Types of temperament: a brief description, features. Types of temperaments

So, temperament should be understood as individually peculiar properties of the psyche that determine the dynamics of a person’s mental activity, which are equally manifested in a variety of activities, regardless of its content, goals, motives, remain constant in adulthood and in their mutual connection characterize the type of temperament. Specific manifestations of the type of temperament are diverse. They are not only noticeable in the external manner of behavior, but seem to permeate all aspects of the psyche, significantly manifesting themselves in cognitive activity, the sphere of feelings, motives and actions of a person, as well as in the nature of mental work, speech features, etc.

At present, science has enough facts to give a complete psychological description of all types of temperament according to a certain harmonious program. However, to compile the psychological characteristics of traditional 4 types, the following main properties of temperament are usually distinguished:

sensitivity is determined by what is the smallest force of external influences necessary for the occurrence of any mental reaction of a person, and what is the rate of occurrence of this reaction.

Reactivity characterized by the degree of involuntary reactions to external or internal influences of the same strength (a critical remark, an offensive word, a sharp tone - even a sound).

Activity indicates how intensely (energetically) a person influences the outside world and overcomes obstacles in achieving goals (persistence, focus, concentration).

The ratio of reactivity and activity determines what human activity depends on to a greater extent: on random external or internal circumstances (moods, random events) or on goals, intentions, beliefs.

Plasticity and rigidity indicate how easily and flexibly a person adapts to external influences (plasticity) or how inert and inert his behavior is.

The rate of reactions characterizes the speed of various mental reactions and processes, the rate of speech, the dynamics of gestures, the speed of the mind.

Extraversion, introversion determines what the reactions and activities of a person mainly depend on - from external impressions that arise at the moment (extrovert), or from images, ideas and thoughts related to the past and future (introvert).

Emotional excitability is characterized by how weak the impact is necessary for the occurrence of an emotional reaction and at what speed it occurs.

Considering all the listed properties, J. Strelyau gives the following psychological characteristics of the main classical types of temperament:

sanguine. A person with increased reactivity, but at the same time, his activity and reactivity are balanced. He vividly, excitedly responds to everything that attracts his attention, has a lively facial expression and expressive movements. On an insignificant occasion, he laughs out loud, and an insignificant fact can make him very angry. It is easy to guess his mood, attitude to an object or person by his face. He has a high threshold of sensitivity, so he does not notice very weak sounds and light stimuli. Possessing increased activity and being very energetic and efficient, he actively takes up a new business and can work for a long time without getting tired. Able to quickly concentrate, disciplined, if desired, can restrain the manifestation of his feelings and involuntary reactions. He is characterized by quick movements, flexibility of mind, resourcefulness, a fast pace of speech, a quick inclusion in a new job. High plasticity is manifested in the variability of feelings, moods, interests and aspirations. Sanguine easily converges with new people, quickly gets used to new requirements and environment. Effortlessly not only switches from one job to another, but also retrains, mastering new skills. As a rule, he responds more to external impressions than to subjective images and ideas about the past and future, an extrovert.

Choleric. Like the sanguine person, it is characterized by low sensitivity, high reactivity and activity. But in a choleric person, reactivity clearly prevails over activity, so he is unbridled, unrestrained, impatient, quick-tempered. He is less plastic and more inert than the sanguine. Hence - greater stability of aspirations and interests, greater perseverance, difficulties in switching attention are possible, he is rather an extrovert.

Phlegmatic person has a high activity, significantly prevailing over low reactivity, low sensitivity and emotionality. It is difficult to make him laugh and sad - when they laugh loudly around him, he can remain unperturbed. When in big trouble, he stays calm. Usually he has poor facial expressions, movements are inexpressive and slow, as well as speech. He is unresourceful, with difficulty shifting attention and adapting to a new environment, slowly rebuilding skills and habits. At the same time, he is energetic and efficient. Differs in patience, endurance, self-control. As a rule, he finds it difficult to meet new people, weakly responds to external impressions, an introvert.

Melancholic. A person with high sensitivity and low reactivity. Increased sensitivity with great inertia leads to the fact that an insignificant occasion can cause tears in him, he is overly touchy, painfully sensitive. His facial expressions and movements are inexpressive, his voice is quiet, his movements are poor. Usually he is insecure, timid, the slightest difficulty makes him give up. The melancholic is not energetic, unpersistent, gets tired easily and has little work capacity. It is characterized by easily distracted and unstable attention and a slow pace of all mental processes. Most melancholics are introverts.

Temperament and activity

The dynamic traits of a person's personality appear not only in the external manner of behavior, not only in movements - they also appear in the mental sphere, in the sphere of motivation, in general performance. Naturally, the peculiarities of temperament affect in training sessions and in work activities. But the main thing is that the differences in temperaments are differences not in the level of the capabilities of the psyche, but in the originality of its manifestations.

The absence of correlation between the level of achievements was established, i.e. the end result of actions, and the characteristics of temperament, if the activity takes place in conditions that can be defined as normal. Thus, regardless of the degree of mobility or reactivity of an individual in a normal, non-stressful situation, the results of activity will in principle be the same, since the level of achievement will depend mainly on other factors, in particular on the level of motivation and abilities. At the same time, studies that establish this pattern show that, depending on the characteristics of temperament, the way the activity itself is carried out changes.

Even B.M. Teplov drew attention to the fact that, depending on the characteristics of temperament, people differ not in the final result of actions, but in the way they achieve results. Developing this idea, a number of domestic researchers conducted research in order to establish the relationship between the method of performing actions and the characteristics of temperament. In these studies, an individual style of activity was considered as a way to achieve results or a way to solve a certain problem, mainly due to the type of nervous system. The results of studies by the vast majority of authors, regardless of the characteristics of the groups under study and experimental situations in which the typical way of performing actions for these individuals was studied, show that it is the type of nervous activity, and above all the strength and mobility of nervous processes, that has a significant impact on the formation of a certain style. activities.

Congenital features of temperament are manifested in a person in such mental processes that depend on upbringing, social environment and the ability to control their reactions. Therefore, according to R.M. Granovskaya, a specific reaction to a situation can be determined both by the influence of the characteristic differences of the nervous system, and be the result of training and professional experience. For example, a high reaction rate in an experienced driver, pilot, boxer is not necessarily a natural property of their nervous system; it can also be achieved as a result of training and education. However, the limits of the possible development of the reaction rate are determined by the innate properties of the nervous system.

Professional selection helps to identify applicants with the most suitable psycho-physiological qualities for a given specialty, since some of the qualities required by some professions are difficult to train, they are limited by the properties of temperament. For example, it is known that an underdeveloped sense of time or a low speed of a motor reaction can be developed through individual training only within certain limits. For the purpose of professional selection, tests have been developed that allow evaluating the characteristics of attention, the accuracy of time estimation, the speed of a motor reaction, etc. for various specialties. Not only professional selection is important, but career guidance as well; the choice by each person of such a labor activity that would correspond not only to his interests, but also to his individual characteristics and capabilities. Studies show that people who have undergone professional specialization, taking into account their psychophysiological characteristics, experience great satisfaction from their work, which has the most favorable effect on their productivity.

The productivity of a person's work is closely related to the characteristics of his temperament. So, the special mobility (reactivity) of a sanguine person can bring an additional effect if the work requires a change in objects of communication, occupation, frequent transition from one rhythm of life to another. A false impression may be created that people who are inert (phlegmatic) do not have advantages in any kind of activity, but this is not true: it is they who are especially easy to carry out slow and smooth movements, they show a preference for stereotypical methods of action, punctually observing once adopted order. People who are characterized by a weak nervous system - melancholics, are more motivated to perform simpler actions than others, they are less tired and annoyed by their repetition. It has been experimentally shown that sanguine and choleric people show less resistance and reduced productivity in situations where the conditions and methods of activity are strictly regulated and do not allow the inclusion of individual techniques.

In order to optimize training and education, it is important for a teacher to take into account the possible type of temperament of his pupils in his activities. Here are some tips given by R.M. At the same time, any act of his must be demanding; and fairly valued. At the same time, negative assessments are necessary only in a very energetic form and as often as necessary to improve the results of his work or study. A sanguine person should be constantly assigned new, if possible, interesting tasks that require concentration and tension from him. It is necessary to constantly include him in active work and systematically encourage his efforts.

The phlegmatic person needs to be involved in vigorous activity and interested. It requires systematic attention. It cannot be quickly switched from one task to another. In relation to the melancholic, not only harshness, rudeness, but also simply an elevated tone, irony are unacceptable. About the misconduct committed by the melancholic, it is better to talk with him alone. He requires special attention, you should praise him in time for his successes, determination and will. A negative assessment should be used as carefully as possible, mitigating its negative effect in every possible way. The melancholic is the most sensitive and vulnerable type. You have to be extremely gentle and kind with him.

Thus, the way a person implements his actions depends on temperament, but their content does not depend on it. Temperament is manifested in the features of the course of mental processes, affecting the speed of recollection and the strength of memorization, the fluency of mental operations, the stability and switchability of attention.

CHARACTER

In psychology, the concept character(from the Greek. charakter - “seal”, “chasing”), means a set of stable individual characteristics of a person that develops and manifests itself in activity and communication, causing her typical ways of behavior.

When determining the character of a person, they do not say that such and such a person showed courage, truthfulness, frankness, that this person is courageous, truthful, frank, i.e. these qualities are the properties of a given person, traits of his character, which can manifest themselves under appropriate circumstances. Knowing the nature of a person makes it possible with a significant degree of probability to foresee and thereby correct the expected actions and deeds. It is often said about a person with character: "He should have done just that, he could not have done just that, he could not have done otherwise - such is his character."

However, not all human features can be considered characteristic, but only essential and stable ones. If a person, for example, is not polite enough in a stressful situation, then this does not mean that rudeness and incontinence are a property of his character. Sometimes even very cheerful people can experience a feeling of sadness, but this does not make them whiners and pessimists.

Acting as a lifetime education of a person, character is determined and formed throughout a person's life. The way of life includes the way of thoughts, feelings, impulses, actions in their unity. Therefore, as a certain way of life of a person is formed, the person himself is formed. An important role here is played by social conditions and specific life circumstances in which a person’s life path passes, based on his natural properties and as a result of his deeds and deeds. However, the actual formation of character occurs in groups of different levels of development (family, friendly company, class, sports team, work team, etc.). Depending on which group is the reference group for the individual and what values ​​it supports and cultivates in its environment, the corresponding character traits will develop among its members. Character traits will also depend on the position of the individual in the group, on how he integrates in it. In the team, as a group of a high level of development, the most favorable opportunities are created for the development of the best character traits. This process is mutual, and thanks to the development of the individual, the team itself develops.

The content of the character, reflecting social influences, influences, constitutes the life orientation of the individual, i.e. her material and spiritual needs, interests, beliefs, ideals, etc. The orientation of the personality determines the goals, the life plan of a person, the degree of his life activity. The character of a person implies the presence of something significant for him in the world, in life, something on which the motives of his actions depend, the goals of his actions, the tasks that he sets himself.

Decisive for understanding character is the relationship between socially and personally significant for a person. Every society has its own major and essential tasks. It is on them that the character of people is formed and tested. Therefore, the concept of "character" refers more to the attitude of these objectively existing tasks. Therefore, character is not just any manifestation of firmness, perseverance, etc. (formal persistence can be just stubbornness), but focus on socially significant activities. It is the orientation of the personality that underlies the unity, integrity, strength of character. Possession of the goals of life is the main condition for the formation of character. A spineless person is characterized by the absence or dispersion of goals. However, the nature and orientation of a person are not the same thing. Good-natured and cheerful can be both a decent, highly moral person, and a person with low, unscrupulous thoughts. The orientation of the individual leaves an imprint on all human behavior. And although behavior is determined not by one impulse, but by an integral system of relations, in this system something always comes to the fore, dominating it, giving a person’s character a peculiar flavor.

In the formed character, the leading component is the persuasion system. Conviction determines the long-term direction of a person's behavior, his inflexibility in achieving his goals, confidence in the justice and importance of the work that he performs. Character traits are closely related to the interests of a person, provided that these interests are stable and deep. The superficiality and instability of interests are often associated with great imitation, with a lack of independence and integrity of a person's personality. And, conversely, the depth and content of interests testify to the purposefulness and perseverance of the individual. The similarity of interests does not imply similar features of character. So, among rationalizers one can find people who are cheerful and sad, modest and obsessive, egoists and altruists.

Indicative for the understanding of character can also be the affections and interests of a person related to his leisure. They reveal new features, facets of character: for example, L.N. Tolstoy was fond of playing chess, I.P. Pavlov - towns, D.I. Mendeleev - reading adventure novels. Whether spiritual and material needs and interests dominate in a person is determined not only by the thoughts and feelings of the individual, but also by the direction of his activity. No less important is the correspondence of a person's actions to the set goals, since a person is characterized not only by what she does, but also by how she does it. Character can only be understood as a certain unity of direction and mode of action.

People with a similar orientation can go completely different ways to achieve goals and use their own, special, techniques and methods for this. This dissimilarity also determines the specific character of the individual. Character traits, having a certain motivating force, are clearly manifested in a situation of choosing actions or ways of behaving. From this point of view, as a character trait, one can consider the degree of expression of an individual's achievement motivation - his need to achieve success. Depending on this, some people are characterized by the choice of actions that ensure success (showing initiative, competitive activity, striving for risk, etc.), while others are more likely to simply avoid failures (deviation from risk and responsibility, avoiding manifestations of activity, initiative, etc.).

Teaching about character - characterology has a long history of development. The most important problems of characterology for centuries have been the establishment of types of character and their definition by its manifestations in order to predict human behavior in various situations. Since character is a lifetime formation of a personality, most of its existing classifications proceed from grounds that are external, mediated factors in the development of a personality.

One of the most ancient attempts to predict human behavior is the explanation of his character by the date of birth. A variety of ways to predict the fate and character of a person are called horoscopes. In practice, all horoscopes are compiled in the same way: the generally accepted time period is divided into certain intervals, each of which is assigned a certain sign, symbol. The description of a person's character is given through the prism of the various properties of this symbol. However, the characters of people born at the same time, according to different horoscopes, turn out to be different. So, for example, in accordance with the horoscope of the Druids, who connect human characters with trees, a person born in the interval from December 22 to January 1 is an apple tree. According to the horoscope, the apple tree is rarely tall, there is a lot of cuteness in it, a lot of charm, cordiality. Inspires the thought of love, even when she herself does not think about it. According to the astrological signs of the Zodiac, a person born between December 22 and January 20 is Capricorn. According to this horoscope, this suggests a stubborn character, the most persistent, hardy, hidden, secretly proud. Lives in reality, overcoming troubles and obstacles. Oriental horoscopes establish 12-year cycles, each of which passes under the sign of some animal. A person born in a certain year receives a number of innate properties, in accordance with which his character is formed. However, the comparison of the characteristics of similar animals in Japanese or, say, Chinese horoscopes also differs significantly.

No less popular are attempts to link a person's character with his name. Recently, this branch of characterology has received a new impetus for development. Theorists of this direction believe that the determining influence of a person's name on his character is caused by the following factors. On the one hand, the maximum growth rate of muscle tissue in a child is observed in the first months of life, on the other hand, at the same time, the most frequent range of sounds that a child observes is his own name. The baby does not imitate the sounds he hears, but imitates the voiced facial expressions. As a result, nerve impulses are reflexively excited in the child precisely in those muscle groups - facial, articulatory and respiratory, which are involved in pronouncing the name. The metabolism in the muscles where the impulse occurs accelerates against the background of already rapid growth. In the end, these small, but noticeable in their influence on the structure of facial muscles, facial muscles will be accentuated developed. That is why people with the same names look alike. In a similar way, the character is formed, which in Antonov is contradictory, stubborn, persistent; Vladimirov's are thinner and more solid; Boriss, on the other hand, are prone to leadership, proud, balanced, but not without ardor, etc.

Significant influence on the development of characterology was exerted by physiognomy (from the Greek physis - "nature", gnomon - "knowing") - the doctrine of the relationship between the appearance of a person and his belonging to a certain type of personality, due to which the psychological characteristics of this type. Already Aristotle and Plato proposed to determine the character of a person, looking for features of similarity with some animal in his appearance, and then identifying his character, as in the eastern horoscope, with the character of this animal. So, according to Aristotle, a nose as thick as that of a bull meant laziness, a wide nose with large nostrils, like that of a pig, - stupidity, a nose like that of a lion - importance, hair thin, like the wool of goats, sheep and hares, - timidity, hard hair, like that of lions and wild boars - courage.

The most famous was the physiognomic system of Johann Kasper Lavater, who considered the study of the structure of the head, the configuration of the skull, facial expressions, etc. to be the main way of understanding the human character. So, according to Lavater, Goethe's genius is most evidenced by his nose, which "marks productivity, taste and love - in a word, poetry."

When determining the character of a person, physiognomists used a variety of signs as defining ones. So, in addition to the nose, attention was paid to the human mouth. Lavater wrote in his “Physiognomy”: “Everything that human nature contains is put into its mouth. Both in a calm state and in the endless variety of their movements, they contain a whole world of characters. They are the main residence of reason and madness, strength and weakness, virtue and vice, the delicacy of human rudeness, they are the residence of love and hatred, sincerity and hypocrisy, humility and pride, truth and lies. relaxed lips are a sign of possessing “female” character traits (softness, courtesy), and the more - the more pronounced (for example, a stupid person has his mouth open at all). This was explained by the fact that even when a person laughs, a certain mask reflexively appears on his face, which is appropriately associated with the character. A smile can be self-satisfied, sweet, happy, bright, cold, mocking, meek, stupid, etc. The characteristic attitudes of a person are manifested not only in the facial expressions of his mouth, but also in speech. The character of a person is revealed both in the content of speech, i.e. in what this person mainly talks about, and in the form of speech, in the way he speaks. Great writers often emphasized the character of the characters in their works through their speech. Hail Prostakova: “Lies! Oh, she's a beast! Lies! As if noble! ..”, testifies to the heartlessness, rudeness, cruelty of the “noble” noblewoman in relation to her devoted Eremeevna.

However, the most important indicator of character was the eyes of a person. Even the ancients said: "The eyes are the mirror of the soul." Aristotle pointed out that large, good-natured, but bulging eyes are a sign of stupidity. L.N. Tolstoy distinguished, for example, cunning eyes, radiant, bright eyes, sad, cold, lifeless. He wrote: “There are people who have only laughing eyes - these are cunning and selfish people. There are people whose mouth laughs without eyes - they are weak, indecisive people, and both of these laughter are unpleasant.

At present, under these purely fictional facts, they are trying to bring scientific evidence. American psychologists J. Glive and E. Clery, after a five-year study of the character traits of about 10 thousand children, proved that children with dark eyes have more life, initiative and a more restless character than children with light eyes. In adults, some deviations are possible. The authors argue that people with dark blue eyes are very persistent, but tend to be sentimental. They easily give in to moods, remember grievances for a long time, are capricious, sometimes their actions are unpredictable. People with dark gray eyes are stubborn and courageous, they are persistent and achieve their goal, despite various difficulties. They are quick-tempered and vindictive. Jealous, mostly monogamous. Those who have dark brown eyes are cheerful, witty, quick-tempered, but quick-witted. They are amorous, but not very constant. As a rule, they are sociable, love humor, easily converge with people. Often they act recklessly, after which they are tormented by remorse. Owners of light brown eyes are shy, prone to solitude, dreamy, hard to endure the offense inflicted on them. Hardworking, diligent, you can rely on them - they will not let you down. Blue eyes indicate romantic inclinations, but at the same time, selfishness and conceit. The blue-eyed ones are easily amenable to impulses, but quickly cool down. Their undeniably positive feature is truthfulness. As for people with green and gray-green eyes, then, as J.Glive and E.Clery assure, in most cases they have a strong will, resolutely and rigorously go towards their goal. They are persistent. They are tough and intractable.

As a separate direction of characterology, one can single out the determination of the individual characteristics of a person by his posture, body position. According to some psychologists, the character is most clearly revealed in the posture of a person: how he stands, how he walks, how he sits, and even in what position he falls asleep. In everyday consciousness, for example, there is an opinion that arrogant people more often tilt their bodies back, stick out their chests, throwing their heads back. The sycophant leans forward all over, his gaze ingratiating, although there is a barely noticeable cunning laugh in the corners of his eyes, a wide, obsequious smile on his face.

And here is how women are characterized by the posture in which they sit on a chair, modern characterology. If a woman prefers to sit on the edge of a chair, squeezing her knees, then she is very active, cheerful, restless. He constantly grabs at everything, not finishing what he started to the end. They are too impatient, but they involve in any undertaking even those who do not like this or that work. They spend the whole day in trouble, but they do not see the end in the next days. The position crosswise in the area of ​​the knees, the legs extended forward, and the hands lying on the knees - a type of selfish, self-satisfied, narcissistic women. She tries to attract attention at all costs and strives to show herself smarter than others in all matters. If she fails, she becomes aggressive or retires to a dark corner. Too curious. Legs stretched forward, one slightly ahead of the other, “speak” of an unstable, quarrelsome character. These women believe that they know everything, and only in exceptional cases admit their mistakes. Their perseverance to convince the interlocutor of their own rightness quickly bothers. Despite this, their arguments are often irresistible, and in many matters logic is on their side.

Palmistry has no less famous and rich history than the physiognomic trend in characterology. Palmistry (from the Greek cheir - “hand” and manteia - “fortune-telling”, “prophecy”) is a system for predicting a person’s character traits and his fate according to the skin relief of the palms. Palmistry has been known since ancient times, but it flourished most in the 16th-18th centuries, when there were departments of palmistry in many universities in Europe. In its origins, palmistry is closely related to astrology, since the main signs of the hand that are taken into account are the "7 hills" in the palm, called the names of the Sun and planets: Venus, Jupiter, Saturn, Mercury, Mars and the Moon.

Until recently, scientific psychology has consistently rejected palmistry, but the study of the embryonic development of finger patterns in connection with heredity gave impetus to the emergence of a new branch of knowledge - dermatoglyphics. In particular, it was shown that the formation of the pattern of the palms of each person, as well as the development of the brain, occurs at 3-4 months of intrauterine development and is due to the same influence of the gene set of the parents or chromosomal abnormalities of the fetus. Therefore, palmistry should be considered rather as an anatomical or physiological feature of the body, and it can be put on a par with the constitutional direction of characterology, of which E. Kretschmer was a prominent representative. Kretschmer considered character in connection with the structure of the body as the mental constitution of a person, corresponding to his bodily constitution, and explained character, ultimately, by innate, primarily endocrine factors.

However, at present, neither anthropology, nor anatomy, nor psychology have any reliable data that a person’s character depends on the structure of the body, facial configuration, eye color, etc. Does it follow from this that the determination of a person's character on the basis of the study of his appearance is impossible? It probably makes sense to recall the statement of Charles Darwin that it is essential for a physiognomist to know that “... each individual contracts mainly only certain muscles of the face, following his personal inclinations. These muscles may be more developed, and therefore the lines and wrinkles of the face, formed by their normal contraction, may become deeper and more visible. The connection between the appearance of a person and the warehouse of his character is clearly seen both in literary works and in the image of the great masters of portraiture. However, scientific psychology proceeds from the position that the relationship between the habitual facial expression of a person and the warehouse of his character is not unambiguous. This or that facial expression, folds, wrinkles can have a variety of causes. And here one cannot but agree with A.V. Petrovsky that the reason for a slightly ajar mouth can be not only the stupidity of a person, but also deafness, and a sick nasopharynx, and strained attention.

The most vivid, clear idea of ​​a person's character can be obtained by knowing the specifics of his actions, behavior, and activities. Movements and actions, the implementation of which becomes a need under certain conditions, as you know, are called habits. Here it is appropriate to recall the Eastern proverb: "Sow an act - you reap a habit, sow a habit - you reap a character, sow a character - you reap a destiny." The emphasis in it is on the habitual actions of a person, which, repeating themselves, become character traits, making up his being, influencing the position of a person in public life and the attitude of other people towards him. This was also pointed out by André and Gaston Durvili, according to whom the expression is a gesture fixed by a long repetition. The idea and its external image are closely related. That is why the movements of musicians are beautiful, harmonious, and weak-minded people are usually awkward in their movements. Fearful people, according to Durvili, betray themselves with discordant gestures. It is caused by "reckless fears that swirl through their minds. Their eyebrows, forehead, lips, arms, and legs also randomly gesticulate. If they want to say something, they can't because of stuttering. It is common for them to break a chair, sit on someone's hat, spill tea, etc.

In this respect, graphology, a science that considers handwriting as a kind of expressive movements that reflect the psychological properties of the writer, can be considered more valuable in diagnostic terms than, say, physiognomy. Graphological information, accumulated over the centuries, established a connection between two series of facts - the features of handwriting and character. Some of the connections were pretty obvious: "The eccentric (original) writes in a peculiar way, so it's easy to recognize him." Others are not so clear: "A strong slope expresses great impressionability."

In those days when writing was a professional art - calligraphy, it seemed obvious that writing was connected not only with the technique, skills and abilities of the author, but also with his spiritual and moral character. The calligrapher was subjected to the most severe requirements of asceticism, for pure writing required a person endowed with tremendous self-control, with a rigid internal organization, in order to fully master the handwriting, so that nothing superfluous, nothing distorting the form, penetrated from the psyche into the letter. At present, unambiguous connections between the graphic features of the letter and the supposedly corresponding character traits are not confirmed. The dependence of handwriting on the emotional state and some typological properties of higher nervous activity has been most reliably established. The specific features of handwriting serve to diagnose certain mental illnesses. For example, the handwriting of patients with schizophrenia is often distinguished by pretentiousness, deliberate stylization.

Even N.A. Bernshtein noted that most of all the mechanics of the movement of a living organism is distinguished from the movement of a machine by the “redundancy of the degree of freedom”. The same action can be performed in many ways, so in each action it is possible to single out something that can be associated with the personal meaning of this action. Thanks to this, writers can very accurately convey the character of their hero. So, for example, M. Yuler-montov in the story "A Hero of Our Time" wrote: "His gait was careless, lazy, but I noticed that he did not wave his arms - a sure sign of some secrecy."

The most objective and irrefutable data about a person's character is provided not by his passport data, not by the features of his external appearance, not by his involuntary actions, but by his conscious behavior. It is precisely by the fact that a person chooses not from possible actions in a given situation that his character is assessed. The nature of a person is quite multifaceted. This can be seen already in the process of activity: one does everything quickly, the other slowly and thoroughly, thinks carefully, acting for sure, and the third immediately grabs the job without thinking, and only after a certain period of time, without solving the problem from a swoop, examines and coordinates its actions, taking into account the circumstances. These features, distinguished in human behavior, are called traits, or sides, of character. Any trait is some stable stereotype of behavior.

However, character traits cannot be plucked out of the typical situations in which they appear, and, as noted above, in some situations even a polite person can be rude. Therefore, any character trait is a stable form of behavior in connection with specific, typical situations for this type of behavior.

According to Yu.M. Orlov, along with situations in which a certain trait of a person is found, its essential characteristic is the probability that this type of behavior will take place in a given situation. One can talk about any trait as a stable characteristic of a person if the probability of its manifestation in a certain situation is high enough. However, the probability means that this feature is not always manifested, otherwise it would just be a matter of mechanical behavior. Such an understanding of character traits is very similar to the manifestation of a person's habit: in certain conditions, to act in a certain way. Such a trait as altruism can manifest itself in the habit of helping everyone who needs it. A habit cannot always turn into a character trait, it is only a predisposition to act accordingly. A character trait includes a certain way of thinking, understanding. Volitional mechanisms are included in the commission of a characteristic act, feelings are involved. The habit does not include these components. At the same time, by conditioning a person's behavior, a character trait in behavior is formed. To become an altruist, one must constantly help people, although the first altruistic act could be caused by a random impulse. The formation of character traits cannot be divorced from the formation of behavioral motives. The motives of behavior, being realized in action, being fixed in it, are fixed in the character. Every efficient motive; which acquires stability, according to S.L. Rubinshtein, is potentially a future character trait in its genesis. In motives, traits of character appear for the first time in the form of tendencies; action then brings them into stable properties. The path to the formation of character traits lies, therefore, through the formation of proper motives for behavior and the organization of actions aimed at consolidating them.

The most common properties of character are located along the axes: strength - weakness; hardness - softness; integrity - inconsistency; breadth - narrowness. If the strength of character is understood as the energy with which a person pursues his goals, his ability to get passionately carried away and develop a great effort of strength when meeting with difficulties, the ability to overcome them, then weakness of character is associated with the manifestation of cowardice, indecision, "asthenicity" in achieving the goal, instability of views, cowardice, etc. Firmness of character means rigid consistency, perseverance in achieving goals, defending views, etc., while softness of character is manifested in flexible adaptation to changing conditions, achieving a goal through some concessions, finding reasonable compromises. The integrity or inconsistency of character is determined by the degree of combination of leading and secondary character traits. If the leading and secondary features are in harmony, if there are no contradictions in aspirations and interests, then such a character is called integral, but if they contrast sharply, then contradictory. When they want to highlight a property that testifies to the versatility of a person’s aspirations and hobbies, the diversity of his activities, then they talk about the breadth or completeness of character. It can be said about such a person that nothing human is alien to them. As a rule, these are expansive people who always know how to give themselves with great spiritual generosity in such a way that at the same time they do not lose, but enrich themselves, joining in an ever new spiritual content. In contrast, people with a "narrow" character are prone to self-restraint, narrowing the scope of their interests, claims, and activities.

At the same time, the unity and versatility of character do not exclude the fact that in different situations the same person manifests different and even opposite properties. A person can be both very gentle and very demanding, soft and compliant and at the same time firm to the point of inflexibility. And the unity of his character can not only be preserved in spite of this, but it is precisely in this that it manifests itself.

Character is often compared with temperament, and in some cases these concepts are substituted for each other. In science, among the dominant views on the relationship between character and temperament, four main ones can be distinguished:

Identification of character and temperament (E. Kretschmer, A. Ruzhitsky);

Contrasting character and temperament, emphasizing the antagonism between them (P. Viktorov, V. Virenius);

Recognition of temperament as an element of character, its core, an invariable part (S.L. Rubinshtein, S. Gorodetsky);

Recognition of temperament as the natural basis of character (L.S. Vygotsky, B. Gananiev).

Based on the materialistic understanding of human phenomena, it should be noted that the common character and temperament is the dependence on the physiological characteristics of a person, and above all on the type of nervous system. The formation of character essentially depends on the properties of temperament, more closely related to the properties of the nervous system. In addition, character traits arise when the temperament is already sufficiently developed. Character develops on the basis, on the basis of temperament. Temperament determines in character such traits as balance or imbalance of behavior, ease or difficulty of entering a new situation, mobility or inertness of reaction, etc. However, temperament does not predetermine character. People with the same temperament properties can have a completely different character. Features of temperament can contribute to or counteract the formation of certain character traits. Thus, it is more difficult for a melancholic to form courage and determination in himself than for a choleric. It is more difficult for a choleric person to develop self-restraint than a phlegmatic one; a phlegmatic person needs to spend more energy to become sociable than a sanguine person, etc.

However, according to B. G. Ananiev, if education consisted only in the improvement and strengthening of natural properties, then this would lead to a monstrous uniformity of development. The specialization of education, for example, a melancholic, could only lead to the fact that he would turn into a hypermelancholic, a mimosa-like creature. Cultivating the properties of a phlegmatic person could be the result of creating a heavy style of mental activity, lack of flexibility, etc. This does not happen, because as the personality develops and the influence of the social environment grows, the relationship between character and temperament changes. Mastering his needs, feelings, thoughts on the basis of the development of character and will, a person begins to influence the manifestation of his temperament, to transform it. Probably, I.P. Pavlov had this in mind when he distinguished active phlegmatic from lazy phlegmatic.

The properties of temperament can, to some extent, even come into conflict with the character. In P.I. Tchaikovsky, the tendency to melancholy experiences was overcome by one of the main features of his character - his ability to work. “You always need to work,” he said, “and every honest artist cannot sit idly by, under the pretext that he is not in the mood. If you wait for the location and do not try to meet him, then you can easily fall into laziness and apathy. Disagreements very rarely happen to me. I attribute this to my being endowed with patience, and train myself never to give in to reluctance. I've learned to conquer myself."

In a person with a formed character, temperament ceases to be an independent form of personality manifestation, but becomes its dynamic side, consisting in a certain emotional orientation of character properties, a certain speed of mental processes and personality manifestations, a certain characteristic of expressive movements and actions of a person. Here we should also note the influence exerted on the formation of character by a dynamic stereotype, i.e. a system of conditioned reflexes that form in response to a steadily repeating system of stimuli. The formation of dynamic stereotypes in a person in various repetitive situations is influenced by his attitude to the situation, as a result of which excitation, inhibition, mobility of nervous processes can change, and, consequently, the general functional state of the nervous system. It is also necessary to note the decisive role in the formation of dynamic stereotypes of the second signal system, through which social influences are carried out.

Ultimately, the traits of temperament and character are organically linked and interact with each other in a single holistic image of a person, forming an inseparable alloy - an integral characteristic of his personality.

Character has long been identified with the will of a person, the expression "a person with character" was considered as a synonym for the expression "strong-willed person". The will is associated primarily with the strength of character, its firmness, determination, perseverance. When they say that a person has a strong character, they thereby seem to want to emphasize his purposefulness, his strong-willed qualities. In this sense, the character of a person is best manifested in overcoming difficulties, in the struggle, i.e. in those conditions where the will of man is manifested to the greatest extent. But character is not exhausted by force, it has a content that directs it, determining how the will will function under various conditions. On the one hand, in volitional deeds, character develops and manifests itself in them: volitional deeds in situations that are significant for the individual pass into the character of a person, fixing themselves in it as relatively stable properties of it; these properties, in turn, determine the behavior of a person, his volitional actions. Volitional character is distinguished by certainty, constancy and independence, firmness in the implementation of the intended goal. On the other hand, it is not uncommon for a weak-willed person to be called "spineless". From the point of view of psychology, this is not entirely true - and a weak-willed person has certain character traits, such as fearfulness, indecision, etc. The use of the term “characterless” means the unpredictability of a person’s behavior, indicates that he does not have his own direction, an internal core that would determine his behavior. His actions are caused by external influences and do not depend on himself.

The peculiarity of character is also reflected in the peculiarities of the flow of human feelings. K.D. Ushinsky pointed to this: “Nothing, neither words, nor thoughts, nor even our actions express ourselves and our attitude to the world so clearly and correctly, as our feelings: they hear the character of not a separate thought, not a separate decision, but the whole content of our soul and its structure. The connection between feelings and properties of a person's character is also mutual. On the one hand, the level of development of moral, aesthetic, intellectual feelings depends on the nature of a person's activity and communication and on the traits of character formed on this basis. On the other hand, these feelings themselves become characteristic, stable features of the personality, thus constituting the character of a person. The level of development of a sense of duty, a sense of humor and other complex feelings is a fairly indicative characteristic of a person.

Of particular importance for characterological manifestations is the relationship of intellectual personality traits. The depth and sharpness of thought, the unusual posing of the question and its solution, intellectual initiative, confidence and independence of thinking - all this makes up the originality of the mind as one of the sides of character. However, how a person uses his mental faculties will depend significantly on character. Often there are people who have high intellectual data, but do not give anything of value precisely because of their characterological features. Numerous literary images of superfluous people serve as an example of this (Pechorin, Rudin, Beltov, etc.). As I.S. Turgenev well said through the mouth of one of the characters in the novel about Rudin: “There is perhaps genius in him, but no nature.” Thus, the real achievements of a person do not depend on some abstractly taken mental capabilities, but on a specific combination of his features and characterological properties.

In the most general form, all character traits can be divided into main, leading, setting the general direction for the development of the entire complex of its manifestations, and secondary, determined by the main ones. So, if we consider such traits as indecision, timidity and altruism, then with the predominance of the first, a person first of all constantly fears “no matter how something happens” and all attempts to help one’s neighbor usually end in inner feelings and the search for justification. If the leading feature is the second trait - altruism, then the person outwardly shows no hesitation, immediately goes to the rescue, controlling his behavior with the intellect, but at the same time he may sometimes have doubts about the correctness of the actions taken.

Knowledge of the leading features allows you to reflect the main essence of the character, to show its main manifestations. Writers, artists, wishing to give an idea of ​​the character of the hero, first of all describe his leading, pivotal features. So, A.S. Pushkin put into the mouth of Vorotynsky (in the tragedy “Boris Godunov”) an exhaustive description of Shuisky - “a crafty courtier”. Some heroes of literary works so deeply and truly reflect certain typical character traits that their names become common nouns (Khlestakov, Manilov, Oblomov, Korchagin, etc.).

Although every character trait reflects one of the manifestations of a person's attitude to reality, this does not mean that any attitude will be a character trait. Only some relationships, depending on the conditions, become character traits. From the totality of the relationship of the individual to the surrounding reality, character-forming forms of relations should be distinguished. The most important distinguishing feature of such relations is the decisive, paramount and general vital importance of those objects to which a person belongs. These relationships simultaneously serve as the basis for the classification of the most important character traits. The character of a person is manifested in the system of relations:

1. In relation to other people (at the same time, one can distinguish such character traits as sociability - isolation, truthfulness - deceit, tact - rudeness, etc.).

2. In relation to the case (responsibility - dishonesty, diligence - laziness, etc.).

3. In relation to oneself (modesty - narcissism, self-criticism - self-confidence, pride - humiliation, etc.).

4. In relation to property (generosity - greed, frugality - extravagance, accuracy - slovenliness, etc.). It should be noted a certain conventionality of this classification and a close relationship, the interpenetration of these aspects of relations. So, for example, if a person shows rudeness, then this concerns his relationship to people; but if at the same time he works as a teacher, then here it is already necessary to talk about his attitude to the matter (bad faith), about his attitude towards himself (narcissism).

Despite the fact that these relationships are the most important from the point of view of character formation, they do not simultaneously and do not immediately become character traits. There is a certain sequence in the transition of these relations into character traits, and in this sense it is impossible to put in one row, say, the attitude towards other people and the attitude towards property, since their very content plays a different role in the real existence of a person. A decisive role in the formation of character is played by the attitude of a person to society, to people. The character of a person cannot be revealed and understood outside the collective, without taking into account his attachments in the form of camaraderie, friendship, love, etc.

In characterological terms, the most significant is not so much a quantitative characteristic as its qualitative moments: on what basis and how does a person establish contact with other people, how does he relate to people of different social status - to higher and lower, to older and younger, to people of the opposite sex . In long-term communication, the mutual influence of people on each other often leaves a significant imprint on their character, while both mutual assimilation is possible, when people become similar to each other as a result of a long life together, and the appearance of traits that are opposite, but complementary to each other. However, such relations, such forms of communication, which are formed in labor, in activity, act as leaders.

Relationships of a person with other people are decisive in relation to activity, giving rise to increased activity, tension, rationalization or, on the contrary, calmness, lack of initiative. The attitude to other people and to activity, in turn, determines the attitude of a person to his own personality, to himself. The correct, evaluative attitude towards another person is the main condition for self-esteem. It follows that the attitude towards other people is not only an important part of the character, but also forms the basis for the formation of a person's self-awareness, necessarily including the attitude towards oneself as an actor, which depends primarily on the very form of activity. When activity changes, not only the subject, methods and operations of this activity change, but at the same time there is a restructuring of the attitude towards oneself as an actor.

Despite the fact that the character is attributed to the individual characteristics of the personality, in the structure of the character, traits that are common to a certain group of people can be distinguished. Even the most original person can find some trait (for example, unusual, unpredictable behavior), the possession of which allows him to be attributed to a group of people with similar behavior. In this case, we should talk about typical in character traits. N. D. Levitov believes that the type of character is a specific expression in the individual character of traits common to a certain group of people. Indeed, as noted, the character is not innate - it is formed in the life and activity of a hundred people as a representative of a certain group, a certain society. Therefore, the character of a person is always a product of society, which explains the similarities and differences in the characters of people belonging to different groups.

Diverse typical features are reflected in the individual character: national, professional, age. Thus, people of the same nationality are in the conditions of life that have developed over many generations, they experience the specific features of national life; develop under the influence of the existing national structure, language. Therefore, people of one nationality in their way of life, habits, rights, character differ from people of another. These typical features are often fixed by everyday consciousness in various attitudes and stereotypes. Most people have a formed image of a representative of a particular country: an American, a Scot, an Italian, a Chinese, etc. Being refracted in a peculiar way, typical features inherent in preschool children, adolescents, the elderly, etc. appear in national characteristics. It is not difficult to describe the typical character of a teacher, doctor, military man, at the same time, each typical character has its own individual features. So, in literature there are many images of misers, i.e. people in whose minds a passion for hoarding is sharply expressed (Plyushkin, Gobsek, Miserly Knight, etc.), but each of them is an individual.

Despite stability, the type of character has a certain plasticity. Under the influence of the life circumstances of upbringing, the requirements of society, the type of character changes and develops. It is enough to trace the dynamics of the development of the character of a person who has devoted himself to a pedagogical specialty. Consistently passing through the stages, they professionally accentuate the character. In practice, accentuation is the limiting value, the extreme version of the manifestation of the norm. Accentuation of character is characterized by increased vulnerability only to a certain kind of psycho-traumatic influences, addressed to the so-called "place of least resistance" of this type of character, while maintaining resistance to others. This weak link in a person's character manifests itself only in situations that place increased demands on the functioning of this particular link. In all other situations that do not affect the vulnerable points of character, the individual behaves without disruption, without causing trouble either to others or to himself.

Depending on the degree of severity, there are explicit and covert (latent) character accentuations. Explicit, or pronounced, accentuations are classified as the extreme limit of the norm and are distinguished by permanent features of a certain type of character. Hidden accentuation is the usual version of the norm, expressed weakly or not expressed at all. Such accentuations can appear unexpectedly under the influence of situations and traumas that make demands on the place of least resistance, while psychogenic factors of a different kind, even severe ones, not only do not cause mental disorders, but may not even reveal the type of character. Both types of accentuations can pass into each other under the influence of various factors, among which the features of family upbringing, social environment, professional activities, etc. play an important role.

Since character accentuations border on the corresponding types of psychopathic disorders, their typology is based on a detailed classification of such disorders in psychiatry, reflecting nevertheless the character traits of a mentally healthy person. Due to the fact that most character accentuations are formed by adolescence and often manifest themselves most clearly in it, it is advisable to consider the classification by accentuation using the example of adolescents. Such a typology, proposed by A.E. Lichko [Lichko A.E. Adolescent psychiatry. L., 1979], includes the following accentuations:

1. Hyperthymic type. Adolescents of this type are distinguished by mobility, sociability, and a tendency to mischief. They always make a lot of noise in the events taking place around them, they love the restless companies of their peers. With good general abilities, they show restlessness, lack of discipline, and study unevenly. Their mood is always good and upbeat. They often have conflicts with adults, parents, teachers. Such teenagers have many different hobbies, but these hobbies, as a rule, are superficial and pass quickly. Adolescents of the hyperthymic type often overestimate their abilities, are too self-confident, strive to show themselves, show off, impress others.

2. Cyclic type. It is characterized by increased irritability and a tendency to apathy. Teenagers of this type prefer to be at home alone instead of being somewhere with their peers. They are hard going through even minor troubles, they react extremely irritably to comments. Their mood periodically changes from elated to depressed (hence the name of this type) with periods of about two to three weeks.

3. Labile type. This type is extremely changeable in mood, and it is often unpredictable. The reasons for an unexpected change in mood can be the most insignificant, for example, someone accidentally dropped an offensive word, someone's unfriendly look. All of them "are capable of sinking into despondency and a gloomy mood in the absence of any serious troubles and failures." A lot in their psychology and behavior depends on the momentary mood of these teenagers. According to this mood, the present and the future for them can be colored either with iridescent or gloomy colors. Such teenagers, when they are in a depressed mood, are in dire need of help and support from those who could improve their mood, who can distract them, cheer them up and entertain them. They well understand and feel the attitude towards them of the people around them.

4. Asthenoneurotic type. This type is characterized by increased suspiciousness and capriciousness, fatigue and irritability. Especially often fatigue manifests itself when performing a difficult mental task.

5. sensitive type. He is characterized by increased sensitivity to everything: to what pleases, and to what upsets or frightens. These teenagers do not like big companies, too gambling, mobile and mischievous games. They are usually shy and timid in front of strangers and therefore often give the impression of isolation. They are open and sociable only with those who are familiar to them; they prefer communication with children and adults to communication with peers. They are distinguished by obedience and show great affection for their parents. In adolescence, such adolescents may have difficulty adapting to the circle of peers, as well as an "inferiority complex". At the same time, a sense of duty is formed quite early in these same adolescents, and high moral demands are made on themselves and on those around them. What they lack in ability, they often make up for in challenging activities and increased diligence. These teenagers are choosy in finding friends and buddies for themselves, find great affection in friendship, adore friends who are older than them.

6. Psychasthenic type. These adolescents are characterized by early intellectual development, a tendency to reflection and reasoning, to introspection and evaluation of the behavior of other people. Such teenagers, however, are often stronger in words than in deeds. Their self-confidence is combined with indecision, and peremptory judgments are combined with hasty actions taken just at those moments when caution and prudence are required.

7. Schizoid type. Its most essential feature is isolation. These teenagers are not very attracted to their peers, they prefer to be alone, to be in the company of adults. “Spiritual loneliness does not even burden the schizoid teenager who lives in his own world with his unusual interests for children of this age.” Such teenagers often demonstrate outward indifference to other people, lack of interest in them. They poorly understand the state of other people, their experiences, they do not know how to sympathize. Their inner world is often filled with various fantasies, special hobbies. In the outward manifestation of their feelings, they are quite restrained, not always understandable to others, especially to their peers, who, as a rule, do not like them very much.

8. epileptoid type. These teenagers often cry, harass others, especially in early childhood. “Such children,” writes A.E. Lichko, they love to torture animals, ... beat and tease the younger and weak, mock the helpless and unable to fight back. In a children's company, they claim not just leadership, but the role of ruler. Their typical features are cruelty, selfishness, dominance. In the group of children they control, such adolescents establish their own rigid, almost terrorist orders, and their personal power in such groups rests mainly on the voluntary obedience of other children or on fear. Under the conditions of a strict disciplinary regime, they often feel at their best, "they know how to please the authorities, achieve certain advantages, seize ... posts that give them ... power, establish dictate over others."

9. hysteroid type. The main feature of this type is egocentrism, a thirst for constant attention to one's person. Adolescents of this type have a tendency to theatricality, posturing, and panache. Such children can hardly endure when their comrade is praised in their presence, when others are given more attention than themselves. “The desire to attract eyes, to listen to admiration and praise becomes an urgent need for them.” Such adolescents are characterized by claims to an exclusive position among their peers, and in order to influence others, to attract their attention, they often act in groups as instigators and ringleaders. At the same time, being unable to act as real leaders and organizers of the case, to gain informal authority for themselves, they often and quickly fail.

10. unstable type. He is sometimes incorrectly characterized as weak-willed, going with the flow. Adolescents of this type show an increased inclination and craving for entertainment, and indiscriminately, as well as for idleness and idleness. They do not have any serious, including professional, interests, they almost do not think about their future at all.

11. Conformal type. This type demonstrates thoughtless, uncritical, and often opportunistic submission to any authorities, to the majority in the group. Such teenagers are usually prone to moralizing and conservatism, and their main life credo is "to be like everyone else." This is a type of opportunist who, for the sake of his own interests, is ready to betray a comrade, to leave him at a difficult moment, but no matter what he does, he will always find an excuse for his act, and often more than one.

To better understand the essence of the marked accentuations, we can consider their literary counterparts. So, Gavroche from the novel "Les Misérables" by V. Hugo has a hyperthymic type; in Sonya Marmeladova from the novel "Crime and Punishment" by F.M. Dostoevsky - emotive; in Shakespeare's Othello - stuck; in Milady from the novel "Three Musketeers" by A. Dumas and Moliere's Tartuffe - hysterical; Dmitry Karamazov has a pronounced excitable (close to psychopathy); in Shakespeare's Romeo and Juliet - exalted; Sancho Panso from Don Quixote by Cervantes is extroverted. Unlike "pure" types, mixed forms of accentuations are much more common as a result of the simultaneous development of several typical features or as a layering of new character traits on its existing structure.

As a rule, with proper educational work, character accentuations are smoothed out and compensated over time. But in complex psychogenic situations that affect the "weak link" of the character for a long time, accentuations can not only become the basis for acute affective reactions, but also be a condition for the development of psychopathy. Accentuation of character under the influence of adverse conditions can lead to pathological disorders and changes in the behavior of the individual, to psychopathy.

Psychopathy (from the Greek psyche - "soul" and pathos - "disease")- a pathology of character, in which the subject has an almost irreversible severity of properties that prevent his adequate adaptation in the social environment. In contrast to six accentuations, psychopathy, as can be seen from the definition, is permanent, manifests itself in all situations and impedes the social adaptation of the individual. The reactions of a person with sharpened character traits, compared with the reactions of a psychopath, are more closely associated with psychotraumatic factors, while maintaining a certain self-control. So, a cheeky, rude teenager in the family with an accentuated character understands that this cannot be done in front of unfamiliar people. He drinks with peers, however, if drinking is not encouraged in the family, he tries to come home sober. For a psychopath, there are no such restrictions.

Since psychopathy develops on the basis of character accentuation, the differences between individual types of psychopathy have names corresponding to accentuations (cycloids, schizoids, epileptoids, asthenics, etc.). The causes of psychopathy can be divided into two large groups: 1) diseases (brain injury, infection, intoxication, psychotrauma, etc.); 2) congenital inferiority of the nervous system caused by heredity factors, birth trauma, etc. Such psychopathy is called constitutional, or true. They manifest themselves already in childhood in the form of various disorders of the emotional-volitional sphere, although the intellect can be preserved in this case. The study of various forms of psychopathy indicates the absence of clear criteria for pathology. According to P.B. Gannushkin, the difference between psychopathic features and their corresponding “simple human shortcomings” is mostly only quantitative [Gannushkin P.B. Fav. works. M., 1964]. When one talks about the presence of a certain character in someone, they thereby indicate a certain one-sidedness of his mental organization, a certain disharmony of the psyche. As a matter of fact, it is impossible to say about a normal "ideal" person what his character is, since all his behavior is a simple reaction to external influences.

It should also be noted the vagueness and uncertainty of the boundaries between individual psychopathies. The identified forms of psychopathy are for the most part an artificial product of a schematic processing of what is observed in reality. At the same time, the behavior of psychopaths of the same type can be different: one paranoid person can be different: one paranoid person can be a recognized scientist, another mentally ill; an individual may be a beloved and popular poet, or may be an idler of no use to anyone. Here it is necessary to raise the question of the connection between psychopathy and human genius. Based on the fact that in an unsharp form certain psychopathic features are inherent in all "normal" people, it is clear that the sharper the individuality is expressed, the brighter the psychopathic features characteristic of it become. This is probably why among highly gifted people with a richly developed emotional life and easily excitable fantasy there is a significant number of undoubted psychopaths. In the prevention of psychopathy, education is the most essential means, but even it often turns out to be helpless in the face of the complete absence of volitional delays in some and the powerful pressure of drives that destroy the personality in others.

Character is not a frozen formation, it is formed throughout a person's life path. Anatomical and physiological inclinations, as has been shown, do not absolutely predetermine the development of one character or another. Recognition of the dependence of character on such factors as appearance, body constitution, date of birth, name, etc., leads to the recognition of the impossibility of changing and educating character in any significant way. However, the entire practice of education refutes the thesis of the constancy of character, such cases are possible only in the case of personality pathology.

Character, despite its versatility, is only one of the sides, but not the whole personality. A person is able to rise above his character, is able to change it. Therefore, when talking about predicting behavior, do not forget that it has a certain probability and cannot be absolute. A person can challenge circumstances and become different (unless, of course, she hides her powerlessness behind the phrase “That’s my character”).

The formation of character over time is due, of course, to what it was before. Even with the most abrupt changes in life, the character usually still retains a certain unity in its basic and most general features. But the character is not fatally predetermined, although it is due to the objective circumstances of a person's life path, but these circumstances themselves change under the influence of a person's actions. A person himself is the creator of his character, since the character is formed depending on the worldview, on the beliefs and habits of moral behavior that he develops in himself, on the deeds and actions that he performs, depending on all his conscious activity.

Self-education of character suggests that a person is able to free himself from excessive conceit, can critically look at himself, see his shortcomings. This will allow him to determine the goal of working on himself, i.e. those character traits that he would like to get rid of or, conversely, develop in himself. Probably, in order for the character not to become contradictory, so that new features take root more easily, it is necessary to provide for an organic connection between new and existing features, their harmonious interaction.

More experienced people are of great help in educating character, and here it is important to find an example worthy of emulation. In the East they say: "If there is a student, there will be a teacher." There is a deep meaning here. No teacher can teach someone who does not want to learn. Anyone who wants to learn will always find someone to look up to, with whom to take an example. A person's character is formed in interaction with others. But the one who undertakes to help others must first himself demonstrate an example of purposefulness, activity, organization, perseverance and other character traits that he must form in his pupils. Here we should not forget about the mechanisms of imitation, which primarily apply to negative manifestations of behavior. First, mother, father, other family members, then kindergarten teachers, peers, teachers, etc. are potential mentors. However, a real impact on the character is possible only if the educator is a reference for the pupil.

The role model doesn't have to be real. It can be a movie hero or a hero of a literary work, distinguished by deep adherence to principles and exceptional firmness of character, a war hero, an advanced scientist. Living images of persistent, purposeful characters are provided by the centuries-old history of Russia. For example, it suffices to point to M. V. Lomonosov and A. V. Suvorov, whose life is a kind of school of character education.

Of particular importance in the formation of character belongs to the social activity of a person, active participation in which develops a sense of responsibility to the team, contributes to the development of organization, endurance, and a sense of duty. The most effective means of character formation is labor. Strong characters are possessed by people who set themselves great tasks in their work, persistently achieve their solution, overcome all the obstacles that stand in the way of achieving these goals, and exercise systematic control over the implementation of what was planned. Here it is appropriate to recall the words of N. Ostrovsky: “Courage is born in struggle. Courage is brought up day by day, in stubborn resistance to difficulties. A simple and effective way of character formation is physical education and sports, which make people more resilient, courageous. Sport provides an opportunity for competition, where everyone goes to the maximum of their strength, shows what a person is capable of.

In accordance with the developed goals, a person accepts self-commitment. It should be feasible and feasible at the level of optimal difficulty. This obligation can be recorded in the self-education program with an indication of the approximate deadlines for implementation. If it is difficult for a person to formulate such a program himself, then his relatives can come to the rescue, but it is better to turn to a psychologist. Here is the self-education program recommended by renowned psychologist Dale Carnegie in his book How to Win Friends and Influence People [Minsk, 1990].

1. Today I will be happy. This means that I will be guided by the words of Abraham Lincoln, who said that "most people are about as happy as they are determined to be happy." Happiness is within us; it is not the result of external circumstances.

2. Just for today, I will try to adapt to the life that surrounds me, and not try to adapt everything to my desires. I will accept my family, my work, and the circumstances of my life as they are, and try to adapt to them.

3. Today I will take care of my body. I will exercise, take care of my body, eat right, try not to harm my health and not neglect it, so that my body becomes an ideal machine to fulfill my requirements.

4. Today I will try to pay attention to the development of my mind. I'll learn something useful. I will not be mentally lazy. I will read what requires effort, reflection and concentration.

5. It is today that I will engage in moral self-improvement. To do this, I expect to do three things: I will do something useful to someone, so that he does not know about it; I will do at least two things I don't feel like doing, just for exercise.

6. It is today that I will be friendly to everyone. I will try to look my best; If possible, I will wear what suits me best, I will talk in a low voice, behave kindly, be generous with praise, try not to criticize anyone, not find fault with anyone, and not try to lead or correct anyone.

7. Just today I will try to live only for the present day, I will not strive to solve the problem of my whole life at once. For twelve hours I can do things that would terrify me if I had to do them all my life.

8. It is today that I will outline the program of my affairs. I will write down what I am going to do every hour. I may not be able to follow this program exactly, but I will put it together. This will save me from two evils - haste and indecision.

9. Just today I will spend half an hour in peace and solitude and try to relax.

10. Just today I will not be afraid, especially I will not be afraid to be happy, enjoy beauty, love and believe that those whom I love love me.

One of the positive aspects of this program is the emphasis on the fact that the character is formed not so much in difficult moments of life (although there are such turning points in everyone's life), but in everyday, everyday activities. And here the regime of the day, observance of discipline, adherence to the norms of behavior are essential. Even insignificant actions, if they serve a good cause and are performed systematically, bring up positive character traits, ennoble a person.

Temperament is the individual personality traits of each person. The behavior of each of us from birth and attitude to the world around us depends on it. In order to ensure success in any activity and reduce the likelihood of conflict situations, it is necessary to take into account the temperaments of the people around and your own.

What is temperament?

Each person has individual psychophysiological properties. They are present from birth and are very stable. The totality of these properties is called temperament, and it is on them that the dynamic features of mental processes and human states depend.

Features of temperament do not affect the cognitive abilities of a person or his moral qualities. But they must be taken into account when choosing an activity - for example, it will not be easy for people with slow reactions to control mechanisms at high speed, but they will ideally cope with work that requires concentration and perseverance.

It is worth noting once again that these properties are precisely psychophysical. This is part of human physiology. Not only a person’s behavior and his character depend on temperament, but also his energy, efficiency, pace and speed of completing tasks, the ease of changing forms of activity and the general emotional background. These differences can be seen even in newborns: some children are more active, scream more often, sleep less, while others, even during periods of wakefulness, can lie quietly looking at toys.

Differences in temperament from character

What are the types?

Scientists distinguish four main types of temperament. When determining them, the dynamic characteristics of mental activity are taken into account: for example, its pace and rhythm, sharpness, intensity and amplitude. Equally important are indicators of a person's emotionality - impressionability or sensitivity to various kinds of influences, the speed with which emotions cause actions and end, the pace of their change, strength and depth. This allows all people to be divided into four groups according to the type of temperament:

• sanguine,
• phlegmatic,
• choleric,
• melancholic.

Usually, special tests are carried out to establish the type of temperament. But sometimes, knowing a person well, this can be determined “by eye”, taking into account only the main characteristics of different types.

sanguine

The owners of this type of temperament have a strong and dynamic, while very balanced nervous system, characterized by a high degree of extraversion. Most sanguine people are energetic, mobile and sociable people.. They react quickly to external stimuli, but their experiences are not very deep. They easily cope with losses and failures, just not obsessing over them.

Most of all, sanguine people are afraid of going crazy and losing their normal, measured and stable spiritual being.

Such people love new experiences, sometimes even on the verge of reason. They are very resistant to the emotion of fear, but they often suffer from banal phobias - for example, acrophobia or claustrophobia. Owners of this type of temperament are very fond of being among people. They are oppressed by loneliness, but in the company they often joke and laugh, they are in the spotlight. They are excellent organizers and leaders, but sometimes they are superficial.

Phlegmatic person

Phlegmatic temperament is characterized by balance of all nervous processes and introversion. Its owners usually have a strong nervous system, are distinguished by composure and some inertia. Such people can be slow, but at the same time they are thorough and unflappable. Phlegmatic people are not prone to violent reactions and strong emotional experiences. They are rarely afraid of something, but at the same time they have difficulty adapting to a new environment, so they may feel anxious and depressed.

Phlegmatic temperament often makes its owner a subordinate. Such people do not like conflicts, it is easier for them to agree with the interlocutor, therefore they easily succumb to persuasion, more often become followers than leaders. Usually phlegmatic people are sensitive and understand others well, so they are careful about their feelings. They are indecisive, yet sweet and charming. With the correct and clear setting of the task, they can become ideal performers, but not leaders. In the absence of a stimulus, phlegmatic people can be passive, boring, lazy and weak-willed.

Choleric

Owners of this type of temperament are distinguished by an stable nervous system. In them, the processes of excitation strongly predominate over inhibition, so their movements are sharp and impetuous, all their thoughts proceed quickly, and their feelings completely capture. Choleric people are extroverts, very sociable, open to emotions, but the mood can change too quickly. Usually their experiences are not too deep, so the owners of this temperament cope with difficulties easily. Their main problem is the inability to restrain themselves.

Cholerics are born leaders. They easily carry people along and enjoy it. They love to argue, but not to search for the truth, but simply to prove their case and again be above everyone. People with this temperament are quick-tempered and often suffer from fits of rage, but at the same time they quickly move away and forget insults. In order to save face, they are able to blame others for their mistakes.

With the right motivation, a choleric person can be very enterprising, inventive, energetic and principled. The lack of education and positive goals in life makes him irritable, prone to affect and loss of self-control.

melancholic

People with a melancholic temperament have a weak nervous system. Most of them are emotionally unstable introverts. Often this is accompanied by autonomic disorders and panic attacks. The processes of inhibition in them prevail over excitation.

Melancholic people usually look calm and outwardly sluggishly react to stimuli, but at the same time they react very sharply to any shades of feelings. The emotional experiences of such a person are always very deep and are exposed for a long duration. Owners of this type of temperament often suffer from depression and come up with frightening situations for themselves, which leads to depression and blues.

Melancholics are prone to creative activity and are often engaged in science. Their constant desire for improvement and perseverance in achieving goals, calm nature and non-conflict make them excellent employees. But only in small companies, where you don’t have to constantly be in sight and communicate with someone. Conditions that require quick decisions and activity can cause prolonged inhibitory responses in them. Simply put, such a person will give up and stop any activity.

What does temperament depend on?

As we have already said, temperament is an innate feature of a person. It is believed that it is genetically determined, but there is no hard evidence for this today. In addition, it is noticed that some factors can influence it.

• Climatic conditions. Probably everyone noticed that southerners often have an explosive choleric temperament than residents of northern countries.
• Lifestyle. Lack of sleep and poor nutrition, night work and alcohol abuse can make noticeable adjustments.
• Age. Gradually, a person's hormonal background changes. For example, a decrease in testosterone levels that occurs over the years leads to a decrease in energy, aggressiveness, and a weakening of leadership qualities.

In addition, there is a theory that temperament may depend on the time of year when a person was born. Researchers have noticed that summer-borns are more likely to experience rapid mood swings, spring-borns are more positive, and "winter people" are less irritable but prone to depression. Unfortunately, there is no scientific confirmation of this fact, as well as an explanation.

Is there a relationship with blood type?

The idea of ​​linking temperament with blood type is not new and has long haunted scientists. There are many studies on this topic. The most popular is the theory, which is based on the assertion that all blood types have different origins and did not appear on Earth at the same time. That is why their owners have different temperaments, must eat certain foods and choose the appropriate type of activity.

• The most ancient, according to this theory, is the first blood group. It belonged to ancient hunters who were constantly fighting for survival. According to the researchers, these people are born leaders and optimists, have a tough will and always try to manage all the processes.
• The second blood type appeared when people united in tribes and began to engage in agriculture. At this stage, the ties between people became closer, the norms of behavior became tougher. People with the second group inherited a more stable nervous system from their ancestors. They are calm, patient and diligent. These are extroverts who easily make contact. At the same time, they can be stubborn and conservative, sometimes they do not tolerate stress well and do not know how to relax.
• The third group was formed among the nomads. They needed to constantly adapt to new conditions, so the descendants of these people also have high stress resistance and susceptibility. These are creative and inventive individualists who often hide a quivering soul behind external calm.
• The fourth group is the youngest. It was formed in the process of mixing the second and third. Its owners are kind and calm people, pleasant and sociable. But at the same time, they often live for today and do not think about the consequences.
  Somehow, the creators of this theory failed to correlate blood groups with specific types of temperament. It also turned out to be impossible to prove it, so for the scientific world this is nothing more than an interesting fairy tale.

Can temperament be changed?

It is not uncommon to hear from people that they do not like their temperament and would like to change it for the better. But this is an innate quality, which is not so easy to change. You need to understand that temperament cannot be good or bad, each of them has its strengths and weaknesses, and they must be identified and used correctly.

Those who want to change their temperament should consider why they should do so. For example, a melancholic envies his choleric director and wants to become just as successful and active. He can overpower himself and begin to move, talk and act more energetically. He may even be able to convince everyone that he is a strong leader and become a director. But will he be any happier for it? Unlikely. From such loads and constant communication, a concentrated melancholic introvert, who is used to achieving an ideal result in everything, will simply burn out emotionally.

You need to understand that you can learn to act like the owner of a different temperament, but you can’t change your essence. It would be much more correct to study your characteristics and strengths and try to organize your life so that you don’t want to change anything.

Temperament is an important innate psychophysiological feature of a person. In many respects, the character and behavior of a person depends on him. It is impossible to change it or somehow program it before birth. But it is very important to consider temperament when choosing the type of activity.

Temperament(lat. temperamentum - the proper ratio of parts) - a stable association of individual personality traits associated with dynamic, rather than meaningful aspects of activity. Temperament is the basis of character development; in general, from a physiological point of view, temperament is a type of higher nervous activity of a person.

Story

Four temperaments in the form of visual emoticons (names from left to right and from top to bottom: phlegmatic, choleric, sanguine, melancholic)

The magic of numbers in the Mediterranean civilization led to the doctrine of four temperaments, while in the East a five-component "system of the world" developed.

The word “temperament” (from Latin temperans, “moderate”), translated from Latin, means “proper ratio of parts”, the Greek word “krasis” (other Greek κράσις, “fusion, mixing”), which is equal in meaning, introduced the ancient Greek physician Hippocrates. By temperament, he understood both the anatomical and physiological and individual psychological characteristics of a person. Hippocrates explained temperament as a feature of behavior, the predominance of one of the "vital juices" (four elements) in the body:

The predominance of yellow bile (ancient Greek χολή, chole, "bile, poison") makes a person impulsive, "hot" - choleric.

The predominance of lymph (ancient Greek φλέγμα, phlegm, "sputum") makes a person calm and slow - a phlegmatic person.

The predominance of blood (lat. sanguis, sanguis, sangua, “blood”) makes a person mobile and cheerful - a sanguine person.

The predominance of black bile (ancient Greek μέλαινα χολή, melana chole, "black bile") makes a person sad and fearful - a melancholic.

This concept still has a profound influence on literature, art and science.

The turning point in the history of the natural science study of temperaments was the teaching of Ivan Petrovich Pavlov about the types of the nervous system (types of higher nervous activity) common to humans and higher mammals. He proved that the physiological basis of temperament is the type of higher nervous activity, determined by the ratio of the main properties of the nervous system: strength, balance and mobility of the processes of excitation and inhibition occurring in the nervous system. The type of the nervous system is determined by the genotype, that is, the hereditary type.

Pavlov singled out 4 clearly defined types of the nervous system, that is, certain complexes of the basic properties of nervous processes.

The weak type is characterized by the weakness of both excitatory and inhibitory processes - it corresponds to the Hippocratic melancholic.

A strong unbalanced type is characterized by a strong irritable process and a relatively strong inhibition process - it corresponds to a choleric, "unrestrained" type.

Strong balanced mobile type - corresponds to the sanguine, "live" type.

Strong balanced, but with inert nervous processes - corresponds to the phlegmatic, "calm" type.

Temperament types

A description of the features of different temperaments can help to understand the features of a person’s temperament, if they are clearly expressed, but people with pronounced features of a certain temperament are not so common, most often people have a mixed temperament in various combinations. But the predominance of traits of any type of temperament makes it possible to attribute a person's temperament to one or another type.

Phlegmatic - n he is hasty, imperturbable, has stable aspirations and mood, outwardly stingy with the manifestation of emotions and feelings. He shows perseverance and perseverance in work, remaining calm and balanced. In work, he is productive, compensating for his slowness with diligence.

Choleric - fast, impetuous, but completely unbalanced, with a sharply changing mood with emotional outbursts, quickly exhausted. He does not have a balance of nervous processes, this sharply distinguishes him from a sanguine person. Choleric, carried away, carelessly wastes his strength and quickly depletes.

sanguine - a lively, hot, mobile person, with frequent changes of mood, impressions, with a quick reaction to all events taking place around him, quite easily reconciled with his failures and troubles. Usually a sanguine person has expressive facial expressions. He is very productive at work, when he is interested, getting very excited about this, if the work is not interesting, he is indifferent to it, he becomes bored.

melancholic - Easily vulnerable, prone to constant experience of various events, he reacts sharply to external factors. He often cannot restrain his asthenic experiences by an effort of will, he is highly impressionable, easily emotionally vulnerable.

Temperament properties

Each temperament has both positive and negative properties. Good upbringing, control and self-control makes it possible to manifest: melancholic, as an impressionable person with deep feelings and emotions; phlegmatic, as a seasoned person, without hasty decisions; sanguine, as a highly responsive person for any work; choleric, as a passionate, frantic and active person in work.

Negative properties of temperament can manifest themselves: in a melancholic - isolation and shyness; phlegmatic - excessive slowness; in a sanguine person - superficiality, dispersion, inconstancy; choleric - hasty decisions.

A person of any type of temperament may or may not be capable; the type of temperament does not affect a person's abilities, it's just that some life tasks are easier to solve by a person of one type of temperament, others - of another.

Influence of temperament

Depends on the temperament of a person:

the speed of occurrence of mental processes (for example, the speed of perception, the speed of thinking, the duration of concentration, etc.);

plasticity and stability of mental phenomena, the ease of their change and switching;

pace and rhythm of activity;

the intensity of mental processes (for example, the strength of emotions, activity of the will);

the focus of mental activity on certain objects (extraversion or introversion).

Psychology

From the point of view of psychologists, four temperaments are just one of the possible systems for assessing psychological characteristics (there are others, for example, “introversion - extraversion”). Descriptions of temperaments vary quite a lot among different psychologists and, apparently, include a fairly large number of factors. Attempts have been made to bring a scientific and experimental basis to the theory of temperaments (I.P. Pavlov, G.Yu. Aizenk, B.M. Teplov and others), but the results obtained by these researchers are only partially compatible with each other. Of interest is the study of T. A. Blyumina (1996), in which she made an attempt to compare the theory of temperaments with all known at that time (more than 100) psychological typologies, including from the point of view of methods for determining these types. In general, classification by temperament does not meet modern requirements for factor analysis of personality and is currently more interesting from a historical point of view.

Modern approach

Modern science sees in the doctrine of temperaments an echo of the ancient classification of four types of mental response in combination with intuitively noticed types of physiological and biochemical reactions of the individual.

At present, the concept of four temperaments is supported by the concepts of "inhibition" and "excitation" of the nervous system. The ratio of "high" and "low" levels, for each of these two independent parameters, gives a certain individual characteristic of a person, and, as a result, a formal definition of each of the four temperaments. On emoticons (see the figure above), a smile can be interpreted as the ease of inhibition processes, and frowning eyebrows - as a manifestation of the ease of excitement.

Within the framework of socionics, the so-called socionic temperament, where the concepts of excitation and inhibition are replaced by fidelity associated with them (introversion - extraversion), which determines the general activity of a person, and rationality (rationality - irrationality), which determines the pace of this activity.

The development of the "Human Genome" program creates conditions for the disclosure of the functions of human genes that determine temperament through hormones (serotonin, melatonin, dopamine) and other biochemical mediators. Biochemistry and genetics make it possible to establish and formalize the psychological phenotypes of people, noticed by ancient doctors.

Types of temperament played an important role in the psychology of modern times, in the philosophy of Immanuel Kant and Rudolf Hermann Lotze.

What is temperament?

History says that the concept of temperament was introduced into scientific circulation by the ancient Greek physician Hippocrates, who lived in the 4th - 5th centuries. BC. He also proposed the names of the types of constitution (physique) of a person, which later began to be used as modern names for types of temperament: sanguine, choleric, phlegmatic, melancholic. Then the Roman physician Claudius Galen continued the teachings of Hippocrates in the 2nd century BC. AD He believed that a person's temperament is determined by the ratio or mixture of 4 "juices" in the body: blood, lymph, black bile or yellow bile. From the ancient names of these "juices" came the names of temperament types that have survived to this day. “Sangva” is blood, “hole” is ordinary bile, “melan hole” is dark bile and “phlegm” is lymph. It was believed that the type of human temperament is determined by the type of fluid that prevails in the body. Thanks to the scientific research of I.P. Pavlova is associated with the discovery of the following basic properties of the nervous system: strength - weakness, excitability - inertia, balance - imbalance. But later it turned out that 3 properties of the nervous system are not enough to characterize all the features of temperament. Psychophysiologists B.M. Teplov, V.D. Nebylitsyn, V.M. Rusalov proved that the nervous system has other properties. And they added another pair of properties: lability - rigidity. Lability is a fast response to stimuli, and rigidity is a slow response to stimuli. As a result, other facts of the same order were singled out: it was pointed out that the breadth of the lumen and the thickness of the walls of blood vessels in different people are of decisive importance for temperament. But all these views had a common belief that the sources of temperamental features should be sought in the individual features of the body structure.

Temperament is a set of stable, individual, psychophysiological properties of a person that determine the dynamic features of his mental processes, mental states and behavior. In other words, we are talking about the individual characteristics of a person, which are more likely to be innate, rather than acquired. This is actually true: temperament is the only, purely natural personality trait of a person, and the reason to consider it a personal property is the fact that actions and deeds that a person performs depend on temperament. It is also necessary to explain what dynamic singularities are. The dynamic features of behavior are those of its characteristics that are described in purely physical terms and are not subject to moral and evaluative assessment (for example, the energy associated with a person’s performance, the speed and pace of movements, etc.). It should be noted that in human behavior, in addition to dynamic aspects, there are also such aspects that need and can be evaluated in value terms such as: “good-bad”, “moral-immoral”. Such assessments are not suitable for characterizing temperament, they relate to other aspects of a person's personality, for example, his abilities, values, needs and character. The only case when temperament can be assessed as good or bad is when it comes to matching the type of human temperament to the dynamic requirements of a particular activity.

According to IP Pavlov, temperaments are the "main features" of individual characteristics of a person. They are usually distinguished as follows: sanguine, phlegmatic, choleric and melancholic. A relationship has been established between the type of higher nervous activity and temperament.

Sanguine type of temperament. The sanguine person quickly converges with people, is cheerful, easily switches from one type of activity to another, but does not like monotonous work. He easily controls his emotions, quickly gets used to a new environment, actively enters into contacts with people. His speech is loud, fast, distinct and is accompanied by expressive facial expressions and gestures. But this temperament is characterized by a certain duality. If the stimuli change rapidly, novelty and interest of impressions are maintained all the time, a state of active excitement is created in the sanguine person and he manifests himself as an active, active, energetic person. If the effects are long and monotonous, then they do not support the state of activity, excitement, and the sanguine person loses interest in the matter, he develops indifference, boredom, lethargy. A sanguine person quickly has feelings of joy, grief, affection and ill will, but all these manifestations of his feelings are unstable, do not differ in duration and depth. They quickly arise and can just as quickly disappear or even be replaced by the opposite. The mood of a sanguine person changes quickly, but, as a rule, a good mood prevails. A child of this type: he is thin, slim, graceful. In his movements, he is too fast and mobile, even fussy. He eagerly seizes on any new undertaking, but, not having the perseverance to bring it to the end, quickly cools down to it. His mind is lively and sharp, but not deep enough and thoughtful. He is cheerful, loves pleasures and strives for them.

Phlegmatic person- a person of this temperament is slow, calm, unhurried, balanced. In activity shows solidity, thoughtfulness, perseverance. He usually finishes what he starts. All mental processes in the phlegmatic proceed as if slowly. The feelings of a phlegmatic person are outwardly expressed weakly, they are usually inexpressive. The reason for this is the balance and weak mobility of the nervous processes. In relations with people, the phlegmatic is always even, calm, moderately sociable, his mood is stable. The calmness of a person of phlegmatic temperament is also manifested in his attitude to the events and phenomena of life, phlegmatic is not easy to piss off and hurt emotionally. A child of this type is physically well-fed, he is slow in his movements, inert and lazy. His mind is consistent, thoughtful and observant, sparkling with awareness. His feelings are not hot, but constant. In general - a good-natured, balanced child.

Choleric type of temperament. People of this temperament are fast, excessively mobile, unbalanced, excitable, all mental processes proceed quickly and intensively. The predominance of excitation over inhibition, characteristic of this type of nervous activity, is clearly manifested in incontinence, impulsiveness, irascibility, irritability of the choleric. Hence the expressive facial expressions, hurried speech, sharp gestures, unrestrained movements. The feelings of a person of choleric temperament are strong, usually brightly manifested, quickly arise. The imbalance inherent in choleric is clearly associated in his activities: he gets down to business with an increase and even passion, while showing impulsiveness and speed of movements, works with enthusiasm, overcoming difficulties. But in a person with a choleric temperament, the supply of nervous energy can be quickly depleted in the process of work, and then a sharp decline in activity can occur: the upsurge and inspiration disappear, the mood drops sharply. In dealing with people, the choleric person allows harshness, irritability, emotional restraint, which often does not give him the opportunity to objectively evaluate the actions of people, and on this basis he creates conflict situations in the team. Excessive straightforwardness, irascibility, harshness, intolerance sometimes make it difficult and unpleasant to stay in a team of such people. A child of the choleric type is thin and slender, he is too decisive and fast. He is bold, persistent and sharp in the implementation of his plans. He has a sharp, insightful and mocking mind. His feelings are passionate and sharp in the manifestation of their likes and dislikes. He is power-hungry, vindictive and prone to all kinds of struggle. The child is the most restless and the least balanced.

melancholic type temperament similar to phlegmatic, but there is one significant difference from it. A melancholic is an unbalanced person with a weak nervous system, and in him the processes of inhibition clearly predominate over the processes of excitation. Melancholics have slow mental processes, they hardly react to strong stimuli; Prolonged and intense stress causes slow activity in people of this temperament, and then its cessation. In work, melancholic people are usually passive, often not very interested (after all, interest is always associated with strong nervous tension). Feelings and emotional states in people of a melancholic temperament arise slowly, but differ in depth, great strength and duration; melancholic people are easily vulnerable, they can hardly endure resentment, grief, although outwardly all these experiences are expressed poorly in them. Representatives of the melancholy temperament are prone to isolation and loneliness, avoid communication with unfamiliar, new people, are often embarrassed, show great awkwardness in a new environment. Everything new, unusual causes a braking state in melancholics. But in a familiar and calm environment, people with such a temperament feel calm and work very productively. A child of a melancholic temperament: gloomy and serious beyond his years, he is slow and thorough in the manifestations of his will. With a strong, deep and thoughtful mind. Extremely impressionable, gloomy and withdrawn, he rarely shows his feelings.

Studies have established that the weakness of the nervous system is not a negative property. A strong nervous system copes more successfully with some life tasks, and a weak one with others. A weak nervous system (in melancholics) is a highly sensitive nervous system, and this is its well-known advantage. It should be remembered that the division of people into four types of temperament is very conditional. There are transitional, mixed, intermediate types of temperament; often in the temperament of a person, features of different temperaments are combined. "Pure" temperaments are relatively rare.

Temperament is the natural basis for the manifestation of the psychological qualities of a person. However, with any temperament, it is possible to form in a person qualities that are unusual for this temperament. Psychological research and pedagogical practice show that temperament changes somewhat under the influence of living conditions and upbringing. Temperament can also change as a result of self-education. Even an adult can change his temperament in a certain direction. It is known, for example, that A.P. Chekhov was a very balanced, modest and delicate person. But here is an interesting fact from his life. In one of his letters to his wife, O. L. Knipper-Chekhova, Anton Pavlovich makes such a valuable confession: “You write that you envy my character. I must tell you that I am sharp by nature, I am quick-tempered, and so on. for it is not befitting for a decent person to dismiss himself. In the old days, I did the devil knows what.

To what extent is our behavior biologically determined? Are our reactions written in our genes? Can people be divided into types? Psychology has tried to answer these and similar questions for hundreds of years. Thanks to these questions, the concept of temperament was formed.

To date, temperament refers to the psychophysiological characteristics of the individual. Types of temperament are dependent on the activity of the nervous system. Features of temperament serve as the basis for the development of character.

Story

The meaning of the word "temperament" comes from the Latin temperamentum, which literally means "stable mixture". The concept of temperament originated in the writings of the father of medicine, Hippocrates.

The Greeks were the first to identify the main types of temperament, based on the theory of the predominant fluids in the human body. In accordance with their concept, four types of temperament were designated: impulsive (bile), slow (lymph), mobile (blood) and sad (black bile).

Determining the temperament of a person was important in view of the fact that, depending on the establishment of the mental warehouse, the method of treatment was chosen. It was believed that the predisposition to various kinds of diseases is characteristic of people, depending on their type.

In the future, theories of temperament developed in the direction of elucidating the real processes in the body responsible for one or another stable type of behavior, attempts were made to create a unified methodology that would allow determining the temperament of a person.

So, since the 18th century, a certain consensus has been established about the components. They are divided into two groups: the first is responsible for the activity of behavior, the other - for the degree of emotionality of a person. Another model proposes to consider the systems of activation and inhibition, which apparently form the backbone of temperament. Depending on the type, these systems that control the features of our behavior are expressed to a greater or lesser extent.

The outstanding physiologist of the 20th century Pavlov approached the problem of how to determine the type of temperament in an original way. He saw the foundation of separation in nervous processes, their complexes are what temperament depends on. The type of nervous activity (weak or strong) determines how a person reacts to stimuli, in what way he transforms the world, what is his activity.

Melancholics are characterized by a weak type, its distinguishing feature is weak processes of inhibition and excitation. The remaining types are strong with variations. In choleric, on the one hand, there is a strong process of excitation, but on the other, a weak inhibition. In the sanguine they are balanced, as in the phlegmatic, but the latter has inert nervous processes.

Modernity

Modern psychology is engaged in a promising direction in the study of human characteristics depending on the concentration of neurotransmitters. Thus, the concept of temperament in psychology has been transformed to its definition through an imbalance of neurotransmitters. What is temperament in terms of neurotransmitter balance? Nothing more than a mild form of deviation from the balance, and severe - various mental disorders.

There is no traditional division, to which we are accustomed, in this model. There are 12 elements of behavior that manifest themselves in one way or another in every person. Why 12? Because the forms of activity (mental, emotional, verbal-social and physical) are evaluated separately according to dynamic qualities (energy, reaction speed and orientation).

Everything that is not related to emotionality is under the control of norepinephrine, dopamine, serotonin, acetylcholine and neuropeptides. Emotionality is associated with opioid receptors.

So, temperament and personality are not the same thing. Psychology considers it not a purely innate property, but not acquired either, while personality is the result of the influence of the environment and temperament. The main properties of temperament are based on the following properties of the nervous system:

• Activity.
• switchability.
• Excitability.
• Productivity.
• Braking.

The temperament of the individual is made up of them, while the properties are presented to varying degrees. Brief description of properties:

1. Activity

It determines how much a person can use his abilities (concentrate attention, for example), how expressed they are, as well as the pace at which the mental processes responsible for the current type of activity work.

2. Excitability, the ersatz of which is inhibition, and the intermediate option between them is switchability. This characteristic is responsible for the ability to quickly engage in activities, stop them or switch from one to another.

3. Productivity

It is evaluated according to the result of activity for a certain period of time (someone manages to understand the material faster, someone slower, another will remember more, the third will present or solve an order of magnitude faster than the others).

nerve activity

Determining the type of temperament can help you build your life correctly, prevent negativity, increase the likelihood of experiencing positive experiences, thanks to knowing your main pain points. Each type of temperament manifests personality traits in its own way, the combination of the manifested properties affects the behavior, the nature of the relationship.

To find out your temperament, just think a little about the above properties, to what extent they are inherent in you, and then read the description. There may be several correspondences, since it is sometimes impossible to determine temperament with absolute accuracy, in different situations we can behave in the same way, and in similar situations, it happens in different ways. It is worth choosing those features that are most often noticeable in behavior - you may need the help of a person who has been in contact with you for a long time.

Types of temperament and their psychological characteristics are based on a combination of individual properties. Karvasarsky gives the following description of temperament types:

1. Sanguine

This type of temperament is characterized by increased activity, enterprise, liveliness of emotions. Sanguine has expressive facial expressions, he is impressionable. Neuro-psychic activity is high. There may be excessive haste, difficulty concentrating.

On the one hand, he quickly gets carried away, adapts to any conditions, the speed of reaction makes it easy to navigate in difficult circumstances that require speed and interest. Often loses interest, without bringing the matter to its logical conclusion, then the efficiency drops sharply. It must be free enough so that external demands do not stop the energy.

2. Choleric

Features of choleric temperament are expressed in independence, strength, perseverance. Cholerics are energetic, their movements are swift and sharp, they are straightforward and even aggressive. The main characteristic of choleric is expressed emotions and.

If choleric people were warlords, they should choose fast and powerful attacks. For them, the ideal state is to work in jerks, to put a lot of effort in short periods of time. Long work exhausts them, and the alternation of periods of activity and rest has a great effect on the results.

3. Phlegmatic

The phlegmatic type is possessed by people who have difficulty switching attention, often they are inactive. A phlegmatic person is distinguished by a methodical and calm disposition. Indifference is the result of an inappropriate upbringing for this type of temperament. Ideally, the phlegmatic feels deeply, his moods are even and constant, and he himself is calm.

It is difficult for phlegmatic people to quickly enter into activities, they have difficulty concentrating, swinging for a long time, but once they have entered, they can work very long and hard. An activity where methodicalness, the ability to work for a long time and composure will be valued is ideal for them.

4. Melancholic

Mutedness - in a melancholic temperament, this is the main characteristic. Due to the low level of activity of the course of nervous processes for a melancholic, restraint is the norm in the presence of deep and stable feelings. Failures in education can lead him to isolation, alienation from the world.

Melancholic people are very efficient, although it is difficult for them to start, but they continue the activity in which they are involved without any tension for a long time. From the beginning of any activity, one should not expect great results and assign many responsibilities at once. Gradual build-up is preferable, the melancholic is not immediately fully involved in the work, but when this happens, it is efficient and effective.

All temperaments affect what exactly a person will prefer from an infinite number of options provided by the world, how he will react to the situations he encounters, what conditions he most often has. Temperament is an individual style of approach to reality. Psychology emphasizes the adaptability of each species. Any of them can be used to the maximum for one's own benefit, if a person understands how best to unleash the potential of his temperament.

Transformation

As far as we know, 4 types of human temperament differ in the nature of the work of the nervous system. As to whether temperament can be changed, psychology limits us greatly.

Most researchers agree that this is an extremely stable system, as many longitudinal studies confirm. However, although some features of the nervous system are written in the genes, it is learning that is responsible for the inclusion of these features in completely different types of human activity, forming a stable system of properties in the process.

During critical periods of life, a change in some aspects of internal regulation is possible. In addition, if we rely on an approach that describes temperament as a system of influence of neurotransmitters on human activity, then everything becomes even more rosy.

Briefly, changes in the work of the neurohumoral system occur, for example, due to psychoactive substances. But we can achieve almost any effect, both from the influence of these substances, without them, just by actions, that is, increase or decrease the concentration of neurotransmitters by acting in a certain way.

Types of temperament to a certain extent predetermine our behavior, mood, stable patterns of response and activity. It is logical to assume that the relationship between certain people will be at least partly influenced by their temperaments. The combination of temperaments is the key to a productive and pleasant relationship.

Compatibility of temperament types is important in family, business and friendship contacts. If parents are phlegmatic, it will be difficult for them to keep up with a sanguine person, it is harder for a choleric person to be friends with a melancholic person because of the impulsiveness of the first and the vulnerability of the second. But, on the other hand, if people understand how behavior is controlled by the characteristics of the nervous system, it will be easier for them to understand each other.

Interpretation of other people's behavior should take into account their individuality, and we should not try to change others. Rather, it is worth directing efforts to change the conditions of activity so that everyone can prove themselves, taking into account the opportunities provided by the internal regulation of the personality.

Compatibility of temperaments in the work team will allow everyone to do their work with pleasure, if it corresponds to their basic emotional, mental and physical characteristics. It is better for choleric people to determine the pace and direction themselves; a sanguine person will cope well in critical situations, but is not at all adapted to long and difficult swims; it is better to give work that requires methodicalness to a phlegmatic person, and to entrust creativity to a melancholic person, he needs personal space and a minimum level of stress. Author: Ekaterina Volkova

From a young age, we are familiar with the concept of temperament. More precisely, not even his definition, but the division of people into sanguine, melancholic, choleric, phlegmatic. But is this approach relevant in the 21st century? What is temperament? Have more modern classifications emerged? How fair is it to say that temperament is the basis of our behavior? What gives the knowledge of one's temperament or the understanding of what temperament the interlocutor has? Is it possible to change your life if you understand this issue?

What is temperament?

Temperament is a persistent personality characteristic that determines its vital activity and is associated with the type of higher nervous activity. Unlike character, which is formed and changed during life, Human temperament is set before birth.. It is due to hereditary factors. Therefore, it would be a mistake to believe that temperament and character are one and the same. They are certainly related, but not identical. Character develops under the influence of temperament, but also depends on upbringing, life experience.

Rumors that the temperament of a person is changing are caused by a misunderstanding of a person's belonging to one or another psychological type. Pure temperaments are not found so often. Basically, they are combined, just the degree of their manifestation depends on the influence of external and internal factors. For example, a person with pronounced sanguine properties, by coincidence, begins to behave like a choleric. Someone will decide that the temperament has changed. In fact, this person had the makings of both types of temperament. There was just an emphasis in the direction of the sanguine demeanor, which was replaced by the impulsiveness of the choleric.

Temperament types

The division of people into basic types of temperament was done back in the days of the ancient Greeks. For the first time, ideas about the existence of four groups of people were formed by Hippocrates, who singled out (merry people), (crybabies), (scandalists), (nihilists). Half a millennium later, his ideas were finalized by Galen. The doctrine turned out to be so successful that the classification proposed by them still exists.

Characteristics of temperament were explained by the dominance of one of the four "vital juices". Sanguine people are dominated by blood ( sangua), giving them energy and fun. Melancholics are under the control of "black bile" ( melane chole), instilling a feeling of sadness and fear. Cholerics cloud the mind with bile ( hole), due to which they cannot control outbursts of anger. Phlegmatic people are led by "sputum" ( reflux), soothing and slowing them down.

Despite the fact that such a classification of temperaments was created a long time ago, it has not undergone significant changes even now. Although attempts are regularly made to update our ideas about what temperament is. Psychology is developing, along with it the key postulates of this science do not stand still.

Modern theories of temperament

The four basic types are one of the classifications of temperament. Although, it is worth paying tribute to the Greeks - the most popular. Contributed to the study of temperament Carl Gustav Jung, Hans Jurgen Eysenck, Ivan Petrovich Pavlov, Boris Mikhailovich Teplov and etc.

Temperament according to Pavlov is determined by understanding the type of nervous system. The scientist identified three main criteria for identifying temperament. It is strength, mobility, balance. He compared his teaching with the classification of Hippocrates, describing the known temperaments:

• sanguine- strong, balanced, mobile;
• Choleric- strong, unbalanced, mobile;
• Phlegmatic person- strong, balanced, inert;
• melancholic- Weak type.

Pavlov finalized the existing structure, supplementing it with data from the field of physiology of higher nervous activity.

Another Soviet psychologist, Boris Teplov, described temperament in his own way, the definition of which included the dynamic characteristics of the course of mental processes. Their strength, as well as the speed of occurrence, change, termination.

Carl Jung in his works combined temperament and personality, applying the concepts and . He took as a basis the desire of a person to communicate, or orientation to his inner world. Jung also studied in detail the influence on temperament of each of the main psychological functions: sensations, feelings, thinking, intuition.

One of the most popular systems describing personality typology was created by Hans Eysenck. Temperament, according to his ideas, in addition to extraversion and introversion, depends on the emotional stability of the individual. Having brought together all the information about temperament that was available at that time, he proposed a unique methodology for testing personality. This approach was named after the author -. It allows you to determine with high accuracy the type of temperament, the degree of its expression in a person.

Temperament properties

Temperament in psychology is considered most closely. To make it easier to characterize its types, scientists analyzed the following properties of temperament:

• Activity- perseverance and energy of the individual in achieving goals;
• Reactivity- the level of involuntary (passivity) of a person and his reactions;
• The ratio of activity and reactivity- an indicator that determines the level of awareness of a person's own role in life;
• extraversion- interaction with the world;
• introversion- emphasis on "immersion" in oneself;
• Plastic- the ability of the individual to adapt to external changes;
• Rigidity- reduced adaptive capabilities of a person;
• sensitivity- the smallest threshold value of exposure that can cause a response mental reaction;
• Emotional excitability- a similar property, only manifested on an emotional level;
• Reaction rate- the speed of mental processes and body reactions, including facial expressions, gestures, speech dynamics.

The characteristic of temperament is formed on the basis of the analysis of all its properties. For example, phlegmatic people are distinguished by the dominance of introversion, increased rigidity and reactivity, they are characterized by reduced emotional excitability, as well as the rate of reactions. A psychic response from the phlegmatic can only be evoked by applying a tangible impact, which is determined by its "impenetrable" sensitivity.

Why define temperament?

Understanding your own temperament makes life much easier for a person. It becomes much easier for him to look for a job, make new acquaintances or build relationships. Not knowing himself, a person runs the risk of getting lost in this world, not finding his life path.

There are people who claim that temperament is psychology, so let the scientists deal with it. They are clearly wrong, misleading others. A person can independently understand the issue of determining his temperament. And, after reading a couple of feature articles, understand what to do with the information received next. Ours will help you find out your type of temperament, the passage of which will take only five minutes.

It is important to understand the temperament of the interlocutor, because the quality of the dialogue depends on it, understanding the direction where the conversation can lead. It is useless to “load” a phlegmatic person, to tease a melancholic person, to provoke a choleric person, to whine in front of a sanguine person. Each type has its own approach, and the sooner it is found, the greater the chances for the successful development of communication. And since it is difficult to overestimate the role of communications in society, the ability to build a dialogue is one of the most important at any age and social environment.

Temperament is one of the most popular topics. Moreover, this statement is true both among scientists and among ordinary people. It's just that not all people know how understanding their temperament will help them. In this post, we have answered many questions. Updated knowledge about the four basic types of temperament. More information can be found in the thematic articles on our website, where all types of temperament are considered in detail. They contain the main features of each of the types, tips for applying this knowledge to building a career and personal life.