Types of grammatical categories are general and particular. Grammar categories and parts of speech

“parts of speech”, in accordance with tradition, began to be used in relation to all distinguished classes of words, including auxiliary, modal, and interjections. 4.

Gram.kat is a system of rows of grammatical forms opposed to each other with homogeneous meanings.

Gram.cat. is a two-sided unit of the morphological system of the language, which has PV (semantics) and PS (external signs, with the help of which the semantics are vyr-sya). In terms of semantics, a gram.cat.is a set of homogeneous gram.values ​​(the general semantics of the categorical case named after a noun includes private values ​​of 6 cases, in the queue private gram.values ​​can be are divisible into elementary gram.values ​​From the point of view of the PVgramm.cat, this is a set of grammatical forms that serve to calculate private gram.values. down with-long, etc. when folding them. adj., we select several forms, their set is r-e singular, and the value of the plural is r-by forms long-long-long, etc. .). Particular grammatical values, expressed by grammatical forms, form oppositions, which constitute the essence of grammatical cat (singular opposite plural). gram.values.are included in oppositions for various reasons.Gram.cat.are marked by the number of opposing members (they can be two-term, 3-member or more). .inflective members of which can be represented by forms of the same word (time, mood, person ch.). such members of which cannot be represented by members of one and the same word (genus, odush-neod, name noun). the belonging of certain grammatical categories (n., type and voice at ch.) to an inflectional or non-inflective type is the object of discussion. Distinction.gram.cat.from lexical-grammar.categories. lexico-grammatical categories are such subclasses within the definition of speech, which have a common semantic feature that affects the ability of words to express certain categorical morphological meanings (n., im. collect., concret., abstract., substances, and appl. TYPES OF RELATIONSHIP OF PS AND PV: 1) one or another form of the word expresses the content of the def. gram. cat; 2) some form that the word has, being a form of the def cat. the specific content of this cat., i.e. there is a PV, but not a PS; 3) the word form contains the meaning of this or that gram. cat, but there is no special form for its expression in the word.

You can also find information of interest in the scientific search engine Otvety.Online. Use the search form:

More on the topic GRAMMATIC CATEGORY. TYPES OF GRAMMATIC CATEGORIES IN THE RUSSIAN LANGUAGE. THE DIFFERENCE OF GRAMMATIC CATEGORIES FROM LEXICO-GRAMMATIC CATEGORIES.:

1. The grammatical meaning of the word. Ways and means of expressing grammatical meanings. grammatical form. The grammatical paradigm of the word. grammar category. Typology of grammatical categories.
2. grammar category. Principles of classifications and types of grammatical categories.
3. 30. Adverb as a part of speech, a system of lexical and grammatical categories and morphological categories. The question of the words of the category of state in Russian linguistic literature.
4. 21. Grammatical form, grammatical meaning of the word, morphological paradigm, morphological category. Principles of classification of morphological categories.
5. 23. The noun as a part of speech, the system of its lexical and grammatical categories and morphological categories.
6. 24. Adjective as a part of speech. Lexico-grammatical categories, morpho-logical categories.
7. 25. Numerals as a part of speech, the system of its lexical and grammatical categories and morphological categories. The question of part-of-speech attribution of ordinal adjectives-numerals.

specially organized and expressed sets of linguistic meanings (“grammes”) that have a privileged status in the language system; each language has its own grammatical categories, but many meanings that are essential for human experience turn out to be part of the grammatical categories of a very large number of languages ​​(for example, the values ​​of the number of objects, the duration of the action, the time of the action relative to the moment of speech, the subject and object of the action, desirability, etc. .).

To be considered a grammatical category, a set of meanings must have at least two properties, namely categorical and obligation. The first property (also known under the names of mutual exclusivity, paradigm, homogeneity, functionality, etc.) allows you to select from the whole set of linguistic meanings those that are combined into categories; the second singles out among the linguistic categories those that are grammatical for a given language. A category can only be a set of values ​​whose elements are mutually exclusive, i.e. cannot simultaneously characterize the same object (this property can be formulated in another way: each object at a certain moment can be assigned only one value from this set). Thus, the property of categorization or mutual exclusivity in the normal case is possessed by the values ​​of physical age (a person cannot be both an old man and a child), gender, size, and many others. On the other hand, values ​​such as color are not categories: the same object may well be colored in different colors at the same time.

Not all language categories, however, can be considered grammatical. For this, it is necessary that the category satisfies the second property, i.e. the property of obligation (in modern linguistics, this statement has received wide recognition, mainly after the works of R. Jacobson, but similar ideas have been expressed before). A category is obligatory (for some class of words) if any word from this class expresses any meaning of this category. So, in Russian, for example, the category of tense of the verb is obligatory: any personal form of the verb in the text expresses one of the meanings of this category (either the past, or the present, or the future tense), and there is no such personal form of the verb that could be would say that she "no time", ie. not characterized by time in grammatical terms.

The existence of mandatory categories in the language means that the speaker, intending to use a word in speech, is forced to express one of the meanings of a certain category with this word (i.e., to characterize the given word according to this category). So, choosing a personal form of a verb, a Russian speaker is obliged to characterize it by type, tense, mood, voice, person / number (or, in the past tense, gender) of the subject, since all these are grammatical categories of the Russian verb. The speaker is obliged to indicate the appropriate meanings of grammatical categories, even if this is not part of his own communicative intention - for example, he might not have specifically meant to designate the time of action. Of course, the speaker can still avoid indicating the time - but then he will no longer have to use a verb, but, for example, a noun, which in Russian does not have an obligatory category of time. Wed couple kind You came ~ your arrival, where the grammatical tense is expressed only in the first case; If desired, this can be done in the second case (cf. your past/future arrival etc.), but it is essential that if the speaker wants to evade the expression of time with a noun, he can freely do this without violating the grammatical requirements of the language, while in the case of the verb form this is impossible.

The grammatical categories of each language can be likened to a kind of questionnaire for describing objects and situations in a given language: the speaker cannot successfully complete this description without answering (whether he wants to or not) the questions of such a "grammatical questionnaire". According to the apt remark of R. Jacobson, "the main difference between languages ​​is not what can or cannot be expressed, but what should or should not be communicated by the speakers." From this follows the importance of the role played by grammar in the creation of the so-called "naive picture of the world", i.e. that way of reflecting reality, which is the specificity of each language (and the culture behind it), since it is in the system of grammatical categories that the collective experience of native speakers of a given language is primarily reflected.

In different languages, the number of grammatical categories is different; there are languages ​​with a very developed "grammatical questionnaire", in other languages ​​the set of grammatical categories is very limited (languages ​​that are completely devoid of grammatical meanings are still not attested, although their existence, generally speaking, does not contradict linguistic theory).

Along with the two main properties mentioned above, grammatical categories, as a rule, are also characterized by a number of additional properties. The scope of applicability of the grammatical category (i.e. the set of those words for which the category is obligatory) must be large enough and have natural boundaries (as a rule, these are large semantic-grammatical classes of words such as nouns or verbs or their subclasses such as transitive verbs, animate nouns etc.). On the other hand, the number of meanings of a grammatical category (grammes) is usually small, and they are expressed using a small number of regular indicators. These three additional properties make it possible, in particular, to distinguish between grammatical and so-called lexical obligation (the latter is always tied to a small group of words, and the corresponding meanings do not have regular indicators). So, in Russian, the choice of the meaning "child of the same parents" is necessarily accompanied by an indication of the sex of the child (respectively, brother or sister), however, we cannot talk about the grammatical category “gender of a relative” for the reasons listed above: the obligatory indication of gender in Russian is characteristic of only a small group of nouns (terms of kinship), and at the same time, there are no special indicators of male or female sex as part of these I have no words. Lexical obligation is a very common phenomenon, but it characterizes separate groups of the vocabulary of a given language and is not systemic.

The meaning of grammes of grammatical categories is a very complex object; entities called grammatical meanings (for example, "plural", "dative", "past tense", etc.), as a rule, are much more complicated than lexical meanings. One should not identify the name of a gramme with its meaning (as often - voluntarily or involuntarily - do the authors of grammatical descriptions): behind the name of the "plural" type, in fact, there is a certain set of contextual meanings expressed by a set of formal indicators, while any indicator can have any of given values, and any value can be attributed to any of these indicators. Thus, in Russian, the number is expressed differently depending on the type of declension of the noun and other factors (cf. fingers,Houses,apples,studio etc.), and plural forms - regardless of what indicator is present in them - can express not only a simple set of objects, but also a class of objects as a whole ( ostriches are dying out), various varieties or varieties of objects ( precious metals,cheeses), a large number of ( sands), uncertainty ( are there any vacancies? » "at least one place"), etc. This situation is typical for most grammars, which, therefore, in the general case, are only a kind of labels denoting a rather complex correspondence between formal and meaningful elements of the language.

The contextual meanings of grammemes may include an appeal both to the properties of the surrounding world and to the syntactic properties of other words. Values ​​of the first type are called semantic (or semantically filled, nominative, etc.); meanings of the second type are called syntactic (or relational), which reflects their main property - to serve as an expression of syntactic relationships between words in the text, and not a direct description of reality (compare, for example, gender grammes in Russian nouns of the type sofa and couch, reflecting only the difference in their matching models: a big sofa and large ottoman). Syntactic meanings, to one degree or another, are present in almost every grammatical category (for example, in the Russian language, the appearance of the singular in constructions with numerals of the type three Houses , twenty one house or in distributive constructions like advisers put on nose glasses). There are also grammatical categories in which syntactic meanings predominate or even are the only ones. Such categories are called syntactic; the most important of these are the gender and case of nouns, and in some cases also the voice and mood of verbs. Languages ​​that do not have syntactic grammatical categories are called insulating(these are primarily the Austroasiatic, Thai and Sino-Tibetan languages ​​of Southeast Asia, the Mande and Kwa languages ​​of West Africa, etc.).

Most often, grammes are expressed using morphological means - affixes (among which prefixes, suffixes, infixes, circumfixes and transfixes are distinguished), as well as alternations and reduplications. The morphological expression of grammes is characteristic of agglutinative and fusional languages ​​(non-affixal morphological technique also plays a significant role in the latter). The most striking examples of fusion languages ​​are Sanskrit, Ancient Greek, Lithuanian, many languages ​​of the Indians of North America, etc.; languages ​​that are equally agglutinative and fusional (such, for example, are many Uralic, Mongolian, Semitic languages, Bantu languages, etc.) are widespread. At the same time, there is also a non-morphological way of expressing grammatical meanings, in which these latter are conveyed by independent word forms (“functional words”) or syntactic constructions. Languages ​​with a predominance of non-morphological techniques for expressing grammatical meanings are called analytic (such, in particular, are the Polynesian languages).

If a grammatical category is arranged in such a way that all its grammes are able to alternately join the stem of the same word, then such a category is called inflectional, and combinations of its grammes with the stem of a word are called grammatical forms of this word. The totality of all grammatical forms of one word forms its paradigm, and the word, understood as the totality of all its forms, is called a lexeme. Typical examples of inflectional categories are the case of a noun, the tense and mood of a verb, etc.: thus, in the normal case, the stem of each noun is combined with indicators of all cases of a given language, the stem of each verb is combined with indicators of all moods, etc. (non-systemic violations of this principle lead to the emergence of so-called defective paradigms, cf. the absence of the genitive plural form in the word cod or forms of the 1st person singular. numbers on the verb win In russian language).

Not all grammatical categories, however, form paradigms of grammatical forms: it is also possible that only one grammeme can be expressed in the stem of a word. Such grammatical categories do not oppose different forms of the same word, but different words (that is, different lexemes) and are called word-classifying. A typical example of a word-classifying category is the gender of nouns: for example, in Russian, each noun belongs to one of three genders, but Russian nouns do not have the ability to form “generic paradigms” (i.e., freely change the meaning of gender). On the contrary, in Russian adjectives, the category of gender, as it is easy to see, is inflectional (cf. paradigms like white ~ white ~ white etc.).

The main syntactic grammatical categories are gender and case (for the name) and voice (for the verb): the gender is associated with the morphological expression of agreement, and the case is associated with the morphological expression of control. In addition, both case and voice provide a distinction between semantic and syntactic arguments of the verb, i.e. such syntactic entities as subject and objects, and such semantic entities as agent, patient, instrument, place, reason, and many others. etc. Syntactic (consensual) categories also include the person/number and gender of the verb.

Most of the grammatical categories found in the languages ​​of the world belong to semantic categories. The specific semantic categories of nouns are number and determination (or, in the "European" version, certainty/indefiniteness). The categories of number, determination and case closely interact and are often expressed by a single grammatical indicator (inflection); inflectional case-number paradigms are also characteristic of the Russian language. The category of number is usually represented by two grammes (singular and plural), but in a number of languages ​​there is also a dual number, originally associated, apparently, with the designation of paired objects (such as lips, eyes, shores etc.); the dual number was in ancient Greek, Sanskrit, Old Russian, classical Arabic; it is also attested in modern languages: Slovene, Koryak, Selkup, Khanty, etc. Even more rare is a special grammatical expression for a set of three objects (ternary number) or a small number of objects (spider number): such grammes are found, for example, in languages New Guinea.

The system of semantic grammatical categories of the verb is very diverse and varies greatly in different languages. With a certain degree of conventionality, verbal categories can be divided into three large semantic zones: aspectual, temporal and modal. Aspect (or species) meanings include all those that describe the features of the deployment of the situation in time (duration, limitation, repetition) or highlight certain temporal phases of the situation (for example, the initial stage or result); in this sense, the well-known characterization of the aspect as the "internal tense" of the verb is correct. On the contrary, the grammatical category, traditionally called “time” in linguistics, only indicates the relative chronology of a given situation, i.e. whether it takes place before, at the same time, or after some other situation (“starting point”). The reference point can be arbitrary (and in this case we have the category of relative time, or taxis), but it can also be fixed; a fixed reference point coinciding with the moment of pronouncing the statement (“moment of speech”) gives the category of absolute time with three main grammemes: past, present and future tense. An additional indication of the degree of remoteness of the situation from the moment of speech (indication of "temporal distance") can increase the number of grammes of the category of time; developed systems for designating time distances are especially characteristic of the Bantu languages ​​(Tropical Africa). Aspect and time are often expressed together in verb word forms (hence the traditional grammatical nomenclature, in which any aspect-tense verb form could be called “time”). Combinations of the continuous aspect and the past tense (commonly known as "imperfect"), as well as the limited aspect and past tense (commonly known as "aorist") are most typical.

The verbal system can be characterized by a large number of aspectual grammars: for example, to the basic opposition of a long (durative, imperfective) and limited (perfective, dotted) aspect, often (as, for example, in many Turkic languages), at least a habitual (and / or multiple) aspect is added aspect and resultative aspect (cf. window open , Russian dial. is he drunk ). A difference analogous to the habitual aspect can be expressed lexically in Russian, cf. boy goes to school and boy walks to school. A special kind of resultative aspect is the perfect, which is very widespread in the languages ​​of the world (for example, the perfect is found in English, Spanish, Greek, Finnish, Bulgarian, Persian and many other languages). On the contrary, “poor” aspectual systems (such as Eastern or Western Slavic) are characterized by the opposition of only two aspectual grammars (called perfect vs. imperfective, perfective vs. imperfective, complete vs. incompletive, etc.), but each of of these grammes has a very wide range of contextual meanings. Thus, in Russian, an imperfective grammeme can express duration, repetition, habituality, and even the perfect (cf. Maxim was reading « War and peace»); the choice of one or another interpretation depends on the context, the lexical semantics of the verb, and other factors. In languages ​​with "rich" aspectual systems (such as Turkic, Polynesian or Bantu), all these meanings may differ morphologically.

The most complex and branched structure has a zone of verbal modality (giving the grammatical category of mood). Modal meanings include, firstly, those that indicate the degree of reality of the situation (surreal situations do not take place in reality, but are possible, probable, desired, conditioned, etc.), and secondly, those that express the speaker's assessment of the described situation (for example, the degree of reliability of the situation, the degree of desirability of the situation for the speaker, etc.). It is easy to see that evaluative and surreal meanings are often closely related to each other: for example, desirable situations always have a positive assessment of the speaker, surreal situations often have a lower degree of certainty, and so on. It is no coincidence, therefore, that the use, for example, of the conditional mood to express doubt or incomplete certainty, is characteristic of many languages ​​of the world.

A special place among mood grammars is occupied by the imperative, which combines the expression of the speaker's desire with the expression of motivation directed at the addressee. The imperative is one of the most common grammars in natural languages ​​(perhaps this meaning is universal). Mood grammars also have a large proportion of syntactic uses (for example, in many languages ​​the predicate of a subordinate clause must take the form of one of the unreal moods; the same applies to the expression of questions or negations).

Adjacent to the mood is the grammatical category of evidentiality, which expresses the source of information about the situation being described. In many languages ​​of the world, such an indication is mandatory: this means that the speaker must report whether he observed this event with his own eyes, heard about it from someone, judges it on the basis of indirect signs or logical reasoning, etc.; the most complex evidential systems are characteristic of the Tibetan languages ​​and a number of American Indian languages, somewhat simpler evidential systems are found in the languages ​​of the Balkan area (Bulgarian, Albanian, Turkish), as well as in many languages ​​of the Caucasus, Siberia and the Far East.

Espersen O. Philosophy of grammar. M., 1958
Zaliznyak A.A. Russian nominal inflection. M., 1967
Whorf B.L. Grammar categories. – In: Principles of typological analysis of languages ​​of different systems. M., 1972
Revzina O.G. General theory of grammatical categories. – In: Structural and typological studies in the field of grammar of Slavic languages. M., 1973
Bondarko A.V. Theory of morphological categories. L., 1976
Bulygina T.V. Grammatical and semantic categories and their relationships. – In: Aspects of Semantic Research. M., 1980
Jacobson R.O. Boas' views on grammatical meaning. - In the book: Yakobson R.O. Selected works. M., 1985
Apresyan Yu.D. Principles for describing the meanings of grammes. – In: Typology of constructions with predicate actants. L., 1985
Melchuk I.A. General morphology course, vol. II, part 2. Morphological meanings. M., 1998

The central and fundamental concept of grammar is the concept of a grammatical category.

Grammar category- these are the meanings of a generalized nature inherent in words, meanings abstracted from the specific lexical meanings of these words. Categorical meanings can be indicators of, for example, the relationship of a given word to other words in a phrase and sentence (case category), relationship to the speaker (person category), relationship of reported to reality (mood category), relationship of reported to time (tense category) and etc.

Grammar categories have varying degrees of abstraction. For example, the grammatical category of case, in comparison with the grammatical category of gender, is a more abstract category. So, any noun is included in the system of case relations, but not every one of them is included in the system of oppositions by gender: teacher - teacher, actor - actress, but teacher, linguist, director.

b) within the framework of morphological categories, the grammatical meanings of a word (as well as grammatical formal means) are studied not in isolation, but in opposition to all other homogeneous grammatical meanings and all formal means of expressing these meanings. For example, the category of the verb aspect is made up of homogeneous meanings of the perfect and imperfect aspect, the category of person is the homogeneous meanings of the 1st, 2nd and 3rd person.

When analyzing morphological categories, it is especially important to take into account the unity of semantic and formal plans: if any plan is absent, then this phenomenon cannot be considered as a category. For example, there is no reason to consider the opposition of proper names to common nouns as a morphological category, since this opposition does not find a consistent formal expression. The opposition of verbal conjugations is not a category either, but for a different reason: clear formal indicators (endings) of I and II conjugations do not serve to express semantic differences between verbs of different conjugations.

1. By the number of forms that a morphological category can be represented, they distinguish binary and non-binary categories.

Binary categories are represented by the opposition of two (series) forms. For example, the category of the number of a noun is represented by the singular and plural forms, the category of voice by the active and passive forms. One form is not a system, and due to the absence of a contrast of meanings (opposition) cannot represent categories. Consider an analogy: a street light represents a system of color signals: red - stop, yellow - attention, green - go, which, in fact, constitutes a lexical paradigm (red / yellow / green = stop / attention / go).

Suppose this system is simplified, reduced to one color, then the color value system remains binary (becomes similar to the grammatical one):

Yellow color - blinking - be careful (especially attentive), because the traffic light is installed in especially important places for pedestrian traffic;

Red - stop, especially dangerous, the absence of color allows movement;

Green - go, the absence of color in principle prohibits movement (it is dangerous to go) - the system of pointers, and in the presence of one expresser, as in grammar, it seems to be the opposition of its zero significance, and you can choose the most optimal system of signs.

(In practice, flashing yellow is selected). However, with any number of forms and in non-binary categories (represented, for example, by three forms, as in the category of the mood of the verb, or six forms, as in the category of the case of the noun), binary as a phenomenon of opposition (contrast of meanings) is of fundamental importance for the realization of the semantic potential of the category .

2. By the nature of the opposition of the components, categories are distinguished that are formed on the basis of:

1) privative (unequal), 2) equivalent (equivalent), 3) gradual (gradual) relations.

A privative opposition according to gender is formed by nouns of the type teacher - teacher, tractor driver - tractor driver, cashier - cashier: a masculine noun in such pairs can name both a man and a woman, and a feminine noun can only name a woman. The privative category is the aspect in the verb. Perfective verbs answer only the semantic question What to do, and imperfective verbs, except for the question What to do, in some speech situations they also answer the question What to do? What was wrong with the boy? What did he do? He was picking apples in someone else's garden.

Equivalent opposition is formed by some masculine and feminine personal nouns: mother - father, brother - sister, girl - boy. Masculine nouns denote men, feminine nouns denote women.

Gradual relations are presented in degrees of comparison.

The case as a grammatical category in a certain volume is arranged according to the principle of additional distribution: the same lexical meaning with the help of a case is placed in different syntactic positions: to lose someone, to envy someone, to hate someone, to admire someone, to grieve about someone - about something.

In the same grammatical category, different principles of semantic organization can be found.

3. Depending on whether the components of the grammatical category are one word or represent different lexemes, they distinguish inflectional and classifying (lexico-grammatical) categories. Inflectional categories find their expression in the opposition of different word forms of the same word. For example, the category of the person of the verb is inflectional, since to find it it is enough to compare different forms of the same verb (go, go, go)

Non-inflecting(classification, or lexico-grammatical) categories find their expression in the opposition of words according to their grammatical properties. Taking into account the meanings expressed by non-inflective categories, the vocabulary of the language can be divided into grammatical classes (therefore, morphological categories of this type are called classification). Non-inflective are, for example, the categories of gender and animate/inanimate nouns.

A. V. Bondarko called inflectional categories correlative, and classifying - non-correlative. At the same time, he singled out consistently correlative, consistently non-correlative and inconsistently correlative grammatical categories.

E.V. Klobukov proposed to single out interpretative morphological categories as a special type, " intended to express the degree of relative importance of two or more homogeneous semantic elements» statements. " Thanks to these categories, one of the homogeneous meanings is singled out by the speaker as the main one, and the other meaning as an additional, accompanying, comitative informational part.". The grammatical meaning expressed by such categories, E.V. Klobukov calls comitative On the basis of comitativity, in his opinion, opposition of full and short forms of the adjective, conjugated and attributive forms of the verb, forms of the active and passive voice, as well as nominative and vocative cases to oblique cases is organized

4. By the nature of the content, morphological categories are distinguished with formal dominant and semantic dominant.

In categories with a formal dominant, forms perform to a greater extent the function of constructing a sentence, its structural units - combinations of words, rather than distinguishing grammatical semantics based on conceptual content. These are the categories of gender, number and case of adjectives. Adjective forms agree in gender, number and case with the noun. These three different categories in the adjective denote the same formal feature - dependence on the noun: the material differences between these forms white (shawl) - white (dress) - white (kerchief) - white (shawls, dresses, scarves, trousers) - white (trousers)— etc. - do not introduce any meanings into the semantics of forms, except for the general meaning of the adjective - dependence on the noun.

Another thing is the form of the number of nouns in words denoting counted objects: house - at home, notebook - notebooks. However, in other nouns, the number forms lose this quantitative semantics, their formal side is strengthened: the form of the number is in some cases only an indicator of the formal independence of the noun, independence in number from other words (compare: ate soup - ate cabbage soup; bought perfume, cologne - bought perfume, cologne; put on glasses bruh ki).

The case forms of nouns distinguish the subject/object of the action: The student asks the teacher. — The teacher asks the student. The sentences differ not in form, but in the meaning of the subject/object of the same lexical units. The category of case is a category with semantic significance, but it also has a formal (structural) significance.

The situation is even more complicated with the category of the gender of a noun. Therefore, in different grammars, one can find a different interpretation of the content of this category: either it falls into the lexico-grammatical category, or into the grammatical category. The content of the gender category is genetically based on the distinction between masculine and feminine, everything connected with it in one way or another, but in a synchronous plan, only in some cases, the gender form reveals the semantics of gender. In the Russian language, in accordance with the gender of the noun, the words were distributed according to the types of declension, so that we can already speak of the type of declension as a morphological expression of the gender.

Thus, the category of the gender of a noun in the modern Russian language is a category with a formal dominant that interacts with the lexical component of the word form. Semantically, the form of the gender is not motivated in words denoting realities that do not have gender characteristics: house - wall - window. The gender of these nouns is a purely formal feature of the noun; the immutability of the gender is an indicator of the form of a noun, in contrast to an adjective, and an indicator of the type of declension (as well as the number forms of nouns that are invariable in number; in particular, nouns like glasses, gates, scissors are sometimes called nouns of a natural pair gender for this feature). Many nouns denoting persons and living beings also have an unmotivated gender form (not directly related to the gender of the signified) ( painter, well done, soldier; pike, dog etc.).

A notable proportion of nouns, however, have a gender-motivated gender form: father - mother, cow - bull, lion - lioness. For some nouns, the morphological expression of the gender - the type of declension - does not coincide with the syntactic expression - the main indicator of the gender: like[oh] men[a](which gives rise to the natural question of the child: "Dad, are you a man?"). The semantic field of male and female is wider, of course, than the semantics of gender itself. The meaning of the masculine, for example, is associated with the semantics of the strong, important, large, etc., the meaning of the feminine is associated with the semantics of the gentle, soft, beautiful, and everything opposite to the masculine.

« In languages ​​weighed down- as I.A. Baudouin de Courtenay, genitourinary nightmare”, in historical terms, one can observe how the mentality of the people developed in the field of fundamental human culture problems, analyzing the design of nouns by gender. But this must be done with great care, understanding a certain convention of the form and the inevitability of folk etymologization in this paralinguistic field of research, the creative potential of which can be seen in the artist's work with the word.

As a category with a formal dominant, the category of the gender of a noun has developed to perform a structural function - to connect, on the one hand, adjectives with a noun, on the other hand, a noun with verbs and other nouns. This category is represented by the forms of agreement between the adjective and the noun and the type of declension that has developed in accordance with the gender of the noun.

In the forms of inclination, an assessment of the action is expressed from the point of view of the reality of the action ( read - would read - read), in the forms of time - the ratio of the action to the moment of speech ( read - read - reads - will read, will read), in the form of a face - the attitude to the speaker as to the performer of the action ( reading - reading - reading), in forms of the form - the nature of the course of the action in time ( write down - write down), in forms of voice - the location of the action relative to its subject and object ( lost - was lost: Children lost a telegram in the snow. — The telegram was lost by the children in the snow).

The term "grammatical category" is also used in another, broader sense - in the sense of a class of words united by common grammatical features. In this sense, we are talking about the category of a noun, and so on. However, at the same time, the qualifying adjective lexical is added, i.e. we are talking about lexico-grammatical categories of words, or parts of speech.

The subject of morphology. Stages of development of morphology as a science. The concept of a grammatical word, grammatical meaning, morphological paradigm, word form. (WE ACTIVELY PRAY TO THE GODS THAT THIS IS TO ARINA AND NOT TO US)

Morphology in translation from Greek means literally "the doctrine of form." This is the section of grammar that studies grammatical properties of a word. Since morphology is inextricably linked with grammatical meanings and categories, it is part of grammar. The term "inflection" is often used as a synonym for the term "morphology".

The well-known linguist V.V. Vinogradov called morphology the grammatical doctrine of the word.

A word as a grammatical unit is a set of word forms with a single lexical and categorical grammatical meaning. In the text, it appears in a specific word form. Yes, the word book has 12 word forms: 6 case forms of the singular and 6 case forms of the plural. In the examples I was given an interesting book and I was given interesting books the selected word forms differ in particular grammatical meanings - unit values. and many others. numbers, while the word book preserves both the lexical and categorical grammatical meaning of the subject. lexeme is a representative of a group of specific word forms that have an identical lexical meaning. The whole set of word forms included in this lexeme is called paradigm.

When producing a text, constructing an utterance, it is very important to choose the form of the word that is most optimal for expressing a certain meaning. To do this, you need to know the rules of inflection of different parts of speech, the features of the functioning of grammatical forms, to have an idea about the semantic potential of grammatical categories of different parts of speech.

That's why subject of morphology is an the doctrine of parts of speech(grammatical classes of words),their morphological categories(gender, number, case, species, mood, tense, person, pledge),vocabulary system.

Morphology tasks.

Determine the principles of combining word forms into a lexeme.

Determine which part of the meaning of word forms is grammatical.

establish the list and nature of grammatical categories,

correlate them with the characteristics of the objective reality reflected in the language,

· establish a set of formal tools involved in the creation of grammatical categories. (SRYa under the editorship of Beloshapkova, 1981)

Aspects of studying morphology:

· Proper grammatical or system-structural approach (in different academic grammars) -> a complete description of the grammatical structure of the language.

· Contrastive - the study of grammar in comparison with other languages.

· Normative approach - creation of various dictionaries, norms, changes in grammar. Sociolinguistic research. Gram.variants in various spheres of life.

· Grammar of Russian as a foreign language. It is important to know the accuracy, be able to explain, write for different purposes (to teach to speak or write essays).

· Functional aspect. Describes how the language actually functions. Work on this aspect has been going on for a very long time. Founder of Bondarko.

Basic concepts of morphology:

grammatical (morphological) form,

the grammatical meaning

The morphological paradigm

parts of speech.

Grammar is a generalized linguistic meaning inherent in a large number of words and necessarily expressed formally: either by separate elements, or with the help of other words in a sentence.

Grammatical features of the word form DOMIKOM

1. From the question, we can determine that this word form names an object in general.

2. From the question, we can determine that this word form names something inanimate

3. Interpretation can be given through a picture, that is, this is an object of a certain type.

4. The modifying suffix indicates that this word form means something small.

5. The word form informs that only one subject is meant.

6. Allows phrases like a white house, admiring the house, standing in front of the house and does not allow good house, very house (belongs to the class of words with the syntactic functions of a noun)

7. Allows the phrase house that I built, and does not allow the house that I built

(syntactic inanimate)

8. Allows a phrase white house, and does not allow white house or house on the mountain

(syntactic masculine)

9. Allows a phrase yellow house, and does not allow yellow house

(syntactic singular)

10. Allows a phrase admiring the house, walk in front of the house, happy with the house, and does not allow I'm standing in the house, lost his house

(subordinate instrumental)

11. Allows a phrase

a wonderful house, but does not allow a wonderful house

(subordinating creative)

Grammatical meanings are additional in relation to lexical ones, but due to enviable regularity they can be comprehended separately.

A specific word in a specific grammatical form is called word form

The totality of all possible word forms of one particular word is GRAMMAR WORDBrother, brother, brother, brother, brother, oh brother; brothers, brothers, brothers, brothers, brothers, oh brothers.

Each grammatical form is included in a certain group of the same type of means, where it is opposed to other forms. (unit and plural, for example)

Grammatical form- the unity of grammatical meaning and means of expression.

grammatical meaning- generalized (not individual, unlike lexical), regular, obligatory for each word form, formally expressed and being one of the components of the grammatical category opposed to each other. In the word forms of the changed parts of speech, both the general grammatical meaning and particular morphological meanings are expressed. For unchangeable parts of speech, only a common grammatical (categorical) meaning is characteristic. For example, adverbs denote a sign of action ( dressed warmly), sign of sign ( hospitable in Moscow). They do not have a morphological paradigm.

Morphological paradigm the totality of all forms of the modified word is called. The general paradigm of words of one part of speech is made up of particular paradigms. For example, the noun paradigm includes the number and case paradigms.

The concept of a grammatical category. Types of grammatical categories.

Grammatical forms according to their grammatical content are combined into grammatical categories.

Grammatical (morphological) category- a system of opposing rows of grammatical forms with homogeneous content. It is this definition of the grammatical category that is accepted in modern grammar. It indicates the main features of the grammatical category. This is a closed system.

Need to distinguish inflectional and non-inflective (classifying) categories.

Inflectional:

non-inflective:

This is necessary in order to be able to correctly form forms. So, for example, the form I will defend formed from a perfective verb protect, the form I protect - from imperfective verb protect.

Grammar category- a system of rows of grammatical forms opposed to each other with homogeneous grammatical meanings. GK is characterized by the number of opposed rows. subdivided into morphological and syntactic. Among the morphological categories are the grammatical categories of aspect, voice, tense, mood, person, gender, number, case; the consistent expression of these categories characterizes entire grammatical classes of words (parts of speech).

For the Russian language, a language with a developed system of inflection, it is fundamental to distinguish between inflectional and classifying grammatical categories.

Members of inflectional categories can be represented by a series of forms of one word (case, tense).

3. Parts of speech: grounds for their distinction. L.V. Shcherba and V.V. Vinogradov on the system of parts of speech. Parts of speech in scientific and school grammar. (CE SEMINAR)
4. Characteristics of a noun as a part of speech. The grammatical category of animateness/inanimateness.

The noun is a kind of core of the parts of speech of the Russian language. The core nature of this group of words is provided by unique semantic features: any reality can be a denotation of a noun. For example:

Material objects: house, pen.

・Signs: blue.

Qualities: kindness.

· Action: the washing up.

· Motion: walking.

· State: sadness.

Attitude: conformity.

· Quantity: a hundred.

· Abstractions: impressionism.

A noun is a part of speech that expresses the meaning of a grammatical object (objectivity), performs the syntactic function of the subject and object and has independent morphological categories of gender, number and case. Fully named features are manifested in specific nouns.

Noun- this is a significant part of speech, denoting an object and expressing this meaning in inflectional grammatical categories of number and case and non-inflectional categories of gender and animation-inanimateness. The noun always answers the question who? what? You need to ask a question to the initial form of the word.

Initial the form of the noun is the form of the nominative case, singular. numbers, and for nouns that do not have the form of units. hours - form them. case pl. numbers (sleigh, day, jeans).

A noun in a sentence can be a subject and an object, as well as an inconsistent definition: performance of figure skaters, Pushkin's fairy tales.

An important point is the ability of a noun to be determined by an adjective and a participle: a cold winter, a past holiday.

Division of nouns into animate and inanimate mainly depends on what object this noun denotes - living beings or objects of inanimate nature, but it is impossible to completely identify the concept of animation-inanimateness with the concept of living-inanimate. So, from a grammatical point of view birch, aspen, elm- nouns are inanimate, but from a scientific point of view, these are living organisms. In grammar, the names of dead people - dead man, deceased- are considered animate, and only a noun dead body- inanimate. Thus, the meaning of animate-inanimate is category is purely grammatical.

Animation:

Animated nouns usually refer to living beings (persons and animals). They have their own specifics of declension and represent a special category in relation to the gender category, since the gender of animate nouns can be associated with the gender of the creatures called:
Brother - sister, bull - cow.

In animate nouns, the accusative plural form (and in the masculine and the singular) coincides with the genitive form.
I see who? (vin.pad.) - students, student, horses.
No one? (rod.pad.) - students, student, horses. Who am I waiting for? Apprentice.

Animated nouns include not only the names of people and animals, but also the names of such objects that for some reason seem to be alive. For example: dressing up dolls, flying a kite.

Inanimate:

Inanimate nouns have the accusative plural form (and in the masculine singular) the same as the nominative form.
See what? (win.fall.) - airplanes, airplane. Waiting for what? Bus.
What's this? (im. pad.) - airplanes, airplane.

Inanimate nouns, used in a figurative sense, get the meaning of a person and become animated: the tournament brought together all the table tennis stars.

Nouns in combination with compound numbers ending in two, three, four are used as inanimate ones: invite twenty-two specialists (colloquial).

Conclusion: in order to correctly determine the animate / inanimate noun, the word must be considered in the context of the sentence.

Animate and inanimate nouns
animated	Inanimate
names of living things	names of inanimate objects
	plant names
names of gods	names of the planets by the names of the gods
names of mythical creatures
names of figures in games
names of toys, mechanisms, images of a person
dead man, deceased	dead body
names of microorganisms
image, character

5. Lexico-grammatical categories of nouns. The grammatical category of the number of nouns.

Nouns are combined into lexico-grammatical categories according to their meaning and manifestation of grammatical categories (number and case).

Allocate such lexical and grammatical categories nouns, both proper and common, animate and inanimate, concrete and abstract, real, collective.

Lexico-grammatical categories- semantic subtypes of nouns, which, due to the peculiarities of the meaning, interact differently with its morphological categories.

Gender specific for animate/inanimate substantives and immutable nouns.

Animation and inanimateness are also associated with the category of case.

Morphological category of the number of nouns is a system of unit forms. and many others. number of nouns, expressing the opposition of a single object to a dismembered set of objects. This is an inflectional category covering all inflected nouns.

The inflectional nature of categories is clearly observed when considering specific nouns as a nuclear group. Abstract, material and collective nouns express the meaning of quantity formally and are actually devoid of semantic opposition in terms of the category of number.

Pay attention: lexically non-identical forms of number: choice, election. Wed:

· snow / snow

· sky / heaven

· pain / pains

Lexico-grammatical groups of words that have only a single number.

1. Collective (crows, nobility, poor, professors, proletariat)

2. Material (milk, copper, horsehair wig)

3. Vegetables, cereals, years, etc. (raspberries, gooseberries, oats, hay?)

4. “Especially brightly negative, devoid of a direct relation to number, account, the function of the singular appears in words with abstract meanings of property-quality, action-state, emotion, feeling, mood, physical phenomenon or natural phenomenon, ideological direction, flow in general for designations abstract concepts" (military, whiteness, boredom, secrecy).

5. Proper names.

6. The use of singular forms is observed when one object refers to several persons or objects and is inherent in each of them separately (they walked with their noses closed) (People walked with a handkerchief tied around their noses and mouths. Tolstoy)

Lexico-semantic groups of nouns pluraliatantum

1. Paired items;

2. Composite items (wood firewood, sledge, sled);

3. Mass, substance, material in its totality (yeast, firewood, grub);

4. Sets of monetary amounts (extortions, taxes, finances);

5. Waste or residues from any process: bran, sawdust, leftovers;

6. Places and localities (compacts, in the heads, settlements, as well as proper names of Bronnitsy);

7. Time interval (day, twilight, holidays);

8. A complex action, a state consisting of many acts (childbirth, chores, beatings, tricks);

9. Games (hide and seek, blunders, catch-ups);

10. Ceremonies and holidays (christenings, name days, bridesmaids);

11. Single words denoting a state (to live in the dark, to be strong, in trouble);

12. Single words denoting emotions (envy is taken, for joy).

All nouns are singular. h. have the category of gender, i.e. belong to one of 3 genders: masculine, feminine and neuter.

Nouns ending in -а, -я in the form im. p. units numbers are usually feminine (road, land, country, grandmother). The exception is words like uncle, slob, time.

If the initial form has the ending -o, -e, then the noun belongs to the middle gender (sea, good). Exception: domishko, domishche (nouns with words of subjective evaluation, formed from nouns of m. kind).

A small group of words belongs to the so-called common gender. These include nouns that do not have the singular form. numbers (pluraliatantum sled, gate, ink) are not distributed by genus.

generic couple

generic couple- this is a paired opposition of nouns m. and f. genders that have the same lexical meaning, but differ in the meaning of the biological sex.

Pairs are distinguished:

1. suppletive tribal couples (man - woman, grandmother - grandfather, sheep - ram);

2. derivational(student - student, goose - goose, lion - lioness);

3. inflectional- having a common basis and differing in endings (spouse - wife, godfather - godfather, Alexander - Alexander).

If the words included in the generic pair are the names of animals, then the type of animals can be indicated both by the word m. of the genus (hares, lions, donkeys), and by the word f. genus (cats, sheep, goats).

Common nouns

In addition to the 3 main genders (masculine, feminine, neuter), nouns are also distinguished generic, by meaning they correspond to both male and female persons, in the context they realize the meaning of only one kind (our / our Sasha, terrible / terrible bore, Belykh knew / knew). In colloquial speech, you can hear: the deputy received visitors; master of sports set a new record; The turner did a good job.

In stylized speech, for the speech characterization of characters, when referring to a woman by profession, it is recommended to use neutral forms: comrade conductor, comrade cashier.

Descriptive expressions are used to indicate male correspondence to the words ballerina, typist ballet dancer, typewriter. A pair emerged in professional use nurse - nurse.

generic options

Many nouns are used in SRY both in the form of m and in the form of f. kind.

-​ aviary - aviary (more common form 1);

- giraffe - giraffe (more common form 1);

- clip - clip (literary is 1 form);

- reprise - reprise (more commonly used form 2).

Lecture 9

Claim for the recovery of a tax sanction.

After a decision is made to hold an individual who is not an individual entrepreneur liable for committing a tax offense or in other cases when an out-of-court procedure for collecting tax sanctions is not allowed, the relevant tax authority files a claim with the court to recover from this person, a tax sanction, established by the legislation on taxes and fees.

Before applying to the court, the tax authority is obliged to offer the person held liable for committing a tax offense to voluntarily pay the appropriate amount of the tax sanction. If a person held liable for committing a tax offense refused to voluntarily pay the amount of the tax sanction or missed the payment deadline specified in the demand, the tax authority applies to the court with a statement of claim to recover from this person the tax sanction established by the tax code, for committing this tax offence.

A statement of claim for the recovery of a tax sanction from an organization or an individual entrepreneur is submitted to an arbitration court, and from an individual who is not an individual entrepreneur, to a court of general jurisdiction.

The statement of claim shall be accompanied by the decision of the tax authority and other materials of the case obtained in the course of the tax audit.

In necessary cases, simultaneously with filing a statement of claim, the tax authority may send a petition to the court to secure a claim in the manner prescribed by the civil procedural legislation of the Russian Federation (Chapter 13 of the Code of Civil Procedure of the Russian Federation) and the arbitration procedural legislation of the Russian Federation (Chapter 8 of the APC).

1. The concept of a grammatical category. Principles of allocation of grammatical categories in language.

2. The main grammatical categories of the name.

3. The main grammatical categories of the verb.

4. Morphological and syntactic grammatical categories.

1. Grammar category - this is a system of opposed rows of grammatical forms with homogeneous meanings. In this system, the categorizing feature is decisive, for example, the generalized value of time, person, pledge, etc., which unites the system of values ​​of individual tenses, persons, pledges, etc. and a system of corresponding forms.

A necessary feature of a grammatical category is the unity of meaning and its expression in the system of grammatical forms as bilateral linguistic units.

Grammatical categories are divided into morphological and syntactic. Among the morphological categories, for example, the categories of aspect, voice, tense, mood, person, gender, number, and case are distinguished. The number of opposing members within such categories may be different: for example, the gender category is represented in Russian by a system of three series of forms expressing the grammatical meanings of masculine, feminine. and cf. kind, but category. numbers - a system of two rows of forms - units. and many others. h.

In the structure of grammatical categories, the most significant is unification principle grammatical classes and units that make up this category. The basis for such a union is a generalized value (for example, the value of time), which combines - as a generic concept - the values ​​of the components of this category. The systemic nature of the language does not consist in a simple external organization of linguistic materials, but in the fact that all homogeneous elements of the structure of the language are interconnected and receive their significance only as opposed parts of the whole.

Semantic opposition is just such a relation, subordinated to the indicated principle. For grammar, this quality is especially important; thus, one can speak of the category of gender or case only if there are at least two opposed genders or cases in a given language; if there is no such opposition, and there is only one form (as for the gender in English or in the Turkic languages, or for the case in French), then this category does not exist in this language at all.

Grammatical meanings are revealed in oppositions (for example, the meaning of singularity, opposed to the meaning of plurality). Grammatical oppositions (oppositions) form systems called grammatical categories.

2. The Russian noun has inflectional categories of number and case and classifying categories of gender, animation/inanimateness and personality.

Grammar number category is inflectional in nouns and is constructed as a contrast between two series of forms - singular and plural. The special forms of the dual number inherent in the Old Russian language have not been preserved in the modern Russian language, there are only residual phenomena (plural forms of the names of paired objects: shores, sides, ears, shoulders, knees; noun forms hour, row, step in combinations like two hours).

For the names of countable objects and phenomena, the singular form denotes singularity, the plural form denotes a quantity of more than one: table- pl. tables, day- pl. days, wood- pl. h. trees, thunderstorm- pl. thunderstorms. Nouns with abstract, collective, real meanings belong to the singularia tantum: thickness, pampering, beast, milk, or to pluralia tantum: chores, finances, perfumes, canned food.

In those cases where the formation of plural forms is possible for the words singularia tantum, such formation is necessarily accompanied by certain semantic complications: cf. "species plural" type wine- pl. guilt, the beauty– beauty, "emphatic plural" when denoting a large number of type water- pl. water, snow– snow, etc.

The number of nouns is also expressed syntactically - by the numerical form of the agreed or coordinated word or by the numeral: A new book- pl. h. new books, The student is reading/reading- pl. h. Students read/read. For indeclinable nouns and pluralia tantum nouns denoting countable objects, the syntactic way of expressing a number is the only one: new coat, one coat- pl. h. new coats, three coats; one pair of scissors- pl. h. two scissors, one day- pl. h. four / several / many days.

case in Russian expresses the relation of nouns to other words in a phrase and sentence. The inflectional morphological category of the case is constructed as a contrast between the six main series of forms and five additional ones that differ in inflections, and the inflections of nouns simultaneously express the case meaning and the meaning of the number. For indeclinable nouns, case meanings are expressed only by the forms of agreed or coordinated words (in a sentence, they are a definition or a nominal predicate).

Six main cases:

nominative,

· parental,

· dative,

accusative,

creative,

prepositional.

In the system of six cases, the nominative case is opposed as a direct case to the other five - indirect cases. It is the original form of the paradigm, appearing in the most independent syntactic positions; indirect cases express, as a rule, the dependence of the noun on the word that controls it. Being controlled forms, indirect cases appear in combination with prepositions (prepositional-case forms) and without them (non-prepositional forms): see the house and head for home; to drive the car and sit in the car. Of the six cases, one (nominative) is always unprepositional; one is used only with prepositions, and therefore is called prepositional; the remaining four cases (middle in the paradigm) appear both with and without prepositions. For indirect cases, it is also essential what part of speech they syntactically obey; There is a difference between verbal and adjectival use of case forms.

Genus category for nouns it is classifying, or not inflectional (each noun belongs to a certain grammatical gender) and is built as a contrast of three genders - masculine, feminine and neuter. Masculine nouns are semantically defined as words capable of denoting a male being, feminine nouns as words capable of denoting a female being, and neuter nouns as words incapable of denoting gender. At the same time, animate masculine and feminine nouns (names of people and, in part, names of animals) have a direct connection with the designation of gender (cf. father and mother, teacher and teacher, a lion and lioness), while for inanimate nouns (partially also for animal names) it is indirect, manifesting itself as the possibility of stylistic rethinking in the image of a creature of the corresponding gender (cf. Rowan and oak in the folk song "Thin rowan", as well as Father Frost, Princess Frog etc.). The gender differences of nouns are expressed only in the singular, so the nouns pluralia tantum do not belong to any of the three genders. A special place is occupied by the so-called nouns of the general gender, capable of denoting a person of both male and female gender and, accordingly, have grammatical features of masculine and feminine gender ( orphan, touchy, crybaby).

The gender of nouns is expressed both morphologically - by the system of inflections of a noun in the singular, and syntactically - by the generic form of the agreed or coordinated word (adjective or other word inflected as an adjective, verb-predicate). Since the system of inflections of the singular does not unambiguously indicate a certain gender for all inflectional types of nouns (for example, nouns of the II declension can refer to both the feminine and the masculine gender: m.r. servant, female servant), the syntactic expression of the gender of nouns is consistently unambiguous. For the so-called indeclinable nouns, this way of expressing gender is the only one (cf. recent interview, m.r. long-tailed kangaroo etc.).

The ability to indicate gender is also possessed by the forms of agreed and coordinated words in combination with nouns of the general gender ( round(m.s.) an orphan and round(female) an orphan), as well as with masculine nouns - the names of persons by profession, position ( doctor, engineer, director), which, when indicating the female gender of a person, can be combined (only in the form of the nominative case) with the feminine forms of coordinated and (less often) agreed words: The doctor has come, we have a new doctor(colloquially).

3. The aspect of a verb is a category that expresses differences in the course of an action. This category distinguishes imperfective verbs (answer the question "What to do?": fly) and perfective verbs (answer the question "What to do?": fly in).

The transitivity of the verb is characterized by compatibility with the accusative case without a preposition: read a book, watch a movie; the intransitiveness of the verb is characterized by incompatibility with the accusative case without a preposition: have measles.

A special group is made up of reflexive verbs, which are indicated by the suffix -sya: keep laughing.

Voice of the verb is a category that expresses the relationship between the subject and the object of the action. Active voice verbs are verbs in which the subject names the actor: dad eats an apple; passive voice verbs appear in a passive construction when the object becomes the object of action: the door opened with a key.

Indicative - expresses an action that existed, exists and will exist: go, look. In this mood, verbs have forms of tense (present, past and future), person (1, 2 and 3) and number.

The conditional or subjunctive mood expresses an action that does not really exist, it is only possible or desired: would have honored. It is formed with the help of a verb in the past tense and a conditional particle by.

Imperative mood - expresses a request, order or prohibition, is not real. It is formed by adding the present end time to the stem -and: bring, give; graduation -those: take, speak; adding particles let, let: let it go, let it go.

Time- a category that expresses the relationship of action to the moment of speech. There are three tenses: present, past and future. The tense of the verb is closely related to the category of aspect: NSV - sell - sold - will sell; SW - sold - selling.

In a sentence, the verb can be a simple verbal predicate: Sasha got up early; compound verb predicate: She wanted to sleep; inconsistent definition: The thought of leaving did not please me..

In Russian, there are verbs that denote an action without a doer (person), so they are called impersonal. Sentences with such verbs are also called impersonal: Ringing in the ears. It's getting warmer outside. It's getting dark.

4. Grammatical categories are divided into morphological and syntactic. Among the morphological categories, there are, for example, grammatical categories of aspect, voice, tense, mood, person, gender, number, case; the consistent expression of these categories characterizes entire grammatical classes of words (parts of speech). The number of opposed members within such categories can be different: for example, the grammatical category of gender is represented in Russian by a system of three series of forms expressing the grammatical meanings of masculine, feminine. and cf. gender, and the grammatical category of number - by a system of two rows of forms units. and many others. h. This characteristic is historically variable: compare, for example, three forms of number in Old Russian, including the dual, and two in modern Russian.

In Russian morphology, grammatical categories are distinguished: inflectional, whose members can be represented by forms of the same word within its paradigm (for example, tense, mood, verb person, number, case, adjective gender, degrees of comparison), and non-inflectional (classifying, classifying ), whose members cannot be represented by forms of the same word (for example, gender and animate/inanimate nouns). The belonging of some grammatical categories (for example, aspect and voice) to inflectional or non-inflectional type is the subject of discussion.

There are also grammatical categories that are syntactically identifiable (relational), i.e., indicating primarily the compatibility of forms in the composition of a phrase or sentence (for example, gender), and non-syntactically identifiable (referential, nominative), expressing primarily various semantic abstractions, abstracted from the properties, connections and relations of extralinguistic reality (for example, appearance, time); such grammatical categories as, for example, number or person, combine features of both these types.

Sometimes the term “grammatical category” is applied to broader or narrower groupings compared to the grammatical category in the indicated interpretation - for example, on the one hand, to parts of speech (“noun category”, “verb category”), and on the other hand, to individual members of categories (“masculine category”, “plural category”, etc.).

From the grammatical category in morphology, it is customary to distinguish lexico-grammatical categories of words - such subclasses within a certain part of speech that have a common semantic feature that affects the ability of words to express certain categorical morphological meanings. Such, for example, in the Russian language are collective, concrete, abstract, material nouns; adjectives qualitative and relative; personal and impersonal verbs; so-called ways of verbal action, etc.

The concept of a grammatical category has been developed mainly on the basis of morphological categories. The question of syntactic categories has been studied less; the boundaries of the application of the concept of grammatical category to syntax remain unclear. It is possible, for example, to highlight the grammatical category of the communicative orientation of the statement, which is built as a contrast between narrative, incentive and interrogative sentences; grammatical category of activity / passivity of the sentence structure; grammatical category of syntactic tense and syntactic mood that form the paradigm of the sentence, etc. The question of whether the so-called word-building categories belong to the grammatical category is also controversial: the latter are not characterized by opposition and homogeneity within the framework of generalized categorizing features.

SELF-CHECK QUESTIONS

1. What is meant by a grammatical category? What are the principles for highlighting grammatical categories in a language?

2. Name the main grammatical categories of the name.

3. Name the main grammatical categories of the verb.

4. What morphological and syntactic grammatical categories do you know?