Portable value types. Erroneous, unsuccessful use of words in a figurative sense

In order for a metaphor, metonymy, synecdoche to hit the target, to be in the text in place, to be justified, you need to know the meaning of the word well, follow the "rules" for using it in a figurative sense. Thus, the authors of metaphors must remember that this figurative meaning indicates the similarity of what is called with what is called. This means that the "correct" metaphor must contain a sign possessed by the object (concept) that gave its name to the signified.

However, this rule is not always observed. And journalists are especially guilty of this. Often, an image used for a metaphorical designation of an object, phenomenon, etc., does not evoke associations with the depicted, which means that it remains unclear in what way the object, feature, given phenomenon, etc. is similar. with the one whose "name" he is named. For example: "And the lot happened in such a way that Tildum had to complete the ski bullfight at all" (Sov. sp. 1972. Feb. 5). As you know, bullfight is a bullfight, i.e. a battle in a large arena of foot and horse fighters with bulls driven to a rage "(Dictionary of Foreign Words. 7th ed. M., 1979). But what is there in common between such a fight and a ski race? It is completely unclear. Apparently, I liked the bullfight, it became meet again and again, but did not become more precise: "On Saturday I came to the" bullfight ". This is what they call the Avangard stadium in Voroshilovgrad, where they take anyone who wants to join the team. " Having cited this more than strange designation - bullfighting - a stadium (!) Where one who wants to play plays, the Komsomolskaya Pravda journalist did not express surprise at this Moreover, further he himself used this word: "All the masters of Voroshilovgrad football went through the" bullfight ". But the headline is. "Bulgarian bullfight." It was prefaced by material that told about the World Weightlifting Championship in one Bulgarian city (Sov. coll. 1987. Sept. 11.) And here one cannot see the similarity between the fight of the bullfighters with the bull, which they, infuriating with a red muleta, hit with a special spear (banderilla).The motives for the figurative use of the word crossroads (its the only traditional meaning is `place of intersection of roads, streets`) in combinations of "chess crossroads" (the most frequent), "football crossroads", "autumn crossroads". So often for some reason they are called headings in the newspaper news of chess sports, and, as a rule, we are also talking about sports meetings taking place in different countries, different cities.

Sometimes the discrepancy between the verbal (metaphorical) image and the depicted is due to the fact that their objective signs in the context contradict each other. For example: "Neither aluminum, nor concrete, nor plastics, not to mention timber, glass, paper and cardboard, do not possess such a kaleidoscope of the most important qualities as steel" (Mosk. Pr. 1967. 17 Nov.). Steel is a symbol of strength (it is not for nothing that a person is said to have a "steel character", "nerves of steel") about a hard, unyielding, great endurance person. A kaleidoscope is a tube with mirror glasses inserted into it at an angle to each other and colored glass, pieces of colored paper, etc., placed between them, which are reflected in the mirrors and create various patterns that change even when the tube is slightly turned. Consequently, the kaleidoscope metaphor speaks of a rapid change, instability, inconstancy of the composition of something, a rapid change in something (cf. "kaleidoscope of faces", "kaleidoscope of events") and therefore cannot be justified in relation to the qualities, properties of steel. Contradictory to the idea of ​​a caravan is the widespread use of the metaphor caravan in the newspaper in relation to a sprawling group of competing racers (cyclists, skiers, biathletes, etc.), since the movement of the animals that make up the caravan is presented as rather slow (it was not for nothing that Pushkin wrote: "Screaming geese the caravan was heading south. Therefore, examples of the type are unsuccessful: "At the first stage, A. Petrov started in our team - a fast, courageous and reckless athlete. He led the caravan of racers from the very first meters of the distance ..."

There are frequent cases when the creators of metaphors consider it possible to neglect (for the sake of freshness, originality of the new name) an essential sign of the meaning on the basis of which the metaphor was created, building it on an insignificant sign. An example of such unjustified metaphors is the use of the words duet, trio, quartet in relation to two, three, four inanimate objects that are not connected by any common action and therefore cannot evoke the image of a single ensemble. It is even worse when a duet, trio, quartet (and so on) are used in relation to two, three, four athletes or opposing teams. Compare: “A quartet on ice [headline]. Having defeated the US team with a score of 2: 1, Soviet hockey players took first place in the round-robin tournament and reached the semi-finals of the Canada Cup ... Other semi-finalists were also determined. In addition to the USSR and USA teams, the fight will continue Canadians who won with a score of 7:2 against Czechoslovak hockey players, as well as the Swedes "(Koms. pr. 1984. 11 September). This is already an illustration of the case when the signs of the designated (rival athletes) contradict the signs of the signifier (a single ensemble acting in concert). The same mistake is made in the use of the trio metaphor in relation to chess players (who always fight for the sole championship): “But already now all the trio of laureates can be congratulated on the fulfillment of the minimum program. . received the right to join the fight for the title of world champions" (Og. 1985. No. 15) (the trio in the text are chess players who took 1st, 2nd and 3rd places). Journalists also love the symphony metaphor: "Hockey symphony. The performer is a large quartet" (Izv. 1967. March 25); "And how masterfully, artistically at ease, he performed this most difficult chord of his little football symphony" (Sov. sp. 1972. March 10). But a symphony is a large piece of music for an orchestra, which cannot be performed by a quartet in any way, all the more so there cannot be a small symphony performed by one person. And one more "symphony": "Having fed the crossbill, the caring head of the family sits down on the top of the tree and let's play a symphony of the winter forest..." (Mosk. pr. 1988. Feb. 11). The only thing that a traditional symphony has in common with a symphony “brought out” (!) by a crossbill is that there are sounds here and there ... A new metaphorical passion is the seeded one: "Larisa Savchenko from Lvov, seeded in the table under the third number, won against Barbara Gerken (USA)..." (Koms. Pr. 1987. Feb. 14); "Seeded #1 Graf took 55 minutes to succeed again" (Koms. pr. 1989. 11 Apr.); "Minsk Natalya Zvereva, seeded under the first number, in the first round of the international tournament won against Commie McTregor from the USA..." (Koms. pr. 1989. 26 Oct.). And here the motivation (the grain is "placed" in the soil - the surname is placed in such and such a place on the scoreboard) is insignificant.

Similar failures can be found in good poets. So, the desire to show that in the wind the sails bend in the direction opposite to that from which the wind blows, led to the following: "And only in the singing of sunken sails does the memory of the forests still sigh" (Matt.). Sunken - sunken. The hollowness is caused by a debilitating illness or old age, and is associated with not quite normal thinness. That is, depression is usually evidence of ill health, some exhaustion, and hence physical weakness. Stretched by the wind, the singing sails are elastic; the ship under wind-filled sails moves forward vigorously, which clearly contradicts the capabilities of the object, characterized as having something "hollow".

So far, we have talked about metaphors in which the idea of ​​similarity is violated to one degree or another. You can also point to such cases when the metaphor remains incomprehensible to the majority of readers (which means that the similarity is not clear, the image is not perceived), since it is the use of a non-national word, especially a highly specialized or narrowly regional, narrow-local, as well as a purely bookish or obsolete word. . Here are some examples from M.A. Sholokhov "Quiet Don": "Again, touching the Siberian beard, the delegate of the 44th regiment was pulling ..."; "Unusually warm for the beginning of spring"; "And in the north, behind the village, there is a saffron overflow of sands, a stunted planting of pine forests, valleys, flooded with pink, from red clay soil, water." In the well-known song "Through the valleys and on the hills", written to the verses of Parfenov, there is a couplet in which originally there was a narrow regional (at least at that time) word aftermath: "These days the glory will not cease, it will never fade. cities". The obscure metaphor otava (the direct meaning of this word is `grass that grew in the same year on the site of mowed`), the people subsequently replaced the generally understood word "detachments". And below are illustrations of the metaphorical use of purely bookish (apocalypse) and outdated (crinoline) words: "However, such a view more often finds bloody dramas, violent deaths, tragic confrontations, in a word, a kind of apocalypse of the common American ancestry"; "The house was surrounded by a crinoline of verandahs." The heading "Algorithm of catastrophes" (Koms. pr. 1989, November 12) is hardly understandable to many readers.

Bearing in mind the quality of the non-traditional metaphorical, metonymic, etc. application of the word, it must be remembered that the image used contains, as a rule, an assessment or poeticizes the signified. Therefore, the attitude to the subject of speech, as it appears in the context, should not contradict the assessment or that feature that poeticizes it, which contain words in a figurative sense. From this point of view, the following metaphors are clearly unsuccessful: "The duet of" Agnes "and" Wendy "(Koms. Pr. 1968.12 Sept.); "Next, the first-born bomb of the Livermore Laboratory, created under the direction of Edward Teller, was tested" (Sov. Ros. 1987. October 21. In the first example, the duet metaphor, designed to evaluate the coherence and harmony of the actions of two persons, in the text characterizes the appearance of two typhoons that caused a hurricane in the north-east of our country, which brought significant destruction, great material damage. In the second, the word first-born, which names the first child born in a family (and the birth of the first child is a joy for the family), is used in relation to what the nightmares of the 20th century are associated with. It is clear that both of these metaphors are completely inappropriate. And another example. Under the heading "Shells - through the city" newspaper (Koms. pr. 1989. 26 September) reported that acetone in an ammunition depot caught fire in a military unit near the city of Yurga. yval and unexploded shells. And further in the text; "Heavy blanks fell on harvested fields, crashed into the gold of forests, broke walls and roofs of buildings ..." and in this context, the used metaphor is inappropriate, which, with its poetic character, seems to call for admiring nature when houses are collapsing around.

An error in using words in a figurative sense can also consist in the fact that metaphors, metonymies, synecdoches that are "correct" in themselves fall into combinations that are unusual for them, i.e. there is a violation of the associative chain. For example: "We immediately try to find in a person that grain of self-respect on which we can rely" (Sov. Ros. 1989.24 Oct.). Something can “grow”, “break through”, “hatch”, “sprout” from grain, but one cannot “lean” on grain. "But, refusing irony in the epilogue of the tape and replacing it with pathos, the director directly testifies: if the molecule of the sixties sunk into the soul of one person, and another, and ten more, then not everything is lost" (Sov. ek. 1986. No. 2 ). But years have no molecules, and molecules can neither "fall" nor "sink". "... E. Davydova, who followed her on the carpet, so harmoniously entered such exciting chords into the music of fantastically complex movements that the judges unanimously settled on a score of 10 points!" (Rev. 1980. July 24). "I entered the chords into the music ... movements ..." "Chords" are not entered (during performance), they are "taken". And if chords are inscribed "into the music", then what did the music consist of before "insertion"? This, like the following usage, is a metaphorical mess. "The premiere of A. Arensky's ballet "Egyptian Nights" with a generous chord fit into the suite of New Year's gifts ..." (Len. Pr. 1989. January 13). And here are the "chords" that "fit in", but already in the "suite of gifts". The number of examples could be increased, but it is already obvious that only deliberate underlining of logically incompatible words, pursuing the goal of creating a comic effect, can be justified in the text. In the absence of such a task, such combinations are perceived as errors, indicating linguistic deafness.

Finally, the figurative use of words can also be unsuccessful if ambiguity arises in the text, the possibility of ambiguous understanding, which the author did not assume. For example: "To whom the ice smiled" (Koms. Pr. 1981. Feb. 8). One of the traditional meanings of the word smile is `not to get to someone; not come true. Therefore, the headline can be read like this: someone failed to train, ride or perform on ice. The author wanted to talk about those who performed successfully. Another example: "And when a comrade from the Higher School of Command spoke at the round table, everything became clear to everyone" (Koms. pr. 1987. 11 Dec.). Of course, few people seriously imagine a comrade from the Higher School of Command who delivered a speech on the table. But this meaning, due to the combination with the preposition "on", nevertheless arises in the mind, causing a smile that the author of the text does not need. That's why the heading "Friendship-84" finishes not very successful" (Ex. 1984. July 9), where, although there are quotation marks, as well as a figure that breaks the combination of words, the words friendship are too close and finishes.

So, metaphors, metonymies, synecdoches are an inexhaustible source of vivid, emotional speech. But the use of polysemantic words, the creation of new metaphors require writers to pay attention, respect for the word and tirelessly improve their speech culture.

Rakhmanova L.I., Suzdaltseva V.N. Modern Russian language. - M, 1997.

As a manuscript

Afanasyeva Evdokiya Nikolaevna PORTABLE MEANING OF THE WORD IN THE YAKUT LANGUAGE

dissertations for a degree

candidate of philological sciences

Yakutsk - 1996

The work was carried out in the Department of Linguistics of the Institute for Humanitarian Research of the Academy of Sciences of the Republic of Sakha (Yakutia)

Scientific adviser - Doctor of Philology,

Professor P.A.Sleptsov

Official opponents - Doctor of Philology,

professor N.K.Antonov

Candidate of Philology, Associate Professor K.I. Fedorova

Leading organization - Research Institute of National Schools of the Ministry

The defense will take place on July 41, 1996 at 12 o'clock at a meeting of the dissertation council D 003.69.01 for the defense of dissertations for the degree of Doctor of Philology at the Institute for Humanitarian Research of the Academy of Sciences of the Republic of Sakha (Yakutia). Address: 670007. Yakutsk-7, st. Petrovsky, 1, IGI AS RS (Y).

The dissertation can be found in the library of the YSC SB RAS ■

Scientific secretary of the dissertation

council, candidate of philological sciences L N.N. Efremov

general description of work

Relevance of the topic. The figurative meaning as a special type of lexical meaning of a word is one of the problematic issues of lexicology, lexical semantics and lexicography. Due to insufficient theoretical development, as well as the ambiguity of the problem itself in pragmatic terms, the definition of the figurative meaning of the word is still one of the controversial issues. owls of lexicology.

Linguistic literature reflects two different approaches to identifying the figurative meaning of a word. Historical semantics illuminates it from the point of view of genesis, presenting it as a dynamic process that contributes to the change and development of the meanings of the word. In the synchronic aspect, the figurative meaning acts as an element of the system. Being figurative in origin, it has a pragmatic orientation.

The need for scientific development of the issue is caused by the lack of special research in this direction in Yakut linguistics. The choice of the topic of this dissertation work is due to the desire to help in the process of preparing and editing the authors of the large multi-volume academic Explanatory Dictionary of the Yakut language created by the team.

The object of this study is the figurative meaning of the word. It is considered by us in a synchronic aspect.

The purpose of the study is to define the concept of the figurative meaning of a word in the Yakut language.

In this regard, the following tasks are solved in the work:

Determining the place of a figurative meaning in the semantic structure of a word, its relationship with other types of meanings;

Establishing criteria for identifying a portable meaning;

Description of system.connections of the figurative meaning of the word;

Identification of "types of portable values;

Identification of linguistic and extralinguistic factors in the formation of figurative meanings.

The theoretical basis of the study was the works on general linguistics, lexicology, semasiology, lexicography by V.V. Vinogradov, A.I. Smirnitsky, R.A. Budagov, L.V. Shcherba, G. Paul, 3. T. Cherkasova, D. N. Shmeleva, V. G. Gak, A. A. Ufimtseva, T. M. Arutyunova, V. N. Teliya, G. N. Sklyarevskaya, V. K. Kharchenko, Zh. M. Guzeeva, A. A. Yuldashev, M. Mirtadzhieva, B. I. Tatarintsev, P. S. Afanasiev and others.

The material for the study was extracted from the following lexicographic sources: "Dictionary of the Yakut language" by O.N. Bötlingk, "Dictionary of the Yakut language" by E.K. Pekarsky, "Russian-Yakut Dictionary" edited by P.S. Afanasiev and L.N. Kharitonov, "Yakut-Russian Dictionary" edited by P.A. Sleptsov, "A Brief Dictionary of the Yakut Language" by G.F. Sivtsev. "A Brief Dictionary of Synonyms of the Yakut Language" by N. A. Allakhsky, X. X. Lukovtsev, "The Phraseological Dictionary of the Yakut Language" by N. S. Grigoriev, "A Brief Explanatory Dictionary of the Yakut Language edited by P. S. Afanasyev, the manuscript of the Explanatory Dictionary of the Modern Yakut Literary Language (letters A, B, D, I, K, L).

The material of the academic card file of the Department of Linguistics of the Institute for Humanitarian Research of the Academy of Sciences of the Republic of Sakha (Yakutia) was also involved. The compiled card file covers 2010 words, including 1645 with figurative meanings.

Research methods. The specifics of working on the material required the use of definitional, synchronous-descriptive, component, distributive, substitutional. comparative, complex methods of analysis.

The scientific novelty of the dissertation lies in the fact that the work is the first attempt at a special study of the problem of the figurative meaning of a word in the Yakut language. Identification criteria are singled out ■ and on this basis a definition of the concept of the figurative meaning of a word is given. A classification of figurative meanings is proposed, systemic relations, linguistic and extralinguistic factors of their occurrence in the language are considered.

The practical value of the work is that it can be used in the lexicographic description of the meaning of the word. Some provisions put forward in the course of the work can be applied in the practice of teaching the Yakut language, in the development of teaching aids and methodological recommendations on the Yakut language.

Approbation of work. The main provisions and results of the dissertation are presented in reports at republican and city scientific conferences: the scientific conference "Kharitonov Readings" dedicated to the memory of L.N. Kharitonov (Yakutsk 1991), the republican scientific and practical conference "Yakutia and Russia: history and prospects for the commonwealth of peoples "(Yakutsk 1992), scientific and practical conference of young scientists and graduate students (Yakutsk 1994), scientific youth conference "Erel-95" (Yakutsk 1995). The materials of the work were reported at the lexicological seminar of the Department of Linguistics of the YAYALI RAS (1994).

Work structure. The dissertation consists of introduction, three chapters, conclusion, list of abbreviations, bibliography.

The introduction substantiates the choice of the object of research, defines the purpose and objectives of the work, reveals the relevance and novelty of the dissertation topic, indicates the practical significance, determines the sources of the material, methods of analysis. ..

In this work, the understanding of the lexical meaning of a word as the historically established content of the word, which is a unit of the lexico-semantic system of the language, is taken as a basis. The structure of lexical meaning consists of denotative-significative content and -connotative environment.

An analysis of the theoretical literature shows that there are two approaches to understanding the figurative meaning of a word: broad and narrow.

Proponents of the first point of view believe that in a polysemantic word all meanings "are figurative in relation to the primary

mu (main) / Mirtadzhiev, 1989; Antonov, 1967 /.

A narrow understanding suggests an Approach to the study of figurative meaning from the point of view of expressiveness and figurativeness / Yuldashev, 1972; Guzeev. 1985; Kharchenko, 1989 /.

The roots of the distinction between these approaches are related to the difference in aspects of studying the lexical meaning of a word. The logical-semantic aspect is characterized by a broad understanding of the subject - the study of the semantic development of the word, the lexical meaning of the word in the diachronic aspect. Lexicographic practice considers the meaning of a word in synchronism and strives to describe it in statics. Synchrony and diachrony do not exclude, but complement each other.

In this paper, we adhere to the views of those researchers who approach the study of figurative meaning from the point of view of expressiveness and figurativeness.

The first chapter "Semantic connections and types of -lexical meanings of a word" sets itself the task of determining the place of a figurative meaning among the meanings of a polysemantic word, its correlation with other types of meanings.

In a word with derivational connections, all meanings go back to the main (primary) directly or indirectly - they are derivatives. By the nature of the schematic arrangement of values, topological types of polysemy are distinguished: parallel connection (all values ​​​​come from the main one), serial connection (values ​​​​are formed according to the chain principle), mixed type (values ​​\u200b\u200bcome from both the main and derivatives).

The meanings of a polysemantic word are combined into a semantic unity due to certain relationships that exist between them. Semantic links between values ​​are provided on the basis of a common feature and stable associations. These can be the similarity of features (metaphorical connection), contiguity (metonymic connection), genus-species relations (expansion, narrowing), opposition (enantiosemy).

Metaphors found in the semantic structure of a word are nominative and figurative. The nominative metaphor is re-

a source of derivative-nominative meanings of the word: tumus n. "beak, muzzle", "pointed front part of something (boat, shoes)", ime- "rii v. "stroke (with palm, fingers)", "massage". Figurative metaphors contribute to the formation of figurative meanings: tebin zlag return-strad, from tep "to rest one's feet", transl. "to feel support (of someone stronger or higher-ranking"), minnyges adjective "delicious", transl. "attracting, attracting".

The metonymic connectedness of meanings is based on the spatio-temporal, causal relationships of objects, on the relation of the part and the whole: ytys noun. "palm", "handful", is n. "offal", "offal dish", muus n. "ice", "floe".

The narrowing of the meaning is noted when the derived meaning denotes a narrower, more specialized range of concepts than the original meaning: otone n. "berry", "lingonberry", seien n. "story", lit. "story", keme n. "help", "social protection allowance".

When expanding the meaning in the derived meaning, a larger amount of concepts is indicated than in the original one, for example: odus v. "hit, beat", "cut down, build", "forge, forge".

In the semantic structure of the word, sometimes there are meanings that contradict each other (enantiosemy): naadalaah adj. "necessary", "needy".

The following types of meanings of the word are distinguished: basic (primary) meaning, derivative-nominative meaning, figurative meaning.

Figurative meanings are one of the types of lexical meanings of a word and are opposed to direct derivative-nominative meanings according to the method of nomination and function. ■ In the word as noun. "food, food", "fruit of plants", trans. "benefit, benefit" the second and third meanings are derivatives, based on the metaphorical transfer of the main meaning. The metaphor in the second derivative-nominative meaning is aimed at identifying the denotation, it is a terminological designation. In the third figurative meaning, a figurative-associative connection appears with the main meaning "food.

food" - "benefit, -benefit" ..

The second chapter "The figurative meaning of the word in the Yakut language" is devoted to theoretical and practical coverage of the main issue of the study.

Language figurative meanings are chosen as the object for detailed study. ,-

Language figurative meanings are divided into identifying and characterizing. The criterion for their differentiation is the functional parameter. .Identification values ​​are intended

for naming, characterizing - for expression.

For "selection, figurative meaning, the work proposes ... a set of criteria: 1) rethinking based on semantic duality, 2) preservation of the internal form of the original meaning, 3) characterizing function, 4) possession of connotative features. 5) reproducibility.

The following definition follows from the foregoing: the figurative meaning of a word is the meaning that is formed as a result of rethinking the direct meaning of the word while maintaining the internal form, carries a figurative connotation and has connotative features.

The paper considers the figurative meanings of nouns, verbs, adjectives. The indicators of the activity of parts of speech in the formation of figurative meanings are the same in all normative dictionaries and make up 45% for verbs, 35% for nouns, and 20% for adjectives. The increased activity of verbs and nouns is explained by the predominance of words with specific meanings in these parts of speech. The low activity of adjectives is caused by the vagueness of their semantic boundaries.

Based on the material, two types of figurative meanings are distinguished according to the method of formation: metaphor, metonymy.

Metaphor as a model of meaning formation, meaning transformation can lead to different results: to term formation.

the formation of derivative-nominative, figurative meanings and tropes.

According to the representation of the image of the denotation, the metaphor is divided into personification, hyperbole, irony, litote; metonymy - on si-negdokha and symbol. By function, the metaphor is divided into comparative, pictorial, conceptual; metonymy - into pictorial and conceptual.

Single-valued words also have figurative meanings, for example: kiiittee v. variable expansion "to be shy, to be shy." The motivation of the meaning of the word is ensured by the preservation of the internal form of the noun in it: kiyit noun "daughter-in-law; daughter-in-law". Shyness and timidity characterize the behavior of the bride, daughter-in-law. The primary meaning of the verb kiiittee "to be shy, to be shy (about the bride)" has been lost in the modern language. The verb arose on the basis of syntactic derivation.

When the forms of the verb change, shifts also occur in figurative meanings, for example: ieh eyes, "to bend, bend, bend", trans. "to direct, translate the conversation, thoughts in a different direction", trans. "to speak plainly", trans. "to use, to master masterfully, skillfully, skillfully (about the word)"; iedis v. jointly-mutual pledge form from ieh transfer. "fight, compete, argue with someone stubbornly, on an equal footing."

The appearance of figurative meanings in the language is motivated by the similarity and connections of objects.

The emergence of figurative meanings occurs in three ways: 1) comparison (analogy), 2) reading of stereotypical symbolic meanings, 3) expression of an emotional Attitude.

Two types of associative links between direct and figurative meanings are distinguished: parallel and serial.

A parallel association is a subjective interpretation of a process, phenomenon, physical features of an object on the basis of a conditional comparison. The referent, as it were, finds an analogy in one other area. On the basis of a parallel associative connection, figurative meanings appear based on comparison, analogy. Beh n. "garbage, garbage" - trans. "small things, belongings."

Consistent association relies on the imagination.

representation of the subsequent result of an action, process and its peculiar perception, refracted through the prism of the collective experience of native speakers and shows a subjective interpretation of the result, the intended consequences, a causal relationship: kya!sh n. "fetters, sling (for the legs of cattle)" - re-rec. "force that deprives freedom", tarbaa eyes. "annoy someone, annoy someone."

When figurative meanings appear, an important role is given to the method of interpretation, which depends not so much on objective conditions as on subjective ones. Subjective, the conditions for the emergence of some secondary meanings are based on stereotypical ideas about the subject, phenomenon. In figurative meanings, the descriptive meanings of objects attributed to them by tradition are read. Stereotypical figurative meanings are dictated by the nature of the objects themselves, they are their symbolic content, for example: erges noun. "the edge of some kind of weapon (palms, spears)" - militancy, suluyun n. "poison. poison" - the worst manifestation of smth., tynyrah n. "claws, nails" - bonded force.

Interpretation of meaning through the prism of emotional relationships causes the appearance of stylistically colored figurative meanings. .For example, the words ardah "lair", orgul "heap, heap of rubbish", "termite mound" in a figurative sense mean "place of shelter" (esteex apoa^a. esteex orgula "place of shelter of the enemy") with a disapproving stylistic coloration.

The systemic relations of figurative meanings are expressed in their unification into semantic groups, the definition of synonyms, antonyms.

The most voluminous semantic groups of words with figurative meanings are identified: nouns denoting somatisms - 28 words, beliefs - 12 words, geographical features of the area - 10 words, carpentry, joinery - 10 words, wildlife - 16 words; verbs denoting animal habits - 13 words, physical impact on an object - 14 words, change in the state of an object for the worse - And words, movement in space - 10 words; adjectives denoting the qualities of a person - 12

words, the consistency of the subject - 10 words, color - 8 words.

Three main directions of transfer have been identified: concrete-abstract (iniir sch. "tendon", trans. "strength, power"), transfer from one sphere to another (tuereknee eye. "to stagger, sway", trans. ), transfer within one sphere (boron adj. "illegible (in food)", transl. "unpretentious").

Figurative meanings can enter into synonymous and antonymous relations with each other. Synonyms: menie ssh. "bait", trans. "deceit, trick" - fool noun. "lasso", ren. "deceit, cunning". Antonyms: uyun eye. "decrease in volume, kill, subside", transfer. "inspire, inspire"

Portable meanings are one of the synonymous means of the language.

A comparative analysis of three normative dictionaries of the Yakut language based on 96 words with figurative meanings, taken from the "Concise Dictionary of the Yakut Language" by G.F. Sivtsev, has been carried out. For comparison, the "Yakut-Russian Dictionary" edited by P.A. Sleptsov, "Brief Explanatory Dictionary" edited by P.S. Afanasyev are used. According to the results of the analysis, the figurative meanings of 17 words are the same in all three dictionaries. The figurative meaning of 21 words coincides in two dictionaries, in the third - the meaning is not provided with a mark or is transferred as a homonym, or as a compound word or is absent. The figurative meanings of 15 words are highlighted in only one dictionary.

An analysis of the reasons for the discrepancy in the qualification of a figurative meaning showed that the following inconsistencies are allowed in dictionaries:

Qualification of direct meanings as figurative: byar YARS noun. "liver, liver // hepatic", trans. "protruding part, protrusion of something"; to/tor byarygar "on a hillock, on a shore";

Value-terms are marked "portable": uunuu YARS noun. "harvest", trans. "growth, increase, increase" uunuu syllar "years of development";

There are cases of allocation of figurative meanings based on the indistinguishability of homonyms: abalah YARS adj. "overgrown with hemlock, milestone", trans. "annoying; outrageous"; 9ye abalaah badayi! "an unfortunate story!" In the Yakut language, the noun aba, from which it originated, is obsolete;

When borrowing, some misunderstandings arise, for example: baltaidaa YARS zlag.raze, "talk, talk nonsense"; trans. unfold swing, chat (airplane in flight). In this case, completely different meanings were combined in one word due to the coincidence of forms when borrowing from the Russian language. In the dictionary of the Russian language, these meanings are given as homonyms: to chat (Ozh) "to interfere, to set something in motion (liquid)" ...; "about the movement of an aircraft during a chatter"; chatting (Ozh) razg. "talk (a lot, quickly, as well as about something insignificant or something that should not be)";

Occasionalisms are taken for usual: mvkuuk KTS adj. "unbroken (horse, horse)", trans. "changeable, changeable,": ";

The meanings of phraseological units, sayings are accepted as figurative, for example: doruoptaa YARS ver. "shoot with a shotgun"; trans. "to scold, threaten (after everything has happened)." The second meaning is essentially the meaning of the idiom ken-nitten doruoptaa "after a fight, wave your fists" and is practically not used without combination with kennitten "behind". Phraseological derivatives acquire separate meanings when they appear in the language as independent units;

The transition of any specific meaning to the abstract is noted in some dictionaries as figurative, for example: tum YARS v. "to tie a knot in something; to tie a knot in something."; trans. "collect, concentrate"; trans. "summarize smth. .summarize smth.";

The figurative meanings are qualified as direct: ilgiin KTS eye. "to tremble as if shaking off something."; "to speak passionately, flare up." The second meaning retains its figurativeness, since there is a visual-figurative connection with the primary

value.

Chapter three "Linguistic and extralinguistic factors in the formation of figurative meanings of a word" reveals the methods of formation and extralinguistic origins of figurative meanings.

We distinguish three types of the method of formation: stylistic, lexical, syntactic.

The main ways of forming the figurative meaning of a word - metaphorization, metonymization - are accompanied by various connotations, stylistic factors that contribute to the formation of figurative meanings such as irony, hyperbole, litote, symbol, play of style.

Metaphorization is the interaction of two subjects. The motive for choosing the subjects of a metaphor is determined by the pragmatic interest of the speaker. Buur n. "male deer or elk over five years of age", trans. "the best of people" (usually in the form of izafet). Betses bede tustubut, buurdut buura buurdaabpp. (Elley) "The best fighters fought, the best jumpers competed." Two subjects are involved in the metaphorical transfer - a male sloth (or elk) and a person. The characterization of a male deer (elk) as strong, the best of the herd, when projected onto a person, synthesizes the meaning of the best physical data of a person.

Metonymic transfers, such as synecdoche (part and whole), symbol, also contribute to the emergence of figurative meanings of a characterizing plan: boruok ss. "door threshold", trans. "entrance to smb." ; tanna'yn eye, lake. from tannar "to turn upside down", trans. "fall into decay, degrade."

The appearance of figurative meanings is greatly facilitated by connotation. In this work, connotation is understood as a pragmatic coloring in the meaning of the word, expressing an emotional-evaluative and stylistically marked attitude to reality /Telia, 1986/.

The lexical methods of forming figurative meanings include a change in subject correlation, a change in compatibility, a concise comparison, truncation of phraseological units and compound

words, borrowing.

The main condition for the appearance of figurative meanings is the transfer of meaning to a different semantic plane. In this case, the word changes the subject correlation, but retains the meaning. A sign (property, action) characteristic of one object is transferred to the concept of another category, for example: telerui v. "to separate, unhook (from the rope, unhook)", trans. "to get rid of, get rid of (debt, exploitation); amsai eye." to taste (food, meal), ren. "to test on oneself, go through trials."

When the compatibility changes, the values ​​\u200b\u200bdo not always remain adequate. Depending on the properties of the signified (referent), there is a refraction in the content of the signifier. The meaning turns out to be semantic dependent on the referent (see table).

The word is straight! Figurative meaning in combination with words meaning! kish! sanaa! rear! haha! surekh

"man"!" thought" "language, speech"! "eyes" ¡ "heart"

"heavy*

"cold"

difficult, complicated

heavy. !destroyer-!cold. ! suppressed! ny, offensive! indifferent! barking! !ny!

"hard¡cold, "hard. ! "!indifferent-!coldly-

New ¡blooded

Comparison can turn into a metaphor and vice versa, a metaphor can turn into a comparison. Chuura sure$in ktsm ere kvstubet tarbakhtarynan byTgdaa kchmaakhtyysryn kurduk sytyytyk yaryshalaan ylla. (L. Popov). "Chura's heart sank sharply, as if someone's invisible fingers were pinching him painfully." Kulgaa^sh eminnyedin shdayy bygyta kymaakhtyyr. (N. Yakutsky). "The frost stings my earlobes."

The appearance of figurative meanings is also facilitated by the truncation of compound words and phraseological units, when their meaning is compressed into one derivative component. KetvBulun ts v. "to be lifted up", ren. "to be inspired, inspired". figurative meaning

The knowledge is motivated by the knowledge of compound words surgete kete^ullubut "perk up", sanaata ketedullubut "inspire". The figurative meaning of the verb o^unuohtaa "to smear something with oil", trans. time "to treat someone for selfish purposes; to give a bribe" is determined by the meaning of the phraseological unit tumsun odunuohtaa "to smear on the lips", "to treat someone for root purposes" /Nelunov, 1981,118/.

The figurative meanings of words borrowed from the Russian language are divided into three groups: 1) full borrowings - kiliep noun. "bread", trans.. "work that provides a livelihood: 2) partial borrowings - buksuurdaa glaz, "to tow", trans. colloquial "to help the lagging behind in work, study." The figurative meaning of the word buksuurdaa in the Yakut language comes from an expression from colloquial speech of the Russian language to take the goat in tow "to help someone. in doing something." / Ozhegov, 1983 /; 3) supplemented borrowings ^ kuormalaa zlaz. "control the boat, control the stern oar", trans. affairs". This word acquired a figurative meaning after mastering it in the vocabulary of the Yakut language.

The appearance of figurative meanings in borrowed words is facilitated by the use of the source language (Russian) in colloquial speech, the tracing of meaning, the transformation of meanings based on the associations of the borrowing language (Yakut).

Syntactic ways of forming figurative meanings are expressed in syntactic derivation, lexicalization of grammatical forms, isafet construction.

Syntactic derivation - the transformation of a syntactic fugue;,tion. The noun has kuohur cards. "trump//trump card, trump card" has no figurative meaning. It is noted in the derivative verb kuourdaa kart, "to trump, to walk with a trump card", trans. "to trump, brag about something." biliitinen kuoPurduur "(he) flaunts his knowledge."

Lexicalization of grammatical forms of words contributes to the appearance of figurative meanings, causes shifts in meanings. The verb uktee "to step, step on someone," peren. "to oppress, in-

to put pressure" in the form of the motivating mood uktet "to make one step, step on something." realizes the figurative meaning "to deceive, to be deceived, to deceive".

The figurative meaning of some words is realized as part of izafet. Sirei n. "face", trans. "someone's essence". Kolchak would-laaPyn dikneeh sireyin beyevit kerEugutp. (V. Protodyakonov). "They themselves saw the true face of Kolchak's power."

The specificity of figurative values ​​lies in the increased cumulative value. Their content reflects the history, material and spiritual culture of the people.

A number of spheres have been identified, which served as sources for the emergence of figurative meanings.

Traditional way. Life, occupations are reflected in the meanings of words, for example: kulugu n. "axis of rotation of smth.", trans. "the main man", haahty eye. "burn", trans. "fail, fail"; kuyuurdaa evil. "to fish with a sack", trans. "to lure with various tricks from someone. something."

Nature. Climate, relief, flora, fauna become constant sources of new meanings.

The temperature sensations that manifest themselves in a particular weather correspond to a person’s mood swings, for example:

Natural phenomena Kyryar Dybarsy Kyydaannan Kyyydyy

frost up grow stronger intensify intensify! (about frost) (about cold (about frost) I! wind) |

Human emotions become angry angry

indifferent severe

The properties of plants are applicable to the characterization of a person: khar-saakh adj. "loose" (mae "tree"), ren. "stubborn, intractable" (kiSh "man").

Features of localities become the basis for education

portable values. Unattractive, difficult places are associated with a hard life, for example: kuta n. "quagmire", trans. "precarious position".

The height of the relief has an associative connection with the lofty aspirations of people: dabaan noun "a section of the path rising up; climbing to the top", trans. "achieving success on one's own".

Light phenomena in nature, such as light, darkness, create secondary meanings in the language, being indicators of a person's perception of the positive and "negative aspects of life: cabar^a noun. "morning and evening dawn", trans. "beginning, signs of a bright, new time "sana uye sanartsata "the beginning, signs of a bright, new time"; "haraka adj. "dark", trans. "terrible, criminal" haraka sanaa "criminal thoughts".

psychological associations. Language is the embodiment of thinking, as well as psychological associations, which manifest themselves in the following types:

Anthropomorphism duley adj. "deaf", trans. "without any gaps, not letting anything through, continuous, closed" (tuun "night", chuumpu "silence"), trans. "insensitive" (sureh "heart", duupa "soul").

Zoomorphism kbmullee v. "nibble" (ukuovu "bone"), trans. "cause prolonged, aching pain" (yaryy "disease").

Observation of changes in the properties, qualities of various objects, substances: emehsii v. "rot, rot" - (about wood), peren. "to grow decrepit, grow old" (about a person); keiyun v. "to ferment; to ferment", trans. "to agitate, to stir up."

Stereotypes of ratings. Opinions, judgments about the qualities, merits of objects, people form a set of ideas based both on life experience and on emotional perception: kien adj. "wide, spacious", trans. "calm, wise" (sanaa "thought", her " mind"); turuoru adj. "standing; steep", trans. "straight, frank" (kiPi "man", bybaaryy "decision"); kendoi adj. "hollow", trans. "useless, meaningless" (goof "life", oroskuot "expenses"); hatyylaakh at-

laz. "prickly, rough", tgeren. "stinging, evil" (harah "eyes", rear "word").

Figurative perception of the world. The images that have developed in the mind are fixed in the language, reflecting the different stages of the development of the people, their ideas about the world around them. For example, bya noun. "rope", trans. "cause, reason for something: mostly bad." The idea of ​​life as a thread existed among many peoples during pagan times.

Mythology. Favorite or awe-inspiring characters, memorable moments from myths have found their analogies in everyday life, for example: ayyybyt noun-myth. "the general name of the goddesses patronizing the increase in offspring", trans. "beautiful kind woman"; adyaray n.myth. "abasy, evil spirit", trans. "a bad, unreliable person."

Beliefs. Traces of animistic ideas have been preserved in the language. Phenomena of nature seemed to be independent animated beings, endowed with human qualities: kennyuer evil "to be in a good, high spirits" (kiSh "man"), trans. "weather").

The cult of fire. Fire for the inhabitants of the taiga has always been one of the most important conditions of life. As evidence of special reverence, worship in the Yakut language, words are imprinted to designate even the most insignificant manifestations of fire. In the figurative meanings of 14 verbs, the power of fire is commensurate with the experiences, emotions of a person. The intensity of feelings (hope, love, enmity) is expressed by the verbs sakh "to kindle a fire", kylamnaa "to flicker, flicker". umai "to burn", kerdugennee "to burn under the soil for a long time, slowly", sezuree tore weaker", her "fade away", umulun "to go out". “to fan the fire” (forge with fur), kuedyut “to fan the fire”, kuedui “to light up, flare up.” The intensity of speech is conveyed by the verbs kuluburee “to burn strongly”, kuudepchilen “to ignite”, kytya-lan “to burn brightly, blaze”.

The magical power of the word. According to ancient beliefs, the word had "the power of influencing objects of the outside world. Speech was understood as a means of influencing the world around us. Therefore, the use of certain words was tabooed, and certain actions were also prohibited. This is how euphemisms appeared, for example: kistee v. "hide, hide , cover", ee^."bury".

The language reflects the times of shamanism, Christianity, for example: emeget noun obsolete. "idol", trans. disapproved. "a person who has become an object of admiration, special reverence"; aannal n. outdated. "angel", trans. "kind, gentle" (about a woman).

In conclusion, the most significant conclusions on the main sections of the dissertation are summarized.

The provisions of the dissertation are reflected in the following publications:

1. Fundamentals of metaphorization in Russian and Yakut languages ​​// Abstracts of reports of the republican scientific-practical conference "Yakutia and Russia: history and prospects of the commonwealth of peoples". -Yakutsk, 1992. - S. 78-79.

2. Ways of forming the figurative meaning of a word in the Yakut language // Abstracts of the scientific-practical conference of young scientists and graduate students. - Yakutsk, 1994.- S. 52.

3. Structural and semantic characteristics of the figurative meanings of words in the Yakut language // Abstracts of the conference of scientific youth Erel-95. - Yakutsk, 1995.- S. 128.

4. Sources of formation of the figurative meaning of the word in the Yakut language // Collection of scientific works of postgraduate students of the Yakut Scientific Center of the Siberian Branch of the Russian Academy of Sciences. - Yakutsk, 1995, - S. 42-50.

5. Reflection of the figurative meaning of the word in the "Brief explanatory:.: Dictionary of the Yakut language" // Collection of works of young scientists and specialists "Science, culture, economics", - Yakutsk, 1996. -S. 30-32.

ABBREVIATIONS

YARS - Yakut-Russian Dictionary / Edited by P.A. Sleptsov. ■ - M.: Sov. encycl.. 1972. -604 p.

KTS - A short explanatory dictionary of the Yakut language. - Yakutsk: Bichik. 1994. "- 261 p.

TS - Explanatory Dictionary of the Modern Yakut Literary Language /manuscript/. - Archive of the YSC SB RAS, fund 5.

Ozh - Ozhegov S.I. Dictionary of the Russian language. - M.: Rus. yaz., 1983. -815 "p.

Language is a multifaceted and multifunctional concept. To determine its essence requires careful consideration of many questions. For example, the device of the language and the ratio of the elements of its system, the influence of external factors and functions in human society.

Definition of portable values

Already from the elementary grades of the school, everyone knows that the same words can be used in different ways in speech. A direct (main, main) meaning is one that is correlated with objective reality. It does not depend on the context and on the allegory. An example of this is the word "collapse". In medicine, it means a sharp and sudden drop in blood pressure, and in astronomy, the rapid contraction of stars under the influence of gravitational forces.

The figurative meaning of words is their second meaning. It arises when the name of a phenomenon is consciously transferred to another in connection with the similarity of their functions, features, etc. For example, the same "collapse" received a figurative meaning of the word. Examples relate to public life. So, in a figurative sense, "collapse" means the destruction, the collapse of the association of people as a result of the onset of a systemic crisis.

scientific definition

In linguistics, the figurative meaning of words is their secondary derivative, associated with the main meaning of metaphorical, metonymic dependence or any associative features. At the same time, it arises on the basis of logical, spatial, temporal and other correlative concepts.

Application in speech

Words with a figurative meaning are used when naming those phenomena that are not an ordinary and permanent object for designation. They approach other concepts by emerging associations that are obvious to speakers.

Words used in a figurative sense can retain figurativeness. For example, dirty insinuations or dirty thoughts. Such figurative meanings are given in explanatory dictionaries. These words are different from the metaphors invented by the writers.
However, in most cases, when there is a transfer of meanings, the figurativeness is lost. Examples of this are expressions such as the spout of a teapot and the elbow of a pipe, the clock and the tail of a carrot. In such cases, the figurativeness in the lexical meaning of words fades.

Changing the essence of a concept

The figurative meaning of words can be assigned to any action, feature or object. As a result, it goes into the category of main or main. For example, the spine of a book or a doorknob.

Polysemy

The figurative meaning of words is often a phenomenon caused by their ambiguity. In scientific language, it is called "Polysemy". Often a single word has more than one stable meaning. In addition, people who use the language often need to name a new phenomenon that does not yet have a lexical designation. In this case, they use the words they already know.

Questions of polysemy are, as a rule, questions of nomination. In other words, the movement of things with the existing identity of the word. However, not all scientists agree with this. Some of them do not allow more than one meaning of a word. There is another opinion. Many scientists support the idea that the figurative meaning of words is their lexical meaning, realized in various variants.

For example, we say "red tomato". The adjective used in this case is a direct meaning. "Red" can also be said about a person. In this case, it means that he blushed or blushed. Thus, a figurative meaning can always be explained through a direct one. But linguistics cannot give an explanation why red is called red. It's just the name of the color.

In polysemy, there is also the phenomenon of non-equivalence of meanings. For example, the word “flare up” can mean that an object suddenly caught fire, and that a person blushed with shame, and that a quarrel suddenly arose, etc. Some of these expressions are found more often in the language. They immediately come to mind when the word is mentioned. Others are used only in special situations and special combinations.

There are semantic connections between some meanings of the word, which make understandable the phenomenon when different properties and objects are called the same.

trails

The use of a word in a figurative sense can be not only a stable fact of the language. Such usage is sometimes limited, fleeting, and carried out within the framework of only one utterance. In this case, the goal of exaggeration and special expressiveness of what was said is achieved.

Thus, there is an unstable figurative meaning of the word. Examples of this use are found in poetry and literature. For these genres, this is an effective artistic device. For example, in Blok one can recall “the deserted eyes of the wagons” or “the dust swallowed the rain in pills.” What is the figurative meaning of the word in this case? This is evidence of his unlimited ability to explain new concepts.

The emergence of figurative meanings of words of a literary-stylistic type are tropes. In other words, figurative expressions.

Metaphor

In philology, a number of different types of transfer of names are distinguished. One of the most important among them is metaphor. With its help, the name of one phenomenon is transferred to another. Moreover, this is possible only with the similarity of certain signs. Similarity can be external (by color, size, character, shape and movements), as well as internal (by assessment, sensations and impressions). So, with the help of a metaphor, they talk about black thoughts and a sour face, a calm storm and a cold reception. In this case, the thing is replaced, and the sign of the concept remains unchanged.

The figurative meaning of words with the help of metaphor takes place at various degrees of similarity. An example of this is a duck (a device in medicine) and a tractor caterpillar. Here, transfer is applied in similar forms. The names given to a person can also carry a metaphorical meaning. For example, Hope, Love, Faith. Sometimes the transfer of meanings is carried out by similarity with sounds. So, the whistle was called a siren.

Metonymy

It is also one of the most important types of name transfers. However, when using it, the similarities of internal and external features are not applied. Here there is a contiguity of causal relationships, or, in other words, the contact of things in time or space.

The metonymic figurative meaning of words is a change not only in the subject, but also in the concept itself. When this phenomenon occurs, only the connections of neighboring links of the lexical chain can be explained.

The figurative meanings of words can be based on associations with the material from which the object is made. For example, earth (soil), table (food), etc.

Synecdoche

This concept means the transfer of any part to the whole. Examples of this are the expressions “a child goes after a mother’s skirt”, “a hundred heads of cattle”, etc.

Homonyms

This concept in philology means identical sounds of two or more different words. Homonymy is a sound match of lexical units that are not semantically related to each other.

There are phonetic and grammatical homonyms. The first case concerns those words that are in the accusative or nominative case, sound the same, but have a different composition of phonemes. For example, "rod" and "pond". Grammatical homonyms arise in cases where both the phoneme and the pronunciation of the words coincide, but the individual forms of the words are different. For example, the number "three" and the verb "three". When the pronunciation changes, such words will not match. For example, "rub", "three", etc.

Synonyms

This concept refers to words of the same part of speech that are identical or close in their lexical meaning. The sources of synonymy are foreign language and their own lexical meanings, general literary and dialectal. There are such figurative meanings of words and thanks to jargon (“to burst” - “to eat”).

Synonyms are divided into types. Among them:

• absolute, when the meanings of words completely coincide (“octopus” - “octopus”);
• conceptual, differing in shades of lexical meanings (“reflect” - “think”);
• stylistic, which have differences in stylistic coloring (“sleep” - “sleep”).

Antonyms

This concept refers to words that belong to the same part of speech, but at the same time have opposite concepts. This type of figurative meanings can have a difference in structure (“take out” - “bring in”) and different roots (“white” - “black”).
Antonymy is observed in those words that express the opposite orientation of signs, states, actions and properties. The purpose of their use is to convey contrasts. This technique is often used in poetic and oratory speech.

19. Direct and figurative meanings of the word.

The direct meaning of the word is its main lexical meaning. It is directly directed to the designated object, phenomenon, action, sign, immediately causes an idea of ​​them and is least dependent on the context. Words often appear in the direct meaning.

The figurative meaning of the word - this is its secondary meaning, which arose on the basis of the direct one.

Toy, -and, well. 1. A thing that serves for the game. Kids toys. 2. trans. One who blindly acts according to someone else's will, an obedient instrument of someone else's will (disapproved). To be a toy in someone's hands.

The essence of the transfer of meaning is that the meaning is transferred to another object, another phenomenon, and then one word is used as the name of several objects at the same time. In this way, the ambiguity of the word is formed. Depending on the basis of which sign the meaning is transferred, there are three main types of meaning transfer: metaphor, metonymy, synecdoche.

Metaphor (from the Greek metaphora - transfer) is the transfer of a name by similarity:

ripe apple - eyeball (in shape); the nose of a person - the bow of the ship (according to the location); chocolate bar - chocolate tan (by color); bird wing - aircraft wing (by function); the dog howled - the wind howled (according to the nature of the sound); and etc.

Metonymy (from the Greek metonymia - renaming) is the transfer of a name from one object to another based on their adjacency:

water boils - the kettle boils; a porcelain dish is a tasty dish; native gold - Scythian gold, etc.

Synecdoche (from the Greek synekdoche - connotation) is the transfer of the name of the whole to its part and vice versa:

dense currant - ripe currant; a beautiful mouth is an extra mouth (about an extra person in the family); big head - smart head, etc.

20. Stylistic use of homonyms.

Homonyms are words that sound the same but have different meanings. As you know, within the limits of homonymy, lexical and morphological homonyms are distinguished. Lexical homonyms belong to the same part of speech and coincide in all their forms. For example: a key (from a lock) and a (cold) key.

Morphological homonymy is the homonymy of separate grammatical forms of the same word: three is a numeral and a form of the imperative mood of the verb to rub.

These are homophones, or phonetic homonyms, - words and forms of different meanings that sound the same, although they are written differently. flu - mushroom,

Homonymy also includes homographs - words that coincide in spelling, but differ in emphasis: castle - castle

21. Stylistic use of synonyms.

Synonyms - words denoting the same concept, therefore, identical or close in meaning.

Synonyms that have the same meaning but differ in stylistic coloring. Among them, two groups are distinguished: a) synonyms belonging to various functional styles: live (neutral interstyle) - live (official business style); b) synonyms belonging to the same functional style, but having different emotional and expressive shades. sensible (with positive coloring) - brainy, big-headed (rough-familiar coloring).

semantic-stylistic. They differ both in meaning and in stylistic coloring. For example: wander, wander, wander, stagger.

Synonyms perform various functions in speech.

Synonyms are used in speech to clarify thoughts: He seemed to be a little lost, as if srobel (I. S. Turgenev).

Synonyms are used to oppose concepts, which sharply highlights their difference, emphasizing the second synonym especially strongly: He actually did not walk, but dragged along without lifting his feet from the ground

One of the most important functions of synonyms is the replacement function, which allows you to avoid the repetition of words.

Synonyms are used to build a special stylistic figure

The stringing of synonyms may, if handled ineptly, testify to the stylistic helplessness of the author.

Inappropriate use of synonyms gives rise to a stylistic error - pleonasm ("memorable souvenir").

Two types of pleonasms: syntactic and semantic.

Syntactic appears when the grammar of the language allows you to make some auxiliary words redundant. "I know he will come" and "I know he will come." The second example is syntactically redundant. It's not a mistake.

On a positive note, pleonasm can be used to prevent loss of information (to be heard and remembered).

Also, pleonasm can serve as a means of stylistic design of an utterance and a method of poetic speech.

Pleonasm should be distinguished from tautology - the repetition of unambiguous or the same words (which can be a special stylistic device).

Synonymy creates ample opportunities for the selection of lexical means, but the search for the exact word costs the author a lot of work. Sometimes it is not easy to determine how exactly synonyms differ, what semantic or emotionally expressive shades they express. And it is not at all easy to choose the only correct, necessary one from a multitude of words.

Single-valued and polysemantic words (examples)

The number of words in the Russian language is simply amazing: modern vocabulary consists of more than 500 thousand units. Single-valued and multi-valued words enrich it even more. Considering that most words have several meanings, this further expands the verbal horizons of speech.

This article talks about single-valued and polysemantic words, examples of such words are given below. . But first, a little theory.

Definition

Single-valued and polysemantic words are distinguished with respect to how many lexical meanings they have. All words that are independent parts of speech have a lexical meaning.

If you explain in simple words, then this is the meaning that people put into the word. Words can denote objects, personalities, phenomena, processes, signs, and, in general, the entirety of thoughts and thinking.

To remember how to define single-valued and multi-valued words, the rules are not too complicated.

An unambiguous (monosemic) word is a word that has only one lexical meaning. If there are two or more meanings, then such a word is polysemantic (polysemic).

Single words

Basically, words that name people according to different signs (doctor, professor, technologist, relative, widow, nephew, Muscovite), animals (bison, rabbit, crocodile, bullfinch, thrush, whale, dolphin), plants (pine, mountain ash, mint, oats, chamomile, peony, mallow), specific objects (bag, screwdriver, hammer, fence, bell, window sill), days and months (Friday, Sunday, September, December), most relative adjectives (urban, maple, sea, five-story) and numerals (eight, ten, one hundred). Also, the terms are single-valued words (molecule, gravity, cosine, verb, liter, kilometer, photosynthesis, hypotenuse).

Polysemantic words

Since a word can be single-valued and multi-valued, the meaning of the word, respectively, can be one or more. But, as already noted, most words in Russian have several meanings. The ability of a word to have different meanings is called polysemy.

For example, the word "press" has 7 meanings:

Every day we use both single-valued and polysemantic words in our speech, sometimes without even realizing how many meanings a particular word has. The palm for the number of meanings in the Russian language is held by the word "go" (26 meanings).

Relationship between the meanings of a polysemic word (metaphor and metonymy)

As a rule, a polysemantic word has one main meaning, and others are derivatives. The root meaning often comes first in a dictionary entry. For example, the main meaning of the word "head" is "part of the body", and "leader", "mind", "main part", "beginning" are secondary and derivative. But all these meanings, one way or another, are united by one common feature. In this case, such a sign is "the main part of something" (body, enterprise, composition).

Sometimes a word can have several basic meanings. For example, the word "rough" has two original meanings - "brutal" ("rough answer") and "raw" ("rough surface").

Usually, all the meanings of a polysemantic word are interconnected either by similarity (metaphor) or by contiguity (metonymy). Metaphor is the transfer of a name from one object to another. At the heart of metaphorical transfer lies an unnamed similarity, but it exists only in the minds of people. Often the main role here is played by a sign of a similar appearance. For example, the word "branch" has two meanings, the second of which was formed by metaphorical transfer:

1. Branch of a tree.
2. A railroad line that deviates from the main track.

Metonymy emphasizes a connection that actually exists. For example, an audience is:

1. A room for listening to lectures.
2. lecturers themselves.

Another example of metonymy: cuisine is:

How did polysemy originate?

If we return to the origins of the formation of the lexical composition of speech, then there was no such thing as single-valued and polysemantic words. At the beginning, all lexemes were monosemic (they had only one meaning and named only one concept). But over time, new concepts arose, new objects were created, for the designation of which they did not always invent new words, but selected some of the already existing ones, because they observed similarities between them. This is how polysemy was born.

Polysemy and homonymy

After this article, single-valued and polysemantic words are not difficult to distinguish. But how not to confuse polysemantic words and homonyms (words that are spelled and pronounced the same, but have different meanings)? What is the difference between them? In polysemantic words, all meanings are somehow related to each other, and no connection is observed between homonyms. For example, the meanings of the words "peace" ("calm") and "peace" ("globe") have nothing in common. More examples of homonyms: "bow" ("weapon") and "bow" ("plant"), "mine" ("facial expression") and "mine" ("explosive device"), "bar" (entertainment) and "bar" ("atmospheric pressure unit").

So, if you deepen your knowledge of the different meanings of already known words, this will significantly expand your vocabulary and increase your intellectual level.

Give examples of words with a figurative meaning

Olga

So, the word table is used in several figurative meanings: 1. An item of special equipment or part of a cold-form machine (operating table, raise the machine table); 2. Food, food (rent a room with a table); 3. Department in an institution in charge of a special range of cases (reference desk).

The word black has the following figurative meanings: 1. Dark, as opposed to something lighter, called white (black bread); 2. Took on a dark color, darkened (black from sunburn); 3. In the old days: chicken (black hut); 4. Gloomy, bleak, heavy (black thoughts); 5. Criminal, malicious (black treason); 6. Not the main one, auxiliary (back door in the house); 7. Physically difficult and unskilled (menial work).

The word boil has the following figurative meanings:

1. Manifest to a strong degree (work is in full swing); 2. Show something with force, to a strong degree (boil with indignation); 3. Randomly move (the river was seething with fish).

Vadim andronov

Portable (indirect) meanings of words are those meanings that arise as a result of the conscious transfer of a name from one phenomenon of reality to another based on the similarity, commonality of their features, functions, etc.

So, the word TABLE is used in several figurative meanings:
1. An item of special equipment or a part of a cold-formed machine (operating table, raise the machine table);
2. Food, food (rent a room with a table);
3. Department in an institution in charge of a special range of cases (reference desk).

The word BLACK has the following figurative meanings:
1. Dark, as opposed to something lighter, called white (black bread);
2. Took on a dark color, darkened (black from sunburn);
3. In the old days: chicken (black hut);
4. Gloomy, bleak, heavy (black thoughts);
5. Criminal, malicious (black treason);
6. Not the main one, auxiliary (back door in the house);
7. Physically difficult and unskilled (menial work).

The word BOIL has the following figurative meanings:
1. Manifest to a strong degree (work is in full swing);
2. Show something with force, to a strong degree (boil with indignation);
3. Randomly move (the river was seething with fish).

As you can see, when transferring the meaning, words are used to name phenomena that do not serve as a constant, ordinary object of designation, but come close to another concept through various associations that are obvious to speakers.

Figurative meanings can retain figurativeness (black thoughts, black betrayal). However, these figurative meanings are fixed in the language; they are given in dictionaries when interpreting words. In this figurative-figurative meanings differ from the metaphors that are created by writers.

In most cases, when transferring meanings, imagery is lost. For example: a pipe elbow, a teapot spout, a carrot tail, a clock. In such cases, one speaks of extinct figurativeness in the lexical meaning of the word.

The transfer of names occurs on the basis of the similarity in something of objects, signs, actions. The figurative meaning of a word can be attached to an object (sign, action) and become its direct meaning: a teapot spout, a door handle, a table leg, a book spine, etc.

What is the literal and figurative meaning of the word?

First, let's find out what the "lexical meaning of the word" is.

All objects and phenomena of the surrounding world have their own names. The correlation of the phenomenon of reality with a certain set of sounds, that is, the word, is the lexical meaning of the word. In turn, the lexical meaning of the word is direct and figurative. The direct meaning of the word is the direct relation of the word to the object of reality. For example, the word "table" refers to a piece of furniture consisting of a rectangular (round or oval) horizontal board on high supports (legs). This word also has figurative meanings, which arise as a result of transferring the name from one subject to another on the basis of any similarity between them. With the word "table" we can name a diet prescribed by a doctor, for example, table number 9. The word "table" means "reference desk", that is, an institution that provides information on various issues, or "address desk".

It is best to explain with examples. You can come up with a lot of such examples yourself.

Echidna: direct meaning - an animal (it seems Australian). A figurative meaning is a disapproving statement about a person because of certain (“malicious”) properties of his character.

Hammer: direct meaning - a tool for driving nails. Portable - approvingly about a person: well done!

Crazy House: direct meaning - hospital. Portable - chaos, confusion, hustle, etc.

Balagan: theater (literal sense) and figuratively - something "not highly artistic", as Zoshchenko would say.

The words are stylistically unequal. Some are perceived as bookish (intelligence, ratification, excessive, investment, conversion, prevail), others - as colloquial (really, blurt out, a little); some give speech solemnity (predestinate, will), others sound at ease (work, talk, old, cold). “The whole variety of meanings, functions and semantic nuances of the word is concentrated and combined in its stylistic characteristics,” wrote academician. V.V. Vinogradov. The stylistic characterization of a word takes into account, firstly, its belonging to one of the functional styles or the absence of functional and stylistic fixation, and secondly, the emotional coloring of the word, its expressive possibilities.

Functional style is a historically established and socially conscious system of speech means used in a particular area of ​​human communication. “Functional style,” emphasizes M.N. Kozhin, is a peculiar character of the speech of a Thai or its other social variety, corresponding to a certain sphere of social activity and a correlative form of consciousness to it, created by the peculiarities of the functioning of language means in this sphere and a specific speech organization that creates its certain general stylistic coloring.

In modern Russian, book styles are distinguished: scientific, journalistic, official business. They are stylistically opposed to colloquial speech, usually speaking in its characteristic oral form.

A special place, in our opinion, in the system of styles is occupied by the language of fiction, or artistic (fictional) style. The language of fiction, or rather artistic speech, is not a system of linguistic phenomena, on the contrary, it is devoid of any stylistic isolation, it is distinguished by a variety of individual authorial means.

1.7.1. Functional-style stratification of vocabulary

The stylistic characteristic of a word is determined by how it is perceived by speakers: as assigned to a certain functional style or as appropriate in any style, commonly used. The stylistic fixation of the word is facilitated by its thematic relevance. We feel the connection of words-terms with the scientific language (quantum theory, assonance, attributive); we attribute to the journalistic style words related to political topics (world, congress, summit, international, law and order, personnel policy); we single out as official business words used in office work (the following, proper, victim, residence, notify, prescribe, forwarded).

In the most general terms, the functional-style stratification of vocabulary can be depicted as follows:

Bookish and colloquial words are most clearly contrasted (cf .: invade - get in, meddle in; get rid of - get rid of, get rid of; criminal - gangster).

As part of book vocabulary, one can distinguish words characteristic of book speech as a whole (subsequent, confidential, equivalent, prestige, erudition, presled), and words assigned to specific functional styles (for example, syntax, phoneme, litote, emission, denomination tend to scientific style; election campaign, image, populism, investments - to journalistic; action, consumer, employer, prescribed, above, client, forbidden - to official business).

The functional fixedness of vocabulary is most definitely revealed in speech. Book words are not suitable for casual conversation (the first leaves have appeared on green spaces), scientific terms cannot be used in a conversation with a child (It is very likely that dad will come into visual contact with Uncle Petya during the coming day), colloquial and colloquial words are inappropriate in official - business style (On the night of September 30, racketeers ran into Petrov and took his son hostage, demanding a ransom of 10 thousand dollars).

The ability to use a word in any style of speech indicates its general use. Thus, the word house is appropriate in various styles: House No. 7 on Lomonosov Street is to be demolished; The house was built according to the project of a talented Russian architect and is one of the most valuable monuments of national architecture; Pavlov's house in Volgograd became a symbol of the courage of our fighters, who selflessly fought against the Nazis in the slots of the city; Tili-bom, tili-bom, the cat's house caught fire (March.). In functional styles, special vocabulary is used against the background of common language.

1.7.2. Emotionally expressive coloring of words

Many words not only name concepts, but also reflect the attitude of the speaker towards them. For example, admiring the beauty of a white flower, you can call it snow-white, white, lily. These adjectives are emotionally colored: the positive assessment contained in them distinguishes them from the stylistically neutral word white. The emotional coloring of the word can also express a negative assessment of the concept called (white-haired). Therefore, emotional vocabulary is called evaluative (emotional-evaluative). However, it should be noted that the concepts of emotional words (for example, interjections) do not contain evaluation; at the same time, words in which the assessment is their very lexical meaning (and the assessment is not emotional, but intellectual) do not belong to emotional vocabulary (bad, good, anger, joy, love, approve).

A feature of the emotional-evaluative vocabulary is that the emotional coloring is “superimposed” on the lexical meaning of the word, but is not reduced to it, the purely nominative function is complicated here by evaluativeness, the speaker’s attitude to the phenomenon being called.

As part of the emotional vocabulary, the following three varieties can be distinguished. 1. Words with a bright evaluative meaning, as a rule, are unambiguous; “the evaluation contained in their meaning is so clearly and definitely expressed that it does not allow the word to be used in other meanings.” These include the words “characteristics” (forerunner, herald, grumbler, idler, sycophant, slob, etc.), as well as words containing an assessment of a fact, phenomenon, sign, action (purpose, destiny, business, fraud, marvelous, miraculous , irresponsible, antediluvian, dare, inspire, defame, mischief). 2. Polysemantic words, usually neutral in the main meaning, but receiving a bright emotional coloring when used metaphorically. So, they say about a person: a hat, a rag, a mattress, an oak tree, an elephant, a bear, a snake, an eagle, a crow; in a figurative sense, verbs are used: sing, hiss, saw, gnaw, dig, yawn, blink, etc. 3. Words with subjective assessment suffixes that convey various shades of feeling: containing positive emotions - son, sun, granny, neatly, close, and negative - beards, kid, bureaucracy, etc. Since the emotional coloring of these words is created by affixes, the estimated meanings in such cases are determined not by the nominative properties of the word, but by word formation.

The image of feeling in speech requires special expressive colors. Expressiveness (from Latin expressio - expression) - means expressiveness, expressive - containing a special expression. At the lexical level, this linguistic category is embodied in the "increment" to the nominative meaning of the word of special stylistic shades, special expression. For example, instead of the word good, we say beautiful, wonderful, delicious, wonderful; I can say I don't like it, but stronger words can be found: I hate, I despise, I abhor. In all these cases, the lexical meaning of the word is complicated by expression. Often one neutral word has several expressive synonyms that differ in the degree of emotional stress (cf.: misfortune - grief - disaster - catastrophe, violent - unrestrained - indomitable - frantic - furious). Vivid expression highlights the words solemn (unforgettable, herald, accomplishments), rhetorical (sacred, aspirations, announce), poetic (azure, invisible, sing, incessant). vaunted), familiar (good-natured, cute, mooing, whispering). Expressive shades delimit the words disapproving (pretentious, mannered, ambitious, pedant), scornful (painting, pettiness), contemptuous (sneak, servility, sycophancy), derogatory (skirt, squishy), vulgar (grabber, lucky), swear words (boor, fool ).

Expressive coloring in a word is superimposed on its emotional and evaluative meaning, and in some words expression prevails, in others - emotional coloring. Therefore, it is not possible to distinguish between emotional and expressive vocabulary. The situation is complicated by the fact that "the typology of expressiveness is, unfortunately, not yet available." This leads to difficulties in developing a common terminology.

Combining words close in expression into lexical groups, we can distinguish: 1) words expressing a positive assessment of the called concepts, 2) words expressing their negative assessment. The first group will include words high, affectionate, partly playful; in the second - ironic, disapproving, abusive, etc. The emotionally expressive coloring of words is clearly manifested when comparing synonyms:

The emotional and expressive coloring of a word is influenced by its meaning. We have received a sharply negative assessment of such words as fascism, separatism, corruption, hired killer, mafia. Behind the words progressive, law and order, sovereignty, glasnost, etc. positive color is fixed. Even the different meanings of the same word can diverge markedly in stylistic coloring: in one case, the use of the word can be solemn (Wait, prince. Finally, I hear the speech of not a boy, but a husband. - P.), in another - the same word receives an ironic tint (G. Polevoy proved that the venerable editor enjoys the fame of a learned man, so to speak, on my word of honor. - P.).

The development of emotional and expressive shades in the word is facilitated by its metaphorization. So, stylistically neutral words used as paths get a vivid expression: burn (at work), fall (from fatigue), suffocate (under adverse conditions), flaming (eye), blue (dream), flying (gait), etc. d. The context finally determines the expressive coloring: neutral words can be perceived as lofty and solemn; high vocabulary in other conditions acquires a mockingly ironic coloring; sometimes even a swear word can sound affectionate, and affectionate - contemptuously. The appearance of additional expressive shades in a word, depending on the context, significantly expands the visual possibilities of vocabulary.

The expressive coloring of words in works of art differs from the expression of the same words in non-figurative speech. In the conditions of an artistic context, vocabulary acquires additional, secondary semantic shades that enrich its expressive coloring. Modern science attaches great importance to the expansion of the semantic volume of words in artistic speech, associating with this the appearance of a new expressive coloring in words.

The study of emotional-evaluative and expressive vocabulary directs us to distinguish different types of speech depending on the nature of the speaker's influence on listeners, the situation of their communication, their relationship to each other and a number of other factors. Gvozdev, - that the speaker wants to make laugh or touch, to arouse the disposition of the listeners or their negative attitude towards the subject of speech, so that it is clear how different language means will be selected, mainly creating a different expressive coloring. With this approach to the selection of language means, several types of speech can be identified: solemn (rhetorical), official (cold), intimate affectionate, playful . They are opposed to neutral speech, using linguistic means, devoid of any stylistic coloring. This classification of types of speech, dating back to the "poetics" of ancient antiquity, is not rejected by modern stylists either.

The doctrine of functional styles does not exclude the possibility of using various emotional and expressive means in them at the discretion of the author of the work. In such cases, "methods for selecting speech means ... are not universal, they are of a particular nature." Solemn coloring, for example, can be received by publicistic speech; “Rhetorical, expressively saturated and impressive can be one or another speech in the sphere of everyday communication (anniversary speeches, ceremonial speeches associated with the act of a particular ritual, etc.).”

At the same time, it should be noted that the expressive types of speech are not well studied, and there is no clarity in their classification. In this regard, the definition of the relationship between the functional-style emotional-expressive coloring of vocabulary also causes certain difficulties. Let's dwell on this issue.

The emotionally expressive coloring of the word, layered on the functional, complements its stylistic characteristics. Emotionally-expressive neutral words usually belong to common vocabulary (although this is not necessary: ​​terms, for example, in emotionally expressive terms, are usually neutral, but have a clear functional fixation). Emotionally expressive words are distributed between book, colloquial and vernacular vocabulary.

The book vocabulary includes lofty words that give solemnity to speech, as well as emotionally expressive words that express both positive and negative assessments of the named concepts. In book styles, vocabulary is ironic (beautifulness, words, quixotic), disapproving (pedantic, mannerisms), contemptuous (masque, corrupt).

Colloquial vocabulary includes words affectionate (daughter, dove), playful (butuz, laughter), as well as words expressing a negative assessment of the concepts called (small, zealous, giggle, brag).

In common speech, words are used that are outside the literary vocabulary. Among them, there may be words containing a positive assessment of the concept being called (hard worker, brainy, awesome), and words expressing the speaker’s negative attitude towards the concepts they denote (crazy, flimsy, vulgar).

Functional, emotionally expressive and other stylistic shades can intersect in a word. For example, the words satellite, epigone, apotheosis are perceived primarily as bookish. But at the same time, we associate the word satellite, used in a figurative sense, with the journalistic style, in the word epigone we note a negative assessment, and in the word apotheosis - a positive one. In addition, the use of these words in speech is influenced by their foreign origin. Such affectionately ironic words as sweetheart, motanya, zaleka, drolya, combine colloquial and dialectal coloring, folk-poetic sound. The richness of stylistic shades of Russian vocabulary requires a particularly careful attitude to the word.

1.7.3. The use of stylistically colored vocabulary in speech

The tasks of practical stylistics include the study of the use of the vocabulary of various functional styles in speech - both as one of the style-forming elements and as a different style tool that stands out by its expression against the background of other language tools.

The use of terminological vocabulary, which has the most definite functional and stylistic significance, deserves special attention. Terms - words or phrases that name special concepts of any sphere of production, science, art. Each term is necessarily based on the definition (definition) of the reality it denotes, due to which the terms represent a capacious and at the same time concise description of an object or phenomenon. Each branch of science operates with certain terms that make up the terminological system of this branch of knowledge.

As part of the terminological vocabulary, several “layers” can be distinguished, differing in the scope of use, the content of the concept, and the features of the designated object. In the most general terms, this division is reflected in the distinction between general scientific terms (they constitute the general conceptual fund of science as a whole, it is no coincidence that the words denoting them are the most frequent in scientific speech) and special ones, which are assigned to certain areas of knowledge. The use of this vocabulary is the most important advantage of the scientific style; terms, according to S. Bally, "are those ideal types of linguistic expression, to which the scientific language inevitably strives."

Terminological vocabulary contains more information than any other, so the use of terms in a scientific style is a necessary condition for brevity, conciseness, and accuracy of presentation.

The use of terms in works of scientific style is seriously investigated by modern linguistic science. It has been established that the degree of terminology of scientific texts is far from the same. The genres of scientific works are characterized by a different ratio of terminological and interstyle vocabulary. The frequency of the use of terms depends on the nature of the presentation.

Modern society demands from science such a form of description of the data obtained, which would make it possible to make the greatest achievements of the human mind the property of everyone. However, it is often said that science has fenced itself off from the world with a language barrier, that its language is “elitist”, “sectarian”. In order for the vocabulary of a scientific work to be accessible to the reader, the terms used in it must first of all be sufficiently mastered in this field of knowledge, understandable and known to specialists; new terms need to be clarified.

Scientific and technological progress has led to the intensive development of the scientific style and its active influence on other functional styles of the modern Russian literary language. The use of terms outside the scientific style has become a kind of sign of the times.

Studying the process of terminology of speech that is not bound by the norms of scientific style, the researchers point out the distinctive features of the use of terms in this case. Many words that have precise terminological meanings have become widespread and are used without any stylistic restrictions (radio, television, oxygen, heart attack, psychic, privatization). Another group combines words that have a dual nature: they can be used both in the function of terms and as stylistically neutral vocabulary. In the first case, they differ in special shades of meanings, giving them special accuracy and unambiguity. Thus, the word mountain, which in its broad, inter-style usage means “a significant hill rising above the surrounding area”, and which has a number of figurative meanings, does not imply an accurate quantitative measurement of height. In geographical terminology, where the distinction between the concepts of mountain and hill is essential, a clarification is given: a hill over 200 m in height. Thus, the use of such words outside the scientific style is associated with their partial determinology.

Special features highlight the terminological vocabulary used in a figurative sense (indifference virus, sincerity coefficient, the next round of negotiations). Such a rethinking of terms is common in journalism, fiction, and colloquial speech. A similar phenomenon lies in line with the development of the language of modern journalism, which is characterized by various kinds of stylistic shifts. The peculiarity of such word usage is that "there is not only a metaphorical transfer of the meaning of the term, but also a stylistic transfer."

The introduction of terms in non-scientific texts must be motivated, the abuse of terminological vocabulary deprives speech of the necessary simplicity and accessibility. Let's compare the two versions of the sentences:

The advantage of "non-terminological", clearer and more concise options in newspaper materials is obvious.

The stylistic coloring of the word indicates the possibility of using it in one or another functional style (in combination with commonly used neutral vocabulary). However, this does not mean that the functional attachment of words to a certain style excludes their use in other styles. The mutual influence and interpenetration of styles, characteristic of the modern development of the Russian language, contributes to the movement of lexical means (along with other linguistic elements) from one of them to another. For example, in scientific works you can find journalistic vocabulary next to the terms. As M.N. Kozhin, "the style of scientific speech is characterized by expressiveness not only of the logical, but also of the emotional plan." At the lexical level, this is achieved by using foreign-style vocabulary, including high and low.

The journalistic style is even more open to the penetration of foreign-style vocabulary. You can often find terms in it. For example: “Canon 10 replaces five traditional office machines: it works like computer fax, a fax machine that uses plain paper, jet printer(360 dpi), scanner and photocopier). You can use the software included with the Canon 10 to send and receive PC faxes directly from your computer screen” (from gas).

Scientific, terminological vocabulary here can be close to expressively colored colloquial, which, however, does not violate the stylistic norms of journalistic speech, but enhances its effectiveness. Here, for example, is a description of a scientific experiment in a newspaper article: There are thirty-two laboratories at the Institute of Evolutionary Physiology and Biochemistry. One of them studies the evolution of sleep. At the entrance to the laboratory there is a sign: "Do not enter: experience!" But from behind the door comes the clucking of a chicken. She's not here to lay eggs. Here is a researcher picking up a Corydalis. It turns it upside down... Such an appeal to foreign-style vocabulary is quite justified, colloquial vocabulary enlivens newspaper speech, makes it more accessible to the reader.

Of the book styles, only the formal business style is impervious to foreign-style vocabulary. At the same time, one cannot ignore “the undoubted existence of mixed speech genres, as well as situations where the mixing of stylistically heterogeneous elements is almost inevitable. For example, the speech of various participants in the trial is hardly capable of presenting any stylistic unity, but it would also hardly be legitimate to attribute the corresponding phrases entirely to colloquial or entirely to official business speech.

The appeal to emotional-evaluative vocabulary in all cases is due to the peculiarities of the individual author's manner of presentation. Reduced evaluative vocabulary may be used in book styles. Publicists, scientists, and even criminologists writing for the newspaper find in it a source of strengthening the effectiveness of speech. Here is an example of mixing styles in an informational note about a traffic accident:

Having moved into the ravine, "Ikarus" ran into an old mine

The bus with Dnepropetrovsk shuttles was returning from Poland. Exhausted from the long journey, the people slept. At the entrance to the Dnepropetrovsk region, the driver also dozed off. Lost control "Ikarus" went off the road and landed in a ravine. The car rolled over through the roof and froze. The blow was strong, but everyone survived. (...) It turned out that in the ravine "Ikarus" ran into a heavy mortar mine ... The "rusty death" turned out of the ground rested right on the bottom of the bus. The sappers were waiting for a long time.

(From newspapers)

Colloquial and even vernacular words, as we see, coexist with official business and professional vocabulary.

The author of a scientific work has the right to use emotional vocabulary with vivid expression if he seeks to influence the feelings of the reader (And the will, but the open space, nature, the beautiful surroundings of the city, and these fragrant ravines and swaying fields, and the pink spring and golden autumn were not our educators Call me a barbarian in pedagogy, but from the impressions of my life I learned a deep conviction that a beautiful landscape has such a huge educational influence on the development of a young soul that it is difficult to compete with the influence of a teacher.-KD Ushinsky). Even in a formal business style, high and low words can penetrate if the topic causes strong emotions.

Thus, in a letter sent from the administrative apparatus of the Security Council to the President of Russia B.N. Yeltsin says:

According to information received by the apparatus of the Security Council of Russia, the situation in the gold mining industry, which forms the country's gold reserves, is approaching critical […].

The main reason for the crisis is the inability of the state to pay for the gold already received. […] Paradox and absurdity The situation is that the money in the budget for the purchase of precious metals and precious stones is laid down - 9.45 trillion rubles for 1996. However, these funds are regularly go to darn holes in the budget. Gold miners have not been paid for the metal since May - since the beginning of the flushing season.

... Only the Ministry of Finance, which manages budgetary funds, can explain these tricks. The debt for gold prevents miners from continuing to produce the metal, as they unable to pay off for "fuel", materials, energy. […] All this not only exacerbates the crisis of non-payments and provokes strikes, but also disrupts the flow of taxes to the local and federal budgets, destroying financial fabric of the economy and normal life entire regions. The budget and incomes of residents of about a quarter of the territory of Russia - the Magadan region, Chukotka, Yakutia - directly depend on gold mining.

In all cases, no matter what stylistically contrasting means are combined in the context, the appeal to them must be conscious, not accidental.

1.7.4. Unjustified use of words with different stylistic coloring. Mixing styles

A stylistic assessment of the use of words with different stylistic coloring in speech can only be given bearing in mind a specific text, a certain functional style, since the words necessary in one speech situation are out of place in another.

A serious stylistic shortcoming of speech can be the introduction of publicistic vocabulary in texts of a non-publicistic nature. For example: The Council of Residents of House No. 35 decided: to build a playground of great importance in educating the next generation. The use of journalistic vocabulary and phraseology in such texts can cause comical, illogical statements, since words of high emotional sounding act here as an alien style element (one could write: The Council of Residents of House No. 35 decided to build a playground for children's games and sports.).

In the scientific style, errors arise due to the inability of the author to use terms professionally and competently. In scientific works, it is inappropriate to replace terms with words of similar meaning, descriptive expressions: air-actuated control with weight-resistant operator handle, was designed ... (necessary: ​​hydrant coupling with pneumatic control system...).

Inaccurate reproduction of terms is unacceptable, for example: The driver's movements must be limited seat belt. The term seatbelt is used in aviation, in which case the term seatbelt should have been used. The confusion in terminology not only damages the style, but also reveals the author's poor knowledge of the subject. For example: Cardiac peristalsis is noted, followed by a stop in the systole phase - the term peristalsis can only characterize the activity of the digestive organs (it should have been written: Cardiac fibrillation is noted ...).

The inclusion of terminological vocabulary in texts that are not related to the scientific style requires the author to have a deep knowledge of the subject. An amateurish attitude to special vocabulary is unacceptable, leading not only to stylistic, but also to semantic errors. For example: At the Central German Canal, they were overtaken by frantically racing cars from a bluish tint with armor-piercing glass - there may be armor-piercing guns, shells, and glass should be called impenetrable, bulletproof. Strictness in the choice of terms and their use in strict accordance with the meaning is a mandatory requirement for texts of any functional style.

The use of terms becomes a stylistic flaw in the presentation if they are incomprehensible to the reader for whom the text is intended. In this case, the terminological vocabulary not only does not perform an informative function, but also interferes with the perception of the text. For example, in a popular article, the accumulation of special vocabulary is not justified: In 1763, the Russian heating engineer I.I. Polzunov designed the first multi-strength two-cylinder steam-atmospheric the car. Only in 1784 was D. Watt's steam engine implemented. The author wanted to emphasize the priority of Russian science in the invention of the steam engine, and in this case the description of Polzunov's machine is redundant. The following variant of stylistic editing is possible: The first steam engine was created by the Russian heat engineer I.I. Polzunov in 1763. D. Watt designed his steam engine only in 1784.

Passion for terms and book vocabulary in texts that are not related to the scientific style can cause pseudo-scientific presentation. For example, in a pedagogical article we read: Our women, along with work in production, perform and family function which includes three components: childbearing, educational and economic. And it could have been written in a simpler way: Our women work in production and pay a lot of attention to the family, raising children, and household chores.

The pseudo-scientific style of presentation often causes inappropriate comic speech, so you should not complicate the text where you can express the idea simply. So, in magazines intended for the general reader, such a selection of vocabulary cannot be welcomed: Staircase - specific interfloor communications room preschool institution - has no analogues in none of its interiors. Wouldn't it be better to abandon the unjustified use of book words by writing: The staircase in preschool institutions connecting the floors is distinguished by a special interior.

The cause of stylistic errors in book styles can be the inappropriate use of colloquial and colloquial words. Their use is unacceptable in an official business style, for example, in the minutes of meetings: Established effective control over the prudent use of feed on the farm; In the district center and villages, the administration has done some work, and yet there is no end to the improvement of work. These phrases can be corrected as follows: ... Strictly control the consumption of feed on the farm; The administration began to improve the district center and villages. This work should be continued.

In the scientific style, the use of foreign-style vocabulary is also not motivated. With the stylistic editing of scientific texts, colloquial and colloquial vocabulary is consistently replaced by interstyle or bookish.

The use of colloquial and colloquial vocabulary sometimes leads to a violation of the stylistic norms of journalistic speech. The modern journalistic style is experiencing a strong expansion of vernacular. In many magazines and newspapers, a reduced style dominates, saturated with evaluative non-literary vocabulary. Here are examples from articles on various topics.

As soon as the wind of change breathed, this praise of the intelligentsia was absorbed into commerce, parties and governments. Pulling up her pants, she abandoned her disinterestedness and her big-nosed Panurges.

And here is 1992... Philosophers flooded out of the ground like russula. Quell, stunted, not yet accustomed to daylight ... Seems to be good guys, but they are infected with eternal domestic self-criticism with a masochistic bias ... (Igor Martynov // Interlocutor. - 1992. - No. 41. - P. 3).

Seven years ago, everyone who was considered the first beauty in the class or in the yard came to the Miss Russia contest as applicants ... When it turned out that the jury had not chosen her daughter, the mother brought her unfortunate child into the middle of the hall and arranged a showdown... Such is the fate of many girls who are now working hard on the catwalks in Paris and the Americas (Lyudmila Volkova // MK).

The Moscow government will have to fork out. One of his latest acquisitions, a controlling stake in AMO - ZiL - needs to unfasten 51 billion rubles in September to complete the program for the mass production of the ZiL-5301 light-duty vehicle (Let's ride or ride // MK).

The passion of journalists for vernacular, expressive reduced vocabulary in such cases is often stylistically not justified. Permissiveness in speech reflects the low culture of the authors. The editor should not be led by reporters who do not recognize stylistic norms.

The stylistic editing of such texts requires the elimination of lowered words, the revision of sentences. For example:

1. So far, only two cool Russian goods- vodka and a Kalashnikov assault rifle.	1. On the world market, only two Russian goods are invariably in great demand - vodka and the Kalashnikov assault rifle. They are out of competition.
2. The head of the laboratory agreed to give an interview, but for information asked for a big sum in dollars, which was a tragic surprise for the correspondent.	2. The head of the laboratory agreed to give an interview, but demanded a fantastic sum in dollars for information, which the correspondent did not expect at all.
3. The coordinator of the City Duma on housing policy assured that the privatization of rooms in most likely utilities will be allowed in Moscow.	3. The City Duma's housing policy coordinator said that the privatization of rooms in communal apartments would probably be allowed in Moscow.

A characteristic feature of modern journalistic texts is the stylistically unjustified combination of book and colloquial vocabulary. A mixture of styles is often found even in articles by serious authors on political and economic topics. For example: It is no secret that our government is heavily in debt and, apparently, decides to take a desperate step by starting the printing press. However, Central Bank experts believe that collapse is not expected. Unsecured money is being issued even now, therefore, if bills are drawn, this is unlikely to lead to a collapse of the financial market (“MK”) in the near future.

Out of respect for the author, the editor does not correct the text, trying to convey to the reader the originality of his individual style. However, mixing different styles of vocabulary can give speech an ironic tone that is unjustified in the context, and sometimes even inappropriate comedy. For example: 1. The management of a commercial enterprise immediately seized on a valuable offer and agreed to an experiment, chasing the profits; 2. Representatives of the investigating authorities took a photojournalist with them in order to arm themselves with irrefutable facts. The editor should eliminate such stylistic errors by resorting to synonymous substitutions for reduced words. In the first example, you can write: Managers of a commercial enterprise got interested a valuable offer and agreed to the experiment, hoping for a good profit; in the second, it is enough to replace the verb: they didn’t take it, but took it with them.

Mistakes in the use of stylistically colored vocabulary should not be confused, however, with a deliberate mixing of styles, in which writers and publicists find a life-giving source of humor and irony. The parodic collision of colloquial and official business vocabulary is a tried and tested method of creating a comic sound of speech in feuilletons. For example: “Dear Lyubanya! Spring is coming soon, and in the little garden where we met, the leaves will turn green. And I love you still, even more. When, finally, is our wedding, when will we be together? Write, I'm looking forward to it. Your Vasya. “Dear Vasily! Indeed, the territory of the square where we met will soon turn green. After that, you can begin to resolve the issue of marriage, since the season of spring is the time of love. L. Buravkina.

1.7.5. Stationery and speech stamps

When analyzing errors caused by the unjustified use of stylistically colored vocabulary, special attention should be paid to words associated with the official business style. Elements of an official business style, introduced into a context stylistically alien to them, are called clericalisms. It should be remembered that these speech means are called clericalisms only when they are used in speech that is not bound by the norms of official business style.

Lexical and phraseological clericalisms include words and phrases that have a coloring typical for official business style (presence, in the absence of, in order to avoid, live, withdraw, the above takes place, etc.). Their use makes speech inexpressive (If there is a desire, much can be done to improve the working conditions of workers; At present, there is an understaffing of teaching staff).

As a rule, you can find many options for expressing thoughts, avoiding clericalism. For example, why should a journalist write: Marriage is the negative side of an enterprise's activity, if one can say: It's bad when an enterprise releases marriage; Marriage is unacceptable at work; Marriage is a great evil that must be fought; It is necessary to prevent marriage in production; It is necessary, finally, to stop the production of defective products!; You can't put up with marriage! A simple and specific wording has a stronger effect on the reader.

The clerical coloring of speech is often given verbal nouns, formed with the help of suffixes -eni-, -ani-, etc. (identifying, finding, taking, blowing up, closing) and non-suffixed (tailoring, stealing, time off). Their clerical shade is exacerbated by the prefixes non-, under- (non-detection, underfulfillment). Russian writers often parodied the syllable "decorated" with such bureaucratic words [The case of the gnawing of the plan by mice (Hertz); The case of flying in and breaking glasses with a crow (Pis.); Having announced to the widow Vanina that she did not stick a sixty-kopeck mark ... (Ch.)].

Verbal nouns do not have the categories of tense, aspect, mood, voice, person. This narrows their expressive possibilities in comparison with verbs. For example, such a sentence is lacking in accuracy: On the part of the head of the farm, V.I. Shlyk was shown a negligent attitude towards milking and feeding cows. You might think that the manager milked and fed the cows poorly, but the author only wanted to say that the Farm Manager V.I. Shlyk did nothing to facilitate the work of milkmaids, to prepare fodder for livestock. The impossibility of expressing the meaning of the pledge by a verbal noun can lead to ambiguity in constructions such as the statement of the professor (does the professor approve or is he approved?), I love singing (I like to sing or listen when they sing?).

In sentences with verbal nouns, the predicate is often expressed in a passive form of participle or a reflexive verb, this deprives the action of activity and enhances the clerical coloring of speech [At the end of familiarization with the sights, tourists were allowed to take pictures of them (better: Tourists were shown the sights and allowed to take pictures of them)].

However, not all verbal nouns in the Russian language belong to the official business vocabulary, they are diverse in stylistic coloring, which largely depends on the characteristics of their lexical meaning and word formation. Verbal nouns with the meaning of a person (teacher, self-taught, confusion, bully), many nouns with the meaning of action (running, crying, playing, washing, shooting, bombing) have nothing to do with bureaucracy.

Verbal nouns with book suffixes can be divided into two groups. Some are stylistically neutral (meaning, name, excitement), for many of them -nie changed into -ne, and they began to denote not an action, but its result (cf .: baking pies - sweet cookies, cherry jam - cherry jam). Others retain a close relationship with verbs, acting as abstract names for actions, processes (acceptance, non-detection, non-admission). It is precisely such nouns that are most often characterized by clerical coloring; only those that have received a strict terminological meaning in the language (drilling, spelling, adjoining) do not have it.

The use of clericalisms of this type is associated with the so-called "splitting of the predicate", i.e. replacing a simple verbal predicate with a combination of a verbal noun with an auxiliary verb that has a weakened lexical meaning (instead of complicating, it leads to complication). So, they write: This leads to complication, confusion of accounting and an increase in costs, but it is better to write: This complicates and confuses accounting, increases costs.

However, in the stylistic assessment of this phenomenon, one should not go to extremes, rejecting any cases of the use of verb-nominal combinations instead of verbs. In book styles, such combinations are often used: they took part instead of participated, gave instructions instead of indicated, etc. In the official business style, verb-nominal combinations have become entrenched to declare gratitude, accept for execution, impose a penalty (in these cases, the verbs thank, fulfill, exact are inappropriate), etc. The scientific style uses such terminological combinations as visual fatigue occurs, self-regulation occurs, transplantation is performed, etc. The expressions used in the journalistic style are the workers went on strike, there were clashes with the police, an assassination attempt was made on the minister, and so on. In such cases, verbal nouns are indispensable and there is no reason to consider them clericalisms.

The use of verb-nominal combinations sometimes even creates conditions for speech expression. For example, the combination to take an ardent participation is more capacious in meaning than the verb to participate. The definition with a noun allows you to give the verb-nominal combination an exact terminological meaning (cf .: help - provide emergency medical care). The use of a verb-nominal combination instead of a verb can also help eliminate the lexical polysemy of verbs (cf .: give a beep - buzz). The preference for such verb-nominal combinations over verbs is naturally beyond doubt; their use does not damage the style, but, on the contrary, gives greater effectiveness to the speech.

In other cases, the use of a verb-nominal combination introduces a clerical coloring into the sentence. Let's compare two types of syntactic constructions - with a verb-nominal combination and with a verb:

As you can see, the use of turnover with verbal nouns (instead of a simple predicate) in such cases is inappropriate - it generates verbosity and makes the syllable heavier.

The influence of formal business style often explains the unjustified use of denominative prepositions: along a line, in a section, in a part, in a deed, in force, in order to, in an address, in an area, in a plan, at a level, due to, etc. They are widely used in book styles, and under certain conditions their use stylistically justified. However, often their passion is detrimental to the presentation, weighing down the style and giving it a clerical coloring. This is partly due to the fact that denominative prepositions usually require the use of verbal nouns, which leads to stringing of cases. For example: By improving the organization of repayment of wage and pension arrears, improving the culture of customer service, the turnover in state and commercial stores should increase - the accumulation of verbal nouns, many identical case forms made the proposal heavy, cumbersome. To correct the text, it is necessary to exclude the denominative preposition from it, if possible, replace verbal nouns with verbs. Let's assume the following editing option: In order to increase turnover in state and commercial stores, you need to pay salaries on time and not delay citizens' pensions, as well as improve the culture of customer service.

Some authors use denominative prepositions automatically, without thinking about their meaning, which is still partly preserved in them. For example: Due to the lack of materials, the construction is suspended (as if someone foresaw that there would be no materials, and therefore the construction was suspended). Incorrect use of denominative prepositions often leads to illogical statements.

Let's compare the two versions of the sentences:

The exclusion of denominative prepositions from the text, as we see, eliminates verbosity, helps to express the thought more concretely and stylistically correctly.

The use of speech stamps is usually associated with the influence of the official business style. Words and expressions with erased semantics and faded emotional coloring, which are becoming widespread, become speech clichés. So, in a variety of contexts, the expression get a residence permit begins to be used in a figurative sense (Each ball that flies into the goal net receives a permanent residence permit in the tables; Petrovsky's muse has a permanent residence permit in the hearts; Aphrodite has entered the permanent exhibition of the museum - now she is registered in our city ).

Any frequently repeated speech means, for example, stereotyped metaphors, definitions that have lost their figurative power due to constant reference to them, even hackneyed rhymes (tears - roses) can become a stamp. However, in practical stylistics, the term "speech stamp" has received a narrower meaning: this is the name for stereotypical expressions that have a clerical coloring.

Among the speech clichés that arose as a result of the influence of the official business style on other styles, one can first of all single out stereotyped turns of speech: at this stage, at a given period of time, today, emphasized with all sharpness, etc. As a rule, they do not contribute anything to the content of the statement, but only clog the speech: In this period of time a difficult situation has developed with the liquidation of debts to supplier enterprises; Currently the payment of wages to miners was taken under unremitting control; At this stage, the crucian spawning is normal, etc. Deleting the highlighted words will not change anything in the information.

Speech stamps also include universal words that are used in a variety of, often too broad, indefinite meanings (question, event, series, conduct, expand, separate, specific, etc.). For example, the noun question, acting as a universal word, never indicates what is being asked (nutrition issues in the first 10-12 days are of particular importance; issues of timely tax collection from enterprises and commercial structures deserve great attention). In such cases, it can be painlessly excluded from the text (cf .: Nutrition in the first 10-12 days is especially important; It is necessary to collect taxes from enterprises and commercial structures in a timely manner).

The word appear, as universal, is also often superfluous; this can be seen by comparing two wordings of sentences from newspaper articles:

The unjustified use of linking verbs is one of the most common stylistic flaws in professional literature. However, this does not mean that linking verbs should be banned, their use should be appropriate, stylistically justified.

Speech stamps include paired words, or satellite words; the use of one of them necessarily suggests the use of the other (cf .: the event is held, the scope is wide, criticism is sharp, the problem is unresolved, overdue, etc.). The definitions in these pairs are lexically defective, they give rise to speech redundancy.

Speech stamps, relieving the speaker from the need to look for the right, exact words, deprive the speech of specificity. For example: The current season was held at a high organizational level - this proposal can be inserted into the report on hay harvesting, and on sports competitions, and on preparing the housing stock for winter, and harvesting grapes ...

The set of speech stamps changes over the years: some are gradually forgotten, others become "fashionable", so it is impossible to list and describe all the cases of their use. It is important to understand the essence of this phenomenon and prevent the emergence and spread of stamps.

Language standards should be distinguished from speech stamps. Language standards are ready-made, reproducible in speech means of expression used in a journalistic style. Unlike a stamp, "the standard ... does not cause a negative attitude, as it has clear semantics and economically expresses an idea, contributing to the speed of information transfer." Language standards include, for example, such combinations that have become stable: Public sector workers, employment service, international humanitarian aid, commercial structures, law enforcement agencies, branches of Russian government, according to informed sources, phrases such as household service (food, health , rest, etc.). These speech units are widely used by journalists, since it is impossible to invent new means of expression in each specific case.

Comparing the journalistic texts of the period of "Brezhnev's stagnation" and the 1990s, one can note a significant reduction in clericalism and speech stamps in the language of newspapers and magazines. The stylistic "companions" of the command-bureaucratic system left the stage in the "post-communist time". Now clericalism and all the beauties of the bureaucratic style are more easily found in humorous works than in newspaper materials. This style is wittily parodied by Mikhail Zhvanetsky:

Decree to further deepen the expansion of constructive measures taken as a result of consolidation to improve the state of all-round interaction of all conservation structures and ensure even greater intensification of the punishment of workers of all masses based on the rotational priority of the future normalization of relations of the same workers according to their own order.

The accumulation of verbal nouns, chains of identical case forms, speech clichés firmly “block” the perception of such statements that cannot be comprehended. Our journalism has successfully overcome this "style", and it "decorates" only the speech of individual speakers and officials in state institutions. However, while they are in their leadership positions, the problem of combating clericalism and speech stamps has not lost its relevance.

Words in a language can have one, two or more lexical meanings.

Words that have the same lexical meaning, are called unambiguous or monosemous.

These words include:

1) various terms (not all): subject, electron;

2) various thematic groups:

a) plant names (birch, poplar);

b) names of animals (minnow, jay);

c) names of people by occupation (doctor, livestock specialist, pilot).

However, most words in Russian have many meanings. The development of polysemy of words is one of the active processes, due to which the vocabulary of the Russian literary language is replenished.

The word used in more than one sense, is called polysemous or polysemous(from Greek poly - many, sema - sign).

For example: according to the dictionary of D.N. Ushakov's word easy

1. Insignificant in weight (light foot);

2. Easy to learn, solutions (easy lesson);

3. Small, insignificant (light breeze);

4. Superficial, frivolous (light flirting);

5. Soft, accommodating (light character);

6. Laid-back, graceful (light syllable);

7. Smooth, smooth, sliding (easy gait).

One of these meanings is primary, initial, and the others are secondary, resulting from the development of the primary meaning.

The primary value is usually the direct value.

primary value - this is the main meaning of the word, directly naming the object, action, property.

In the literal sense, the word appears out of context. For example: forest "many trees growing in a large space"; in a figurative sense: a lot of “forest of hands”, without understanding anything “dark forest”, building material “logging”.

The figurative meaning is secondary. It arises on the basis of the similarity of objects in form, in color, in the nature of movement, on the basis of association, etc.

There are two main types of figurative meaning of the word - metaphorical and metonymic. As a kind of metonymy - synecdoche.

Let's consider each separately.

metaphorical transfer.

The essence of this transfer is that the name of an object is transferred to another object, based on the similarity of these objects.

Similarity can be:

1. In form. For example, the word "beard" we call a small beard of a person - this is a direct meaning. In a figurative sense, we call the ledges at the keys a beard. An apple is a fruit, a smooth apple.

2. By color similarity. Gold is a yellow precious metal, "the gold of her hair" is the color of her hair.

3. By the similarity of size. A pole is a long thin pole, a pole is a long thin person.

4. By the similarity of sounds. Drum - beat the drum, drumming rain.

5. Transfer by function: janitor - a person sweeping a yard, a street; a device in the car that serves to clean the glass.

Metaphors are common language - such a metaphorical meaning of a word that is widely used and known to all speakers: a nail head, a Christmas tree needle.

Individually - author's are not peculiar to the national language. They are created by writers and poets and characterize his stylistic manner. For example, a fire of a red mountain ash, a birch tongue of a grove, a calico of the sky (S. Yesenin). The river of life began to rumble (Leonov).

metonymic transfer.

Its essence lies in the fact that the name from one subject to another is transferred on the basis of adjacency.

Adjacency is understood here as spatial adjacency, proximity of an object, temporal adjacency, etc., i.e. objects named by the same word may be completely different, but they are close in space, in time.

1. Transferring the name from the container to its contents: audience - a room for classes, people in it; class - students (class listened), room; plate - dishes, contents in a plate (ate a bowl of soup).

2. Material - a product from it: crystal - a type of glass, a product from it; gold - she has gold in her ears.

3. Action - the result of that action: jam - the process of cooking, berries boiled in syrup.

5. Action - the object of this action: book edition - illustrated edition.

6. Action - means or instrument of action: harvesting vegetables - harvesting on the table.

7. action - place of action: exit from the house - stand at the entrance.

8. plant - the fruit of a plant: pear, plum.

9. Animal - the fur or meat of an animal: chicken, mink, eggs.

10. An organ of the body is a disease of this body: stomach - grabbed the stomach, naughty heart.

11. Scientist - his image: Ampere, Volt.

12. Locality - a product invented, made there: Kashimir - a city in India, fabric; Boston is a city in England, fabric.

13. Time - events that took place at that time, year: it was 1918, 1941.

As a result of metonymy, a number of common nouns appeared, formed from proper names: volt, ampere, ohm, boston, mac.

Synecdoche.

This type of lexical transfer is based on the following principle: the name is transferred from part to whole and vice versa.

For example, "head" is a part of the human or animal body.

This name can be transferred to the whole person.

From part to whole. Headache - direct meaning.

Borya - bright head - figurative (synecdoche).

Herd of 20 heads.

Mouth - part of the face - direct meaning.

"We have 5 mouths in our family" - figurative.

Machine - any mechanism, passenger car.

From the whole Tool - any technical device (a tool on a part of labor) - a direct meaning; gun - portable.

Synecdoche, as a special type of transference, is combined with metonymy by many scientists and is considered as its variety.

Some characteristic signs of a person are often used to refer to this person, to refer to him. This use of words for colloquial speech is especially characteristic: "I am behind the little blue cap." "Hey, beard, where are you going?"

Little Red Riding Hood is a classic example of synecdoche.

Vocabulary of the Russian language from the point of view of its origin.

Plan.

1. Native Russian vocabulary.

2. Borrowed vocabulary.

3. Old Slavonicisms, their signs and use in modern Russian.

East Slavic vocabulary - these are words that arose in the period from the 6th to the 15th centuries, common among the languages ​​\u200b\u200bof the East Slavic group: Russian, Belarusian, Ukrainian. These words are not found in other Slavic languages.

For example:

Completely (Russian) zovsim (Ukrainian) zusim (bel.);

snowfall snowfall snowfall;

Good good good good.

The East Slavic layer represents a rather diverse vocabulary, reflecting in all its diversity the political, economic and cultural life of the Old Russian state.

During this period, many words appear on the basis of common Slavic vocabulary:

Bullfinch (Russian);

Snow< снiгур (укр.);

Snyagir (white);

Compound numbers: eleven, forty, ninety;

Compound words: hook-nosed, today;

Suffix words - finch, blackberry, pantry.

4. Actually Russian vocabulary.

In the 14th century, in connection with the collapse of Kievan Rus, the Old Russian language breaks up into Russian, Ukrainian and Belarusian. The Russian (Great Russian) nationality was formed.

Proper Russian vocabulary - these are words that have arisen since the formation of the Russian nationality and continue to arise to the present.

Words and morphemes of primordially Russian origin served as the basis for the creation of Russian vocabulary proper. those. common Slavic, East Slavic:

1. Almost all words with suffixes: chik / schik, nick, - testimonials, - lux, - nost bricklayer, wallet, teacher, mower;

2. Many compound words: ship, plane, steel progress;

3. Words with prefixes on, before, behind and the suffix sya: look at, wake up, talk;

4. Abbreviations: JSC - joint stock company, CJSC - closed joint stock company, LLC - limited liability company, PSC - private security company.