel "A Hero of Our Time"

N.V. Gogol (1809 - 1852). The play "Inspector"

N.V. Gogol. Poem "Dead Souls"

A.N. Ostrovsky. The play "Thunderstorm"

I.S. Turgenev. Novel "Fathers and Sons"

F.I. Tyutchev. Poems

I.A. Goncharov. Roman "Oblomov"

N. A. Nekrasov. Poems

poem novel play Lermontov gogol

MichaelyurevichLermontov(1814-1841). Poems

On the paternal side, the poet's ancestor was the Scot George Lermont, in the beginning. 17th century moved to Russia. On the maternal side, L. was a relative of the Arsenyevs and the wealthy landowners Stolypins. Due to family problems and the early death of his mother (in 1817), he was brought up on the estate of his maternal grandmother E. A. Arsenyeva.

In 1837, after the duel between A. S. Pushkin and J. Dantes Lermontov, a poem was written "Death poet", which contained attacks on the higher circles. This poem instantly spread throughout St. Petersburg and became the reason for the arrest of Lermontov, and then for transfer to the Nizhny Novgorod Dragoon Regiment and exile to the Caucasus as punishment. The link lasted from spring to autumn 1837.

In February 1840, Lermontov fought a duel with the son of the French ambassador E. de Barante. Because of the duel, Lermontov was transferred to the Tenginsky Infantry Regiment and again sent into exile in the Caucasus.

In July 1841, while undergoing treatment in Pyatigorsk, Lermontov quarreled with N. S. Martynov, who challenged the poet to a duel. The duel ended with the death of Lermontov, Martynov got off with a demotion and a short stay in the guardhouse.

Problemmethod. Regarding the artistic method of Lermontov, there was no consensus among researchers. There are three points of view, each of which has its supporters.

1. At first Lermontov was romantic, after 1837 became realist.

This scheme was popular mainly in Soviet times, when romanticism was perceived as a kind of preparatory stage on the way to true creative maturity, that is, to realistic art. Within the framework of this concept, romantic works written by Lermontov after 1837 (poems "Mtsyri", "Demon") are ignored, and the presence of romantic elements is not taken into account even in those works that can be classified as realistic (the novel "A Hero of Our Time" ).

2. Lermontov - romantic and always has been.

Proponents of this point of view deny the presence of elements of realism in the work of Lermontov in the 2nd half of the 1830s.

3. Until the mid 1830s. Lermontov's work is dominated by romantic trends, in the second half of the 1830s. appear elements realism organically combined with romanticism.

This concept is the least controversial, because it takes into account the presence of romanticism in the mature work of Lermontov (after 1837), and the emergence and strengthening of realistic features in his works of the late 1830s.

Lermontov's work belongs to the second stage in the development of Russian romanticism (after 1825), which was marked by pessimistic moods in connection with the defeat of the December uprising.

Syntheticromanticism. Lermontov's romanticism is an independent trend within the framework of Russian romanticism. By its nature, this is synthetic romanticism, like Pushkin's romanticism, which combines several components at once.

1. Influence Decembrists.

1. Upholding political freedoms.

2. The idea of nationality as an awareness of national specificity (in some works, the heroism of Russians is emphasized as their national quality (for example, in Borodino), much attention is paid to recreating the national Caucasian flavor in the corresponding works).

3. The concept of being chosen, confidence in one's own unique destiny, typical of the psychology of members of the Decembrist secret organizations.

2. philosophical component.

1. Lermontov's worldview was seriously affected by Russian Schellingism, that is, the transformation on Russian soil of the teachings of the German philosopher F. W. Schelling. Lermontov was in contact with the Schellingians while studying at Moscow University and at the university boarding school.

2. One of the most important in the work of Lermontov is the theme of self-knowledge, philosophical understanding of the individual.

3. The world in the writer's works is shown as a set of objects and phenomena between which it is necessary to find the relationship.

4. The spiritual component is recognized as a priority in a person.

3. Influence J. G. Byron.

1. The main type represented in the works of Lermontov, especially in later ones, is the “Byronic hero” (a lonely, rebellious, disappointed person in life).

2. National conditionality of character, national coloring on the model of Byron's works.

3. Passions of the Byron type as the driving force of action.

4. Lermontov often borrowed plots from Byron in his early works (for example, borrowings from Byron's Oriental Poems are widely represented in Lermontov's early poems).

4. Influence BUT. WITH. Pushkin.

Mainly, this influence is noticeable in early works, when Lermontov actively borrows the plots and motifs of Pushkin's works (historical and Caucasian themes predominate).

Lermontov's work is traditionally divided into early and mature. The division between the two periods runs through the mid-1830s. Researchers consider the poem "The Death of a Poet" (1837) to be a kind of frontier. So, in the early work of Lermontov, romantic elements prevailed and there was a craving for some imitation, stereotypes, while mature work is distinguished by the penetration of realistic features, and is also much more independent and demonstrates a non-standard approach to romantic clichés, the author's understanding of romantic motifs and images.

EarlypoemsM.Lermontov(late 1820s - early 1830s) - historical ("Oleg", "Litvinka", "The Last Son of Liberty") and exotic Caucasian themes ("Circassians", "Prisoner of the Caucasus", "Izmail Bay" prevail) , "Aul Bastunji"). The poems were written under the strong influence of J. G. Byron and A. S. Pushkin .

LatepoemsLermontov- The poem "Song about Tsar Ivan Vasilievich, a young guardsman and a daring merchant Kalashnikov" (1837) (see 4.9); the poem "Mtsyri" (1839) (see 4.10); poem "Demon" (1829-1839).

The demonic hero of Lermontov has the following qualities:

The search for freedom, the desire for independence, the unwillingness to bind oneself with any long-term obligations (romanticism + Byronism);

Disappointment in life, satiety with pleasures (Byronism);

Loneliness, isolation from others, awareness of one's own exclusivity, the desire to dominate the world (romanticism + Byronism + demonism);

Search for ways to overcome loneliness and disappointment (demonism);

The absence of a conscious desire for evil with a constant negative result of all actions, fatal coincidences leading to a tragic ending against the will of the hero (demonism);

The tragedy of the figure, the hero becomes an object of sympathy, not condemnation for the author (demonism).

early lyrics. Main the themes of Lermontov's youthful poems: nature, friendship, love, human relationships, socio-political struggle, life and death, man and the universe. Among them, not without the influence of domestic ( Pushkin, Baratynsky) and Western European (Schiller, Byron, T. Moore, Goethe, Heine) literature, the philosophical awareness of being, the place and role of man in it is of particular importance.

Already in his earliest poems, Lermontov, an excellent connoisseur of literature, appears as a poet with a pronounced intelligence, deep internal concentration, active, protesting thoughts. He proclaims: "Life is boring: when there is no struggle ... I need to act." His main lyrical hero, expressing the feelings and thoughts of the poet, restless, disappointed in everything, opposed to the everyday life around him, combines the “sacred with the vicious” (“June 1831, 11 days”). Thinking about a life full of suffering and torment, the lyrical hero came to mournful judgments about its transience.

The poet very early imbued with the ideas of theomachism. But not in the sense of a direct denial of the existence of God, but as doubts about the ideality of his mind, about the justice of his actions. Realizing the imperfections of people and the circumstances that destroy them, of the entire world order, the hero of Lermontov's poems experiences painful fluctuations between religious faith and doubts ("Prayer", "Death").

The poet from an early age, following the precepts of the Decembrists, is devoted to the ideas of high patriotism and heroic citizenship. Turning to the long gone, he depicts the unequal struggle of his compatriots against foreign invaders, their ardent love for the motherland. The poet is proud of the power of his people-giant, who defeated the formidable Napoleon, the "three-week daring man."

Lermontov's poetry more and more crystallizes as the poetry of passionately seeking and mercilessly analyzing thoughts, as the poetry of rebellion, protest, socio-political struggle. Following primarily Pushkin and the Decembrists, the poet from the very beginning to the end of his career recreates the image of a people's poet-prophet, disinterested, courageous, actively intervening in life, an independent citizen-patriot, an inspired fighter, inflaming people to fight for their human rights, for freedom ("Poet"; "Death of the Poet"; "Prophet"). Contrasting tyranny with freedom, Lermontov turns to real symbols that personify freedom: a white sail ("Sail"), a bird soaring in the sky ("Desire").

In 1830-1831, Lermontov's poetry was formed under the influence of the French Revolution, the Polish events, and the peasant uprisings that continuously flared up in Russia in connection with cholera and the plague. It is imbued with the expectation of a people's revolution ("Prediction").

In terms of the breadth of the genre-species range, the early Lermontov can only be compared with Pushkin. He was attracted by the forms of elegy, romance and song, madrigal and epigram, monologue, appeal and letter, album poems and thoughts, satire and sonnets. But leading types he chose elegy thought, monologue and message.

In the initial poems, striving for maximum expressiveness, the poet willingly turned to the pictorial means of the “poetics of horrors”: “the darkness of the grave earth” (“Prayer”).

However, among youthful poems, mostly student, imitative, there are also such highly artistic ones as "Angel", "Caucasus", "Desire", "Two Giants", "Sail".

Lyrics of 1836-1841. The conditional boundary between the early and mature periods of Lermontov's lyrics is considered to be 1836 and, in particular, 1837. During these years of the poet’s heightened political self-consciousness, he created poems that finally determined his militant socio-political position: against the entire feudal world and the ruling autocratic-bureaucratic clique (“Death of the Poet”), in defense of the interests of the common people (“Borodino”), for social freedom.

Continuing freedom-loving traditions of Russian poetry, especially the Decembrist, Lermontov expands his creative ties with Western European poets, primarily with Heine, Hugo.

Herzen aptly and figuratively said that the poet's soul was awakened by "a pistol shot that killed Pushkin." Lermontov, having created The Death of a Poet, became known throughout the country and declared himself the direct and legitimate successor of Pushkin. "A call to revolution" - this is how Bulgarin described this masterpiece of the socio-political lyrics of the noble revolutionary spirit.

Hating and despising the soullessness, false brilliance, treachery and treachery, conceited stupidity, arrogant ignorance of the ruling aristocracy, the poet throws her words that burn with truth, which struck contemporaries with unprecedented civic courage: “Executioners of Freedom, Genius and Glory!”

If the early work of the poet was characterized by the cult of the heroic personality, the “divine chosen one”, opposed to the crowd, then in the prime of his artistic potential, he increasingly turned to ordinary people, to the people. The poet glorifies his homeland. Lermontov's love for his homeland was, like Pushkin's, captivating and conquering all other feelings. “I love my homeland,” he exclaimed in a poem "Motherland". In the Russian people, Lermontov is attracted by his heartfelt simplicity, integrity, generosity and heroic masculinity.

The poetic story of a soldier about the battle of Borodino, captivating with truth and simplicity, sounds like a solemn symphony about the majestic heroism of the masses, like a powerful song of love and devotion to their homeland, like enthusiastic praise of a national feat. Who has not repeated these wonderful lines: "It is not for nothing that all of Russia remembers About the day of Borodin!" ("Borodino"). The Russians' defense of their fatherland is portrayed as a majestic and sacred national-people's feat, culminating in the triumph of justice.

The poet deliberately contrasted the national liberation heroism of the defenders of the Borodino field with the indifference of the contemporary noble generation. And readers understand this. Belinsky, noting the democratism of Borodin, wrote: "You hear a soldier in every word."

The poet called for citizenship, for intransigence, for social protest. His poetry is indignant, rebellious, freedom-loving, rebellious, life-affirming. An angry verse, imbued with sarcasm, "drenched in bitterness and anger" ("And boring and sad"). The poet ardently hated the feudal system, the manifestations of patience and humility among the people, brought up by centuries of oppression. And leaving for a secondary exile, he said with hatred and love, with bitterness and pain: “Farewell, unwashed Russia…” in itself angry indignation at despotism and an inescapable longing for freedom, accusations of contemporaries of social passivity and pain for the suffering of a people in slavery.

The lyrical hero of Lermontov is irreconcilable to social evil. Despite the torment and suffering that has fallen to his lot, he is relentlessly firm and unbending in the service of his ideals of freedom ("Prophet").

Among its leading themes, as before, clearly stands out subject proud oneaboutqualities: "I go out alone on the road…". Since the second half of the 1930s, along with the theme of tormenting loneliness (“It stands alone in the wild north”; “Cliff”), the theme of prison confinement also arises in Lermontov’s poetry: “Prisoner”, “Neighbor”, “Captured Knight”.

Lermontov was bitterly forced to admit his powerlessness before the power of autocratic arbitrariness (“It’s both boring and sad”).

Lermontov's poems reflect the nature of the Caucasus and the middle Russian zone. The poet perceives the landscape enthusiastically, marveling and marveling at its grandeur, conformity to law and beauty. In his perception, nature is spiritualized, humanized. In his work, Lermontov always remained a born social fighter, seeing the meaning and happiness of human life in constant movement forward, in the struggle for the establishment of a free person on earth, for overcoming the gap between man and nature.

In Lermontov's poetry, which organically fuses intellectualism with emotionality, fiery heroism with tenderness, civil and intimate elegiac lines are clearly indicated. Civic motifs were reflected in the genres of socio-political and philosophical reflection (“It’s both boring and sad”, “I go out alone on the road”), accusatory satirical monologue (“The Dying Gladiator”), folk-heroic tale (“Borodino”), lyrical - patriotic confession ("Motherland"), philosophical ("Three palm trees") and political ("Airship") ballads, literary and social epigram ("Epigram on F. Bulgarin"), journalistic dialogue ("Journalist, reader and writer" ).

Intimate-elegiac motifs, organically uniting in some cases with socio-political and philosophical ones, were revealed in lyrical short stories, confessions and messages, psychological miniatures, album poems and ballads.

Civil-heroic and accusatory satirical motifs occupied a leading place in Lermontov's poetry.

AT "Of death Poet", gradually rising emotionally, followed by pictures of the death of the poet, turning to the light, a duel, reflections on the relationship of the poet with secular society, a curse on the executioners of freedom. In a poem "Clouds" the feeling of loneliness is expressed by its gradual forcing: first, the movement of clouds, “eternal wanderers” is stated, then questions about the reasons for their exile follow, and finally, in the final, penetratingly compassionate lines, sympathy is expressed for them. Gradation sometimes takes the form of a syntactic anaphora, passing through the entire poem and ending with a general conclusion ("When the yellowing field is agitated").

Poems of an intimate elegiac character demanded a different form. In them, high vocabulary is replaced by intimate, oratorical tonality - melodious, free stanza - correctly alternating rhyme. In intimate elegiac verses, much more often than in civil ones, an intonational pause is used, which intensifies their emotional and psychological tension: “Desires ... what good is it to wish in vain and forever?” ("And boring and sad").

originalityverse. dominant size poetry Lermontov remains iambic, which is used to write about two-thirds of the poems of 1836-1841. Among these verses there are three-foot ones (“I.P. Myatlev”), five-foot ones (“Gratitude”), but four-foot ones (“Branch of Palestine”, “Borodino”, “I look at the future with fear”) and six-foot ones (“The Dying Gladiator” , “When the yellowing field is agitated”, “I look sadly at our generation”). The iambic verses are followed by amphibrachic ones (“The Airship”, “Three Palms”, “Tamara”), choreic (“Prisoner”, “Dispute”, “Mountain Peaks”), anapestic (“Neighbor”, “Mermaid”) and dactylic , of which there are only three: “Prayer” (“I, the mother of God, now with a prayer”), “The Captive Knight” and “Clouds”. Here, the amphibrachs consist of two (“There is speech - meaning”), three (“Tamara”), four (“Three palm trees”) and five (“An oak leaf came off a native branch”) feet. And along with this, the five-foot amphibrach alternates with the three-foot and four-foot ("Both boring and sad"), the two-foot - with the three-foot ("On secular chains"). Lermontov writes choreic three-foot (“Mountain Peaks”), four-foot (“Prisoner”) and five-foot (“I go out alone on the road”) verses with equal skill. In his poems, the four-foot trochee alternates with the three-foot one (“Cossack lullaby”, “Dispute”).

The poet is very diverse in rhyme. In early lyric poetry, in a number of cases, the poet used blank verse, but in later lyric poetry, intensifying the musicality of the rhyme, he refuses to do so. After 1836, he wrote only the poem “Do I hear your voice” without rhymes. Lermontov, like Pushkin, does not shun verbal rhyme ("Sail"). But in most of his later poems, verbal rhyme is absent: "Prisoner", "Clouds", "Cliff", "Prophet". Following Derzhavin, Zhukovsky, Ryleev, and Polezhaev, Lermontov legitimizes the dactylic rhyme, bypassed by Pushkin: "Clouds." Almost every poem of late Lermontov's lyrics is rhythmically-metrically and strophically original. His stanza is richer than Pushkin's. He also has very rare stanzas: seven-line ("Borodino"), eleven-line ("In memory of A.I. Odoevsky"), twelve-line ("Date") and thirteen-line ("Blind, "inspired by suffering"). He repeatedly refers to Onegin stanza ("Sailor", "Tambov Treasurer").

Enriching the sound of the verse, Lermontov consciously uses the means of sound recording. The poet enhances the musicality of his verse not only through the accumulation of certain sounds, but also by introducing internal rhymes, assonances.

In realistic poetry, following Pushkin, Lermontov violates the usual genre boundaries and creates complex, synthetic lyrical formations. In them, the sketch of the landscape is organically combined with the expression of feeling, satire breaks into the elegy, high citizenship is fused with intimacy, phraseological pathos coexists with vernacular. An example of this is "Borodino", "Cliff", "I go out alone on the road."

Thus, lyricism occupies a leading place in the work of M. Yu. Lermontov. His poems, dramatic works and prose are also imbued with lyricism. Therefore, understanding the poet's lyrical creations is the key to understanding his entire creative world. Lermontov's lyrics are characterized by a variety of themes and motives. Among the distinctive features of the thematic orientation of his works, it is noted that in his mature work the poet often returns to the themes and motifs of early lyrics.

One of the main characteristic heck lyrics Lermontov - a sharp denial of the existing reality: if in the early lyrics it is directed to all of humanity, then in mature creativity it acquires a specific sound. main image themes denial- the image of a mask, an outwardly prosperous life of the contemporary society of the poet, under which lack of spirituality, emptiness is hidden (“As often, surrounded by a motley crowd ...”). In an atmosphere of masquerade and pretense, the lyrical hero also begins to hide his feelings, aspirations, thoughts - come to the fore subject proud loneliness incomprehensibility. It expands and is supplemented by motifs of fatigue and hopelessness (“It’s both boring and sad”, “I go out alone on the road ...”).

The poet's thoughts about contemporary society are refracted in the theme of the fate of the young generation ("Monologue"; "Duma"). The poet thinks about the future of his homeland, in search of an ideal he delves into the historical past of Russia, turns to the life of ordinary people ("Borodino"; "Motherland").

Landscape lyrics, inextricably linked with the theme of the homeland, Lermontov is filled with spiritualized beauty - a source of spiritual strength; in nature, tragic moments of life are reflected, as in a mirror of the changes in the human soul (“Clouds”; “In the wild north it stands alone ...”, “Cliff”).

Lermontov’s lyrics are also characterized by the transmission of a deep and capacious concept of love, but it is often accompanied by suffering and throwing (“Imitations of Byron”, “No, I don’t love you so passionately ...”). The theme of self-knowledge acquires universal dimensions in Lermontov's lyrics: personality is the center of everything that exists, and cosmic motifs arise in the lyrics, motifs of the confrontation between earthly and heavenly forces, personifying the struggle between good and evil both inside and outside of a person (“Prayer”, “Angel” ).

The theme of chosenness, the motive of internal kinship with the tragic fates of Byron and Napoleon - ("Napoleon", 1829; "No, I am not Byron; I am different ...", 1832; "Prophet", 1841).

This theme continues with reflections on the fate of a gifted person in an imperfect society, her relationship with others, the role of poetry as a special kind of weapon in the struggle for high ideals - the motives that sound in Lermontov's works ("Death of a Poet", 1837; "Dagger", 1837; " Poet "(" My dagger shines with gold trim ...), 1837; "Prophet", 1841).

M.YU.Lermontov.Novel"Heroourtime"

ATSeptember-December1837 G. the short story “Taman” was created, written as an independent work (the text of the short story does not mention the name of Pechorin, the narrator is more similar in type to the narrator in “Bel”, Maxim Maksimych is not mentioned, there are discrepancies with the version of sending Pechorin to the Caucasus, which will be given in more later parts). ATearly1838 G. the novella "The Fatalist", also an independent work, was written. 2ndhalf1838 G. - compiled the first edition of the novel, which does not yet have a title and consists of three parts:

1) "Bela" (a hero in a collision with "children of nature"); 2) "Maxim Maksimych"; 3) "Princess Mary" (a hero in a clash with the "children of civilization").

March1839 G.- publication in the journal "Domestic Notes" of the story "Bela" (with the subtitle "From the notes of an officer about the Caucasus"). Aug. Sept1839 G.- the second edition of the novel was created, this time under the title "One of the heroes of our century", which consists of four parts:

1) "Bela" (story); 2) "Maxim Maksimych" (short story); 3) "Fatalist" (short story); 4) "Princess Mary" (story)

End1839 G.- third edition called "Hero of Our Time":

"Bela" (story); "Maxim Maksimych" (short story); Preface to Pechorin's Journal (added to the novel for the first time and contains news of the death of the hero, who remained alive in previous editions); "Taman" (short story); "Princess Mary" (story); "The Fatalist" (short story). December1839 G. The novel has been submitted for publication. middleFebruary1840 G.- The short story "Taman" was published in the journal "Domestic Notes". April1840 G.- publication of a separate edition of the novel "A Hero of Our Time". 1841 G. - second edition with a new preface by the author (the canonical text of the novel).

Peculiaritiesstructures. The composition of the novel in its canonical version contains the following elements: Preface to the novel; "Bela"; "Maxim Maksimych"; Preface to Pechorin's journal; Pechorin's journal: "Taman"; "Princess Mary"; "Fatalist". The chronological order is broken in the presentation of events. If you restore it, the situation will look like this:

Chronologicalorder:

"Taman" (Pechorin is heading to the Caucasus, on the way he manages to expose the smugglers);

"Princess Mary" (events at the Caucasian Mineralnye Vody, a duel with Grushnitsky, sending Pechorin to the fortress under the command of Maxim Maksimych);

"Fatalist" (service in the fortress under the command of Maxim Maksimych, a trip to the Cossack village on official business);

"Bela" (the story of Bela, which happened to Pechorin during his life in the fortress and is presented in the form of the memoirs of Maxim Maksimych; the second part of the story is the story of the journey through the Caucasus of Maxim Maksimych and his fellow officer - this happens after Pechorin left the fortress and his parting with Maxim Maksimych);

"Maxim Maksimych" (a traveling officer personally meets Pechorin, Pechorin leaves for Persia);

Preface to Pechorin's journal (Pechorin's death is reported on the way from Persia back to Russia).

Such a violation of the logic of the narrative is not accidental. Lermontov abandoned the straightforward chronological chain in order to successfully solve another problem - the task of gradually revealing the personality of the protagonist. Pechorin is the center of the story, the whole novel is built around him. The rest of the characters are either his doubles, embodying and shading certain aspects of the personality of the central character (Verner, Grushnitsky, Vulich), or antipodes (Maxim Maksimych), or depend on him and force him to show hidden character traits (Bela, Vera, Mary). The narrative is structured in such a way that the reader gradually gets acquainted with Pechorin, becomes interested in him and consistently discovers this person for himself. The effect of gradualness is achieved by changing the narrator and the form of the story:

nameanie	Heads. dethexistingface	The narrator	The formnarrative
		Maxim Maksimych, whose story, in turn, is transmitted by an officer traveler who is not personally acquainted with Pechorin	verbal narration recorded by an outsider in writing
"Maxim Maksimych"	Pechorin and Maxim Maksimych	travel officer	notes of an officer-traveler, made in the wake of a meeting with Pechorin
"Taman"			memories of the past recorded by Pechorin
"Princess Mary"			diary entries that were made directly during the events + a record made from memory about the finale of the incident
"Fatalist"			a record of past events that the hero is trying to comprehend in a philosophical way after the fact

The novel opens with a story where Pechorin is shown from the outside, through the eyes of Maxim Maksimych, who admires him, but does not understand him. Naturally, in the interpretation of Maxim Maksimych, Pechorin's thoughts and actions should acquire a specific coloring. The situation is aggravated by the fact that the story of Maxim Maksimych actually “passes through second hands,” that is, it is conveyed to the reader by an unnamed traveling officer who has never met Pechorin at all. This is the first step in getting to know the character.

In the short story “Maxim Maksimych”, the staff captain moves from the position of the narrator to the position of the character, and the traveling officer sets out his own vision of the situation, without “intermediaries”. It is important that in this part of the novel the officer is already personally confronted with Pechorin and can reflect his point of view on the character. This is the next level of approximation.

The author made Pechorin's Journal, i.e., the hero's handwritten notes, as another component of the novel. Three stories are episodes where Pechorin combines the hero and the narrator in his person. At the same time, the short story "Taman" that opens the Journal is a romantic story of the times of Pechorin's youth in a free presentation. This is followed by "Princess Mary", where, thanks to the diary form, psychological analysis is carried out more consistently, and there is also a detailed recording of events literally by day.

The short story “The Fatalist” occupies the last place, in form it is similar to the short story “Taman”, however, for the first time, Pechorin’s attempt is presented not only to analyze the motives of his and those around him, but to formulate a view on the philosophical problem of the existence of fate, predestination.

Thus, the reader is consistently confronted first with other people's views on Pechorin, then gets acquainted with his own assessment of himself, and Pech's notes. reflect a wide range of views, from introspection to solving philosophical problems.

Typechiefhero. Pechorin is a romantic Byronic hero (lonely, opposed to society, disappointed in life), a modification of the Byronic hero on Russian soil, which can be called demonictype. The similarity of Pechorin and the Demon, the hero of the poem of the same name, is clearly traced.

trait	Daemon	Pechorin
love of freedom	The craving for freedom made the Demon rebel against the power of God.	Pechorin's love of freedom is expressed in his unwillingness to become attached to one place or person, in a "nomadic" lifestyle and lack of friends.
disappointment in life	The demon over the past millennia managed to explore the entire universe, he was tired of absolutely everything, because he tried all kinds of activities many times.	Pechorin is satiated with the pleasures of life, he is not interested in anything after a stormy youth.
loneliness	The demon is cast down from heaven, but at the same time he did not join Satan. He is neither darkness nor light. It is difficult for him to get along with people because of belonging to another sphere - the Demon is a super-being endowed with mystical abilities and immortality.	Pechorin, of his own free will, moved away from the noble society, broke ties with his usual environment, having left for the Caucasus, and among secular people he is kept aloof. He is not allowed to get close to ordinary people, due to the aristocracy. origin and ingrained prejudices.
the desire to dominate people and circumstances	The demon considers people as a kind of "material" for playing out their own scenarios. He arranges the death of Tamara's fiance, because he is interested in the girl, and is not inclined to perceive the young man as an independently thinking and feeling being. Looking down on the world is largely due to the fact that the Demon has supernatural abilities.	Pechorin puts himself above all other people and believes that he has the right to interfere in someone else's fate, turning it according to his own understanding. The most striking example of "directing" the situation is presented in "Princess Mary", where Pechorin literally plays people like puppets, calculating their reaction in advance and pushing them to certain actions.
desire to overcome loneliness	The demon, unlike the standard romantic hero, tries to overcome his loneliness, looking for love, in which he hopes to find the meaning of life.	Pechorin, despite the sad experience, each time hopefully strikes up a new relationship with another woman, although not a single love story ended happily for him.
lack of conscious desire for evil and fatal coincidences leading to tragedy	The demon "sows evil without pleasure", because the atrocities bored him just like everything else in this world, however, even when his intentions have nothing to do with evil (love for Tamara), the ending is tragic (the Demon turns out to be guilty of death of Tamara, although he did not want this at all).	Pechorin does not focus on deliberately causing harm to people, however, most of his actions have negative consequences (for example, falling in love with Bela, he separates the girl from her family and as a result becomes the culprit of her death; having met Grushnitsky, he eventually kills him in a duel, etc.). P.)
figure tragedy	The demon in the author's interpretation is not so much a villain as a victim of circumstances. His state of mind, disappointment in life, anger are dictated by isolation from all living things, which, in turn, is not the fault of the character himself, but the Creator, who condemned the Demon to eternal loneliness among angels, and among demons, and among people.	Pechorin is shown by the author as a tragic figure: his character is conditioned by time and social conditions. The fact that Pechorin does not find meaning in life is the result of the current social situation, which turns young nobles into "superfluous people."

In addition to the undeniable similarities, there are some differences between the characters. The most important difference is that the Demon is an undeniably romantic figure, a super-being operating in mystical spheres and other worlds, and Pechorin is an ordinary person, although he has some features of a romantic character. In connection with belonging to the human race, the tragedy of Pechorin's existence is somewhat less pronounced than that of the Demon, because the Demon's suffering is aggravated by his immortality, while Pechorin has the opportunity to get rid of torment with the advent of death. In the character of Pechorin, one can also distinguish many features, typical for romantic character generally:

Constant search for adventures “on your own head”, craving for “strong sensations”, constant search for new and strong stimuli;

Increased emotionality;

Intuitive thinking, lack of thoughtfulness in actions, spontaneous decisions;

Hostility to the outside world;

Escape from reality, acquiring the form of a constant wandering (from Russia to the Caucasus, from the Caucasus to Persia);

Selfish choice of goals, ignoring social patterns of behavior;

Search for abstract ideals (freedom, the ideal of a woman, "the meaning of life");

Tendency to affect-like states (despair after Vera's departure);

Search for emotional support and disappointment in the prospects of receiving it;

Unusual, controversial character;

Family ties are deliberately severed by the hero himself;

Equal friendly relations are tied up with difficulty because of the reluctance of the hero himself and are easily broken on his initiative as of little value (Werner, Maxim Maksimych);

Love affairs are numerous, but all remain at the level of a romantic relationship, with no prospect of becoming a marriage bond. In every woman he expects to find an ideal, he does not find it and is fed up with these relationships;

Representative of the nobility. Distancing himself from the environment, emphasizing his “speciality”;

Serves in the army in the Caucasus (romantic place, risky occupation);

Dies early;

Has an exceptionally attractive appearance.

2. At certain moments, Pechorin behaves as if public opinion means a lot to him (the story at the resort with Grushnitsky).

3. Some of Pechorin's reflections suggest that the ability to analyze the situation from time to time does turn on for him: having dispersed a gang of smugglers, having perfectly played the role of a romantic avenger, in the finale he asks himself the question: why all this?

4. His character is clearly determined by the historical era - this is an "extra person" of post-Decembrist times.

He is a romantic hero, but he is gradually debunked and overthrown from his pedestal, he is forced to act in real earthly conditions, and this forces him to change. It clearly shows the widespread social type of the “superfluous person”, which existed in Russian reality throughout the first half of the 19th century.

« ExtraHuman» 1830s, a nobleman, endowed with various virtues, but not finding his destiny, a victim of education, a product of society, not needed by society itself. Its difference from its predecessors, the “superfluous people” of the 1820s, is that Pechorin embodies the next stage in the evolution of the type; in his life, in comparison, for example, with Pushkin’s Onegin, there are more active actions (a trip to the Caucasus, a trip to Persia, participation in the war), but all this activity does not bring any result, Pechorin still feels worthless, and from a public point of view, his prospects are much more doubtful than those of Onegin, if only because 1830sgg. in Russia are marked by a decline in political activity after the defeat of the Decembrists, much greater pessimism and inertia of society, which cannot but affect people's lives. Thus, Pechorin is a dual character, combining romantic and realistic features. If we trace the evolution of the hero in accordance with the chronological order of events, then we will see a gradual debunking of the romantic component of the hero’s character and an increase in realistic features, a “decrease” in the image.

"Taman". Pechorin is presented as a romantic young man, interested in secrets, experiencing a romantic love for the beautiful "undine". Only at the end of the story does he ask an atypical for a romantic question about the meaning of his actions, he questions the already realized romantic scenario from the point of view of reasonableness.

"PrincessMary". Pechorin continues to act like a typical romantic hero, but his self-reflection is growing, doubts about the appropriateness of romantic actions are growing, and Pechorin's parody double Grushnitsky discredits the very essence of a romantic character.

"Fatalist". Pechorin, retaining the appearance of a romantic hero, begins to doubt the values \u200b\u200bthat are unshakable for a romantic (rock, predestination), finding a rational explanation for mystical coincidences.

"Bela". Pechorin does not behave romantically enough in a romantic situation, his love ends in disappointment and boredom, and he hesitates, instead of making a decision. He already has something to blame for - he ruined the fate of Bela because of a whim and became an indirect culprit of her death.

"MaximMaksimych". Pechorin makes a depressing impression on the traveler officer with his lethargy and apathy (“thirty-year-old Balzac coquette”), and his behavior, while retaining outward signs of romanticism (principled loneliness, refusal to meet with an old friend), becomes repulsive and reprehensible.

ForewordtoJournalPechorin. The hero dies, unable to withstand the collision with reality, having lost the incentive to further existence. The combination of romantic and realistic beginnings in "A Hero of Our Time" can be traced not only in the image of the protagonist, but also in other elements of the work's poetics.

Name	Elementspoetics	Romanticism	Realism
	characters	Pechorin (those of his actions that are associated with falling in love with Bela and kidnapping a girl), Bela, Azamat, Kazbich, Bela's relatives	Pechorin (at a moment of indecision, when he does not take any action to resolve the problem with Bela, whom he fell out of love with), M.M. officer-traveler, "swindlers" Lezgins on the Georgian Military Highway
	scene	Caucasus, mountain village	Caucasus, dirty Lezgi villages next to the Georgian Military Highway
		Pechorin's love for Bela, kidnapping of a girl, kidnapping of a horse belonging to Kazbich, Bela's death at the hands of Kazbich	Pechorin's indecisiveness in relations with Bela, who bored him, a description of the journey of the narrator and Maxim Maksimych in the Caucasus
"Maxim Maksimych"	characters	Pechorin (when he tries to act like a lonely romantic hero and refuses to meet an old friend)	Pechorin in the perception of the narrator, who compares the hero with a "thirty-year-old Balzac coquette"; Maksim Maksimych, travel officer
	scene	Caucasus (Russian readers have a generalized idea of the Caucasus as an exotic place)	Vladikavkaz, an ordinary roadside hotel
		A coincidence that brought together two people who had not seen each other for a long time	Ordinarily past meeting of old acquaintances, during the cat. one offended the other with his neglect and immediately left
"Taman"	characters	Pechorin (behaves like a typical romantic hero seeking to solve a mystery), Ondine girl, smugglers, a mysterious blind boy who behaves "like a sighted"	Pechorin, when in the finale he begins to doubt the meaningfulness of the romantic scenario, which he himself implemented; representatives of local authorities in Taman, officials, military and police
	scene	Taman, sea coast, mysterious dilapidated hut	Taman is a boring, dusty town
		Mysterious story with smugglers, love for "undine", attempted murder by a girl	A prosaic denouement, when it turns out that Pechorin simply interfered with the business of "honest smugglers", and the hero begins to wonder about the need to interfere in other people's affairs
"Princess Mary"	characters	Pechorin as a demonic "puppeteer" directing his own play at the resort; Princess Mary; Werner (double of Pechorin, reflecting his rational side)	Pechorin at the moment when what is happening begins to hurt him and he shows selfish interest; Grushnitsky (Pechorin's parody double), Princess Ligovskaya and the rest of the "water society"
	scene	Caucasus, mountains.	A resort on the Caucasian Mineralnye Vody, a civilized place inhabited by the sick and crippled.
		The love of Pechorin and Vera, Mary's love for Pechorin, the duel with the participation of Pechorin and Grushnitsky, the intrigues of Pechorin, who feels almost like a demon tempter	The manifestation of Pechorin's selfish instincts, the vulgar intrigues of the "water society" against Pechorin, the unsightly death of Grushnitsky, the denouement of the story with Princess Mary, which does not honor Pechorin
"Fatalist"	characters	Pechorin, tempting fate; Vulich (double Pechorin)	Pechorin (at the moment when he begins to doubt the existence of predestination); MM.; Cossack killer and other inhabitants of the Cossack village
	scene		Cossack village, with impassable mud on the streets and wooden huts
		The bet made between Vulich and the officers, the tragic death of Vulich after the prediction, Pechorin's attempts to verify the thesis about the existence of predestination	Details of the death of Vulich (he was hacked to death by a drunken Cossack, who had just killed a pig in a neighboring street); doubts Pech. in the existence of fate, fate; a realistic explanation of everything that happens, given in the finale by M.M.

homesubjectnovel- the socially typical personality of the noble circle after the defeat of the Decembrists. His leading thought is the condemnation of this person, and even more sharply - of the social environment that gave birth to him.

Lermontov's progressive position was indicated from the very beginning of the novel - from the outline of the "recording" traveler - the exile, the "traveling officer", the publisher of Pechorin's diary. This is the most positive face of the novel. He convincingly combines the features of a humanist, a truth-seeker, a patriot, an enthusiastic admirer of nature, disappointed in the life around him and firmly convinced that happiness in it is "not in the order of things." It is to him, and also to some extent to Pechorin, that Lermontov “gives away” his own thoughts and feelings.

The plot-forming character, passing through the novel and connecting all its parts, except for the narrator, is Pechorin. This is the central figure, the focus of the novel, its driving force. Pechorin, Onegin's successor, "an extra person" of the 30s. This is a romantic in character and behavior, by nature a person of exceptional abilities, an outstanding mind, and a strong will. He was characterized by the highest aspirations for social activity and ardent desires for freedom. “I am ready,” says Pechorin, “for all the sacrifices ... but I will not sell my freedom.” He rises above the people of his environment and versatile education, wide awareness in literature, sciences, philosophy. He himself is a materialist and an atheist. He sees a woeful shortcoming in the inability of his generation "to make great sacrifices for the good of mankind." Hating and despising the aristocracy, Pechorin converges closer with people of a democratic warehouse: Werner and Maxim Maksimych.

Pechorin is not without good impulses. At the evening at the Ligovskys, he "felt sorry for Vera." On his last meeting with Mary, compassion seized him with such force that "another minute" - and he would have "fell at her feet." Risking his life, he was the first to rush into the hut of the killer Vulich. Pechorin does not hide his sympathy for the oppressed. That is why, on the night before the duel, while reading W. Scott's political novel "The Scottish Puritans" about a popular uprising against tyrants, he "forgotten, carried away by magical fiction." There can be no doubt about his sympathy for the Decembrists exiled to the Caucasus. After all, it is said about them in his diary that the wives of the Caucasian authorities "are accustomed ... to meet an ardent heart under a numbered button and an educated mind under a white cap."

Pechorin fully felt and understood that under the conditions of autocratic despotism, meaningful activity for the sake of the common good is impossible for him and his generation. This led to the unbridled skepticism and pessimism so characteristic of him, the conviction that life is "boring and disgusting." Doubts devastated Pechorin to the point that he had only two convictions left: birth is a misfortune, and death is inevitable. Divorced from the environment to which he belongs by birth and upbringing, denouncing her, he creates a cruel judgment on himself. Belinsky sees in this "strength of spirit and power of will." Dissatisfied with his aimless life, passionately longing for an ideal, but not seeing, not finding it, Pechorin asks: “Why did I live? for what purpose was I born?..” At one time, E. Mikhailova convincingly showed that, having internally moved away from the class “to which he belongs by birth and social status, Pechorin did not find another, new system of social relationships with which he merged would". And therefore, “he sees no law for himself except himself.”

Morally crippled, Pechorin lost his good goals, turned into a cold, cruel, despotic egoist, frozen in proud loneliness, hated even by himself. According to Belinsky, “hungry for troubles and storms,” madly chasing life and “looking for it everywhere,” Pechorin manifests himself primarily as an evil, egocentric force that brings people only suffering and misfortune. “Intense pride” is how he defined human happiness. He perceives the sufferings and joys of others “only in relation to himself” as food that supports his spiritual strength. For the sake of a capricious whim, without much thought, he tore Bela out of his native soil and destroyed her. He is deeply offended by Maxim Maksimych. For the sake of empty red tape and curiosity, he ruined the nest of "honest smugglers." They violated Vera's family peace, grossly offended the love and dignity of Mary.

Pechorin, according to Dobrolyubov, not knowing where to go and put his strength, exhausts the heat of his soul into petty passions and insignificant deeds. The position and fate of Pechorin are tragic. The tragedy of Pechorin is that he is not satisfied with either the surrounding reality or his characteristic individualism and skepticism. Having lost faith in everything, corroded by the darkest doubts, he greedily reaches for meaningful, socially purposeful activity, but in those circumstances he does not find it. Like Onegin, Pechorin is a suffering egoist, an egoist involuntarily, due to the circumstances that determine his character and actions. This is what makes him sympathetic.

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