Three main principalities and their directions. Architecture of Southern and Western Russia in the XII—XIII centuries Architectural schools of the southwestern principalities

The division of Russia between the Yaroslavichs, which we talked about last time, marked the beginning of the process of feudal fragmentation. With every decade, and even every year, the number of princes increased, the number of dynasties within the Rurik dynasty increased. The Chernigov dynasty of princes, dating back to Svyatoslav, stood out, the Monomashichs stood out, but the Monomashichs were also not on the best of terms with each other. The line of Mstislav the Great and the line of the youngest son of Vladimir Monomakh, Yuri Dolgoruky, constantly competed.

Against the background of this political struggle, the development of Russian architecture took place in the second and third quarters of the 12th century, which we will talk about today. But we will start, as always, traditionally with Kyiv, which continues to be the capital city of the Grand Duke, although there is a constant struggle between the Russian princes for it. And, in fact, the whole architecture of Kyiv of this time is, in fact, the history of warring princes and their monumental representation.

After the great Kyiv construction of the 11th century, Kyiv became one of the architectural centers of Russia. The temples here are not striking in their grandeur. Their form is generally standard, the one that was set at the time by the Assumption Cathedral of the Kiev Caves Monastery and which spread throughout Russia, but small individual details indicate to us some kind of individuality of each building, often associated with the personality of the prince. We will start with the Church of the Assumption, which is also called Pirogoshcha, after a certain mysterious Pirogost, built in 1132-1136 in Kyiv on Podil, and this is important, since now we have moved from the princely city from top to bottom to the trading city, by order of the prince Mstislav Vladimirovich. According to the plan, as it was said, this is a rather simple building, a narthex and a four-pillar naos.

The temple was blown up in Soviet times, but before the destruction, measurements were taken from it, according to which it was restored already in the 90s. Before us is a building, on the one hand, typical of the Kyiv style, about which we have already talked a lot. On the other hand, new features appear in it, new for Kyiv. These are the very small arcades that go under the lunettes that complete the Pryasl, which go along the apse, which go along the drum and which indicate that the fashion that appeared in Chernigov at the turn of the 11th-12th centuries finally established itself in Kyiv.

Another temple, already in the 1140s, was built by a rival dynasty, the Chernigov Olgovichi dynasty, whose representative, Vsevolod Olgovich, occupied the throne of Kyiv at that moment. According to the plan, this building differs little from the Virgin of Pirogoshcha, however, there are small, subtle differences that should still be paid attention to. First of all, this is the maximum increase in the domed square. The side aisles are narrowed, so that they are half as narrow as the central one. This allows you to make the space even more open, more concentrated on its main part, the dome and the altar.

Now the temple stands as it was rebuilt in modern times, and the ancient forms are only slightly guessed here.

But if we look at the reconstruction of the temple, we will see a typical monument of Chernihiv architecture. And this is not surprising. Undoubtedly, together with the prince from Chernigov, his artel also came. Old Russian artels are not known to us practically by the names of their heads, by the names of the masters, but we are known primarily by the names of the princes, that is, which prince this artel was. And when the prince moved from one table to another, and this happened all the time in Ancient Russia, the artel followed him. And now the St. Cyril's Church is the fruit of the construction of this Chernihiv artel. However, it must be said that in size this temple surpasses the Chernihiv monuments, the same Assumption Cathedral of the Yelets Monastery.

And if we go inside and look east with you, we will see that the space here has really expanded, it has become wide, solemn, front, but if we raise our eyes up, we will see a rather important reception, which will be destined for great the future in Russian architecture, namely, that the vaults of the arms of the cross, both western, and lateral, and eastern, suddenly sank in relation to the large girth arches. A stepped composition or a stepped composition appears, which, in fact, will form the basis of future architecture, especially the architecture of the late 12th and early 13th centuries, which we will talk about next time.

Assumption Cathedral in Vladimir-Volynsky 1156–60

We can very well trace the vicissitudes of architecture, the vicissitudes of buildings and artels on the example of the Cathedral of the Assumption in the city of Vladimir-Volynsky in Western Russia, which was built somewhere in 1156-1160 by Prince Mstislav Izyaslavich. Mstislav Izyaslavich, the grandson of Mstislav the Great, was expelled from Kyiv in 1155 by another representative of the younger branch of the Monomashichs, Yuri Dolgoruky. He didn't run alone. He fled with his team. He fled with the metropolitan, with the famous Klim Smolyatich, the second Russian metropolitan on the throne of Kiev, whom Constantinople never recognized as a legitimate metropolitan.

And here, in Vladimir-Volynsky, the prince establishes his new residence, and here a practically new metropolis is obtained, and, accordingly, the temple had to correspond to the prince's requests. Indeed, this is a very large temple, with a narthex open in the naos - what is sometimes called in the history of Russian architecture not quite correctly a six-pillared temple. But here a longitudinal orientation suddenly appears, because the cross-shaped pillars have their shoulder blades, which are directed not inside the domed square, but outward, suddenly turn out to be very stretched.

And the appearance of this temple, which, in fact, is such a reconstruction now, since it was also rebuilt in modern times and cleared of these late layers at the beginning of the 20th century, the appearance of the temple tells us that we see the same thing as seen before, for example, in the architecture of St. Cyril's Church or the Mother of God Pirogoshcha. This is a combination of Kyiv style and Chernihiv style. But, perhaps, this is the last large monument of the Kiev-Chernigov style in Southern Russia. After that, in fact, a completely different architecture will appear here.

Polotsk architecture of the XII century.

Now we are moving to the northwest from Kyiv, up the Dnieper, towards Smolensk and further northwest to Polotsk, to that center of the Russian land, which we have practically not talked about yet. Here, that branch of the Rurikoviches, which was least connected with all the others, the so-called Bryachislavovichi, ruled. These princes sometimes came into conflict with all the Russian princes, and it was precisely for this that they were expelled in the 30s of the 12th century. But even before their exile, they were able to lay the foundation for a very interesting architectural school, behind which, paradoxically, apparently, the future of Russian architecture will be.

Traditionally, Polotsk architecture began with St. Sophia of Polotsk, the first large stone church in Polotsk, dating back to the same time as St. Sophia of Kyiv and St. Sophia of Novgorod, that is, to the 50s of the 11th century. However, in some paradoxical way, technically, that is, from the point of view of masonry, mortar plinth, this temple does not adjoin those cathedrals with which it is similar in plan, but to later Polotsk buildings already at the beginning of the 12th century. Therefore, not so long ago, Evgeny Nikolayevich Torshin expressed a completely sound hypothesis that this temple was already built somewhere in the 70s-80s of the XII century. And it is very interesting that in 1069 Prince Vseslav of Polotsk took Novgorod, plundered the city and, among other things, removed the bells from St. Sophia of Novgorod, which he transferred to Polotsk, apparently for his new cathedral. So, surprisingly, Sophia of Polotsk almost exactly reproduces Sophia of Novgorod.

Sophia of Polotsk now does not give the impression of an ancient Russian temple. This is, in fact, a church that was made a Catholic, Jesuit church and which hides only the remains of an ancient Russian building.

Here on the layout we can see what this cathedral looked like. It is very similar, apparently, to Sophia of Novgorod. We see here five main chapters and two additional, high apses, two tiers, including choirs.

Inside the building itself, we see in places fragments of the old masonry that show through from the whitewash of a later time.

And under the floor of the temple, a kind of archaeological museum has been organized, where we can see with you the foundation of the ancient temple, including masonry techniques, huge boulders laid as a foundation, and masonry with a hidden row that goes above them. Here we see the base of one of the cross pillars. The architecture of Polotsk, just like the architecture of other Russian centers, fully accepted this principle of cross-pillars.

The heyday of Polotsk architecture falls on the first half, the middle of the 12th century, despite the exile of the Polotsk princes, and they went into exile not somewhere, but to Constantinople. Therefore, it was assumed that, perhaps, they brought with them new masters, Greek masters, although, as we will see, the latest research shows that it is more likely that their main buildings, or at least the main architectural trends in Polotsk, were laid even before the expulsion of these princes.

The first building after Sophia in Polotsk is considered the Great Cathedral of the Belchitsky Monastery. Here it is necessary, however, to make a reservation that it is known to us only from archaeological materials. And besides, the name itself, Belchitsa Monastery, is a phenomenon of a later time, because in the XII century in the annals of Belchitsa it is mentioned not as a monastery, but as a princely residence. True, it is a big mystery why there are so many temples here, as many as four.

Pay attention to the fact that there are two important features in the Belchitsa church. Firstly, it is a temple of the type of an inscribed cross with a complex outline, that is, where additional cells are added from the east. This is a feature, rather, of Constantinople architecture, or at least high-level architecture. The second important feature here is the presence of three vestibules, which we already saw with you in the famous building of Vladimir Monomakh, namely in the Church of the Savior on Berestov in Kyiv.

From the large cathedral of the Belchitsky monastery, the history of further Polotsk architecture begins, and we can see that its main type was reproduced further, only a few, possibly modified. For example, instead of rectangular porches, side aisles could appear, that is, porches with the addition of an apse turned into separate additional temples. In addition, a new feature, characteristic of Polotsk, is developed, namely, that the side apses begin to recede into the thickness of the wall, are not expressed from the outside, in contrast to the central apse.

And these complications lead, in particular, to very interesting solutions. In particular, in the same Belchitsky monastery, a temple was excavated in the 18th century during the extraction of sand, which on the sides turned out to have not vestibules, not side chapels, but two additional apses. Thus, it is similar to the temples of Athos, the temples of Greece, but which were both in Constantinople and in Asia Minor, the so-called cross-domed triconchs, where on the sides there are two additional apses, which in Slavonic are called singers, that is, a place for choir, place for singers. And here we see how susceptible Polotsk is to some trends that come from Byzantium, perhaps due to the connection of its princes with Constantinople.

But, unfortunately, of all the Polotsk buildings, only one has been completely preserved, although perhaps the most amazing. This is the temple of the Transfiguration of the Lord in the monastery, the Spassky Monastery, founded by St. Euphrosyne.

The daughter of the prince of Polotsk, a noble woman, she immediately chose the monastic path and was a surprisingly educated person for her time. We see this from her life, from her biography. What is worth one fact is that she died on a pilgrimage to Jerusalem.

But the painting of the temple, which was recently uncovered by our wonderful restorer, who died untimely, Vladimir Dmitrievich Sarabyanov, shows absolutely fantastic plots unknown in Russia. Here are the rivers of wisdom, and Dionysius of Paris with his own head, and much more.

The plan of the temple itself, in principle, does not differ much from the Polotsk buildings, only perhaps in size. This is a very small and very elongated temple, which, however, had choirs important for princely buildings. The height of the dome here is practically higher than all Russian buildings known to us in the sense of proportionality. Why it was needed, we'll talk to you later.

Now the temple appears before us in a rather rebuilt form, although here one can guess a spinner with zakomars, the windows are more or less in their places.

Moreover, during the latest restoration work, and this temple, one might say, is a model of restoration, both of restoration of painting and of architectural and archaeological restoration, very interesting elements of brickwork were revealed here. For example, amazing brows above the windows, which practically do not find parallels, or a series of pseudo-meander, that is, some kind of imitation of a real meander, made in the form of Greek letters “pi”, above a number of second windows. And this is precisely such a meander and precisely in this place, which is very important for architecture, because not only the motive is important for architectural decoration, but also the place where it is used, it is this combination that we find in Spas on Berestov. Therefore, a well-founded hypothesis was put forward that the Polotsk architecture was created by the architects of Vladimir Monomakh, who moved to Polotsk after the construction of the Savior on Berestovo.

The latest natural studies of the temple made it possible to reconstruct its external appearance, which turned out to be different from what we see now. The most important innovations here are the three-bladed ends of the zakomar. But if we go back a little, we will remember that the same conclusions were in the Savior on Berestovo. We saw them in the porch. But an even more important innovation is the appearance here, above this tier of zakomars, of another tier imitating zakomaras. In fact, these are overhead three-bladed zakomars, in fact, the forerunners of future Russian kokoshniks. They do not correspond almost to the internal structure of the building, but mask the high base of the drum.

Thus, the temple acquires an increased pyramidality, rushes upwards like the temples of Byzantium of the XII century, thus fits into the general trend of Byzantine architecture, although in some ways it even outstrips it. Such elongated temples, such narrow drums of Byzantium appear only in the late period.

And confirmation of what the architects found is a fresco in the temple of the 13th century, which depicts the Monk Euphrosyne herself, who brings this very temple, and in her hands is a model on which we see these completions, as they are drawn. Although, again, the latest architectural research shows that the roof did not go like this, not with three blades, but, apparently, with some angles.

Inside the temple, we see its incredible verticality, elevation and, at the same time, emphasis inside the spatial cross. And this is no coincidence. Vladimir Dmitrievich Sarabyanov perceived this temple as a kind of temple-reliquary, in the center of which stood the famous cross of Euphrosyne, which disappeared during the war and is known to us from photographs. The whole temple turned out to be like a spatial cross.

The choirs in this temple, unlike the usual princely choirs, received a special function. The fact is that on the sides, here and there, two special chapels were arranged. In one we know that Efrosinya prayed and lived next to her. There is her bed. And when she prayed in this chapel and looked into the small window that is in it, then in the gap of this window she saw from the east the image of a stylite, that is, her feat of life in the choirs was akin to stylistics. And in another tent, near the window, a semblance of a table was found, there were such shelves around, as if for books, and above this table was an image of a writing angel. That is, most likely, books were copied here and there was a library of the monastery.

There was a second temple next to the Spassky Church, we do not know it by name, the so-called tomb temple. And recently, during the work near this temple, an amazing thing was found. This is a piece of plinth, on which, apparently, the image of a spatula was drawn on still damp clay, exactly the same as we see in this very temple-tomb. That is, it is something like a working drawing of a Russian master. Smolensk architecture originated from Polotsk architecture, which gave a new impetus to Russian architecture at the end of the 12th century, but we will talk about this next time.

And if at the beginning of the XII century we talked about large monastic princely buildings, now the architecture is changing. She becomes more accessible. And although the prince is still acting as a customer, the temple he is building, the temple of John on Opoki, is already a temple in Posada. It is no coincidence that later it becomes a temple of Novgorod merchants. According to one principle, according to the principle that was laid down in the plan of the Antoniev Monastery, the churches of John on Opoki and the Assumption at the Market were built.

The Temple of John on the Opokah was completed in 1130, and in 1136 an important event took place in the history of Novgorod. The prince was finally expelled, and after that the prince was already invited to Novgorod. Novgorod became the so-called boyar-veche republic. The Temple of John on Opoki has come down to us in a revised form, in that rebuilt post-Mongolian version, and at the same time we see a very modest decoration of its facades, which will be characteristic of all Novgorod architecture of the pre-Mongolian period, right up to its end. For the period we are talking about, it is very important that for the first time in the history of Novgorod the artel, which originally belonged to the prince, and then, perhaps, worked for the bishop, because we know the bishop as the customer of many buildings, this artel goes beyond the city and starts building elsewhere.

And, as a matter of fact, there will be two of these directions in the architecture of the Novgorod land. One direction is Pskov. This is the city that has always been something like the younger brother of Novgorod, where it also had its own veche, also had its own self-consciousness and had its own prince. Expelled from Novgorod, Vsevolod, in fact, goes to Pskov and takes craftsmen there. Apparently, it was they who built the cathedral of the Ioannovsky Monastery in Pskov, a simple building of the type already known to us in Novgorod. Its some relative innovation is that in the western part all the pillars are no longer cross-shaped, and in the east there is a pair of T-shaped pillars, which will become the basis of the Pskov style.

The decoration of the facades of this temple is extremely modest and unpretentious. Almost only small arches under the domes remained here, but some new elements appear. The windows of the temple themselves are very narrow, indeed, others were not suitable for the Russian winter, but new small round windows appear. They are not at all like the round windows that came to Byzantium from ancient architecture. This is some kind of innovation.

It is also interesting that the domes here belong to the western corner cells, but the scheme of three domes itself, which we saw in both the Yuriev Monastery and the Anthony Monastery in Novgorod, is preserved.

If we look at the section of the temple, we will see that everything is not very neat here. All the lines are slightly beveled, slightly shifted, and the construction itself, of course, has already lost that Byzantine tectonics that was present in the monuments of the 11th century, especially in the monuments of Southern Russia. This is partly due to the transition to another material. Along with the plinth, these buildings actively use easily accessible stone, and the stone, which is not very well hewn, is often cobblestone, which becomes the main building material in the Novgorod land.

The same artel that built the temple of the Ivanovsky Monastery in Pskov also built the cathedral of another monastery, Miroshsky, here. Here, however, we see another, some kind of new scheme, which outwardly actually looks like a Byzantine scheme, because initially in this temple the corner cells were extremely lowered.

Now, after perestroika, after the superstructure, the western cells have become higher, but these are separate premises. Inside, the arch shows us that this is where they actually end, while the eastern ones were not built on like that. But despite the outward resemblance to Byzantium, we see that in fact, inside this height is determined not by a column, not by a small girth arch of Byzantium, but in some arbitrary way.

The temple of the Miroshsky Monastery was commissioned by the famous Novgorod Bishop Nifont, a surprisingly scholarly man for his time, who, although he seemed to be a monk of the Kiev Caves Monastery, was so aware of all the latest trends in Byzantine literature, art, and so on, that it seems , was supposed to be a Greek, and he orders a painting for this temple. And, as a matter of fact, this painting shows that the space, which in a whitewashed form seems rude and inept to us, wonderfully begins to play completely when covered with a fresco. And even such strange elements, such as, for example, large girth arches resting on consoles, are here very subtly and ingeniously beaten in painting. The temple seems to acquire a new structure, a new axis around which it is being built. And this is the so-called Christological axis, which goes from the dome from the “Ascension”, through the “Savior Not Made by Hands”, through the deesis, through the “Savior on the Throne” and further, in fact, to the altar, where Christ is real and incarnated in the holy gifts during Eucharistic worship.

The second direction of architecture in the Novgorod land is the architecture of Ladoga. Ladoga is a city that is actually older than Novgorod, the so-called current Staraya Ladoga. In fact, some believe that Novgorod is called Novgorod because the old city was this Ladoga, a very important trade route on the way from the Varangians to the Greeks. Ladoga suddenly in the XII century, in the middle of the XII century, somewhere in the 50-60s, comes to life again. The princes attach great importance to it, and construction begins here. However, in this diagram we see how difficult this construction developed and that the first temple in Ladoga was the order of Bishop Nifont, the temple of Clement.

And further from it went the line of Ladoga architecture, which, unfortunately, not all of it has been preserved, but, in general, is represented by preserved buildings, including the Assumption Church in Staraya Ladoga, built in 1154-1159. It is likely that these are the buildings of the same artel that worked in Pskov, but, of course, not quite the same, because people grew old, the members of the artel changed, someone came, someone left, but the basic principles are the same .

These are the same principles that were laid down a long time ago, in the St. Anthony Monastery, by those masters who once came from Kyiv. But, of course, there is practically no trace left of the Kyiv masters here. This is a special, already Novgorod architecture.

And, finally, after a long break in the surviving stone buildings, we see construction in Novgorod again. Perhaps there really was no construction, because the artel was leaving, and this is surprising, because it turns out that even such a rich city as Novgorod could not provide for itself more than one, or maybe a maximum of two artels. The building already in the 70s of the XII century is a temple in Arkazhy, in a monastery that was once founded by Arkady, Archbishop of Novgorod, and one of his successors is building a temple here. Here we see the same scheme that we saw in Ladoga, that is, the isolation of the corner cells and two powerful square pillars in the west.

The facade decoration remains very simple, in fact, reduced to small arches under the drum.

Now this temple in a rebuilt form does not give the impression of a pre-Mongolian building. This is a typical completion for post-Mongolian Novgorod.

But if we go inside, we will see this most authentic pre-Mongolian temple and see how heavy, overweight and powerful it has become. This is the temple of a small monastery, where the main thing is the strength and reliability of structures. Therefore, the eastern pillars do not rise vertically, large arches are not formed on the sides of them, and here additional arches are again introduced as additional powerful supports, which should make the entire structure of the building more stable.

Architecture of the Rostov-Suzdal Principality

And, finally, in the middle of the XII century, another, practically new school of Russian architecture appeared. This is the architecture of Vladimir-Suzdal Russia, more precisely, it is more correct to say, the Rostov-Suzdal principality, because the old center of this land is Rostov, the new center since the time of especially Yuri Dolgoruky is Suzdal, although the first temple in Suzdal was laid by Vladimir Monomakh. Nothing remained of it, except for small remnants of the foundation. And, finally, Yuri's son Andrei Bogolyubsky shifts the center a little further, to Vladimir, which he plans to make the new capital of Russia.

So, the first stage of the architecture of Vladimir-Suzdal Rus is associated with the city of Vladimir. But we will have to start from afar, because between the cathedral in Suzdal, built by Vladimir Monomakh, and the first buildings of Andrei Bogolyubsky, there is a gap of almost half a century. Where did Andrei get the masters, who, as we will see now, do not at all resemble everything that we have seen before in Russia? According to Oleg Mikhailovich Ionesyan, he received masters from Galician Rus, where, unfortunately, almost nothing remained of the monuments of that time. I am showing you a reconstruction of the plan of the cathedral in Zvenigorod, Zvenigorod on Belka in Southern Russia, built in the early 1140s.

From here, these masters, familiar with the architecture of Poland or, more specifically, Lesser Poland, with the stone decoration of the provincial Romanesque version, most likely moved to the principality of Yuri Dolgoruky, who was closely connected with the Galician land by allied ties. Of the buildings of Yuri Dolgoruky, of which there were more, two have come down to us. These are temples in Pereslavl, Pereslavl-Zalessky, not to be confused with Pereslavl-South, and in Kideksha in the residence of the prince near Suzdal. The temple in Kideksha, unfortunately, partially collapsed, and the temple in Pereslavl was preserved in its entirety.

Traditionally, in the history of Russian architecture, this temple was considered the beginning of Vladimir-Suzdal architecture due to the simplicity of its forms. There is practically no decor here. It is focused only on the apse, on the drum, and on the spindles themselves we see only a small fracture in the middle. But the latest research, which I will talk about later, calls into question this clarity, a straight line: Pereslavl, Kideksha and then the architecture of Andrei Bogolyubsky.

Inside, you and I see, in general, the type of Russian church familiar to us, a clearly expressed cross, but all of a sudden everything was built of white stone. And this is a novelty, which in fact will turn out to be very important then, because the stone has, in fact, completely different expressive possibilities than the plinth. At the same time, this stone was not visible inside, since the temple was covered with frescoes, the remains of which were known as early as the 19th century.

The full possibilities of stone decorations begin to be realized under the son of Yuri Dolgoruky, Andrei Bogolyubsky. Yuri, let me remind you, in 1155 took Kyiv, moved to where he soon died, and Andrei, without the will of his father, moved to Suzdal, took with him the famous icon of Our Lady of Vladimir and began to rule here almost independently. Andrei nurtured a grandiose plan to create a metropolis independent of Kyiv in Vladimir, conducted long negotiations with Constantinople, which, however, were not crowned with success. And, accordingly, in order to confirm both his claims to the new church center of Russia, and confirm his status among other princes in general, Andrei, who basically did not want to be a prince in Kyiv, is building something new.

He invites masters from the West, and these are undoubtedly not only the masters who worked for Yuri, perhaps they have remained, but also new masters who bring a new school of architectural decoration, including facade sculpture. The first building of Andrey is the Assumption Cathedral, modeled after the Assumption Cathedral of the Kiev-Pechersk Lavra, such a transfer of the south to the north, but obviously complicated, with narthexes, with towers that have the character of a slightly palace, front facade.

Unfortunately, this cathedral soon burned down in a large city fire, and although its walls remained inside (they are shown in black on this plan), they had to be rebuilt from the outside, so that the temple turned out to be much more complex in shape, somewhat similar to St. Sophia of Kyiv, but the new temple is like a casket, like some kind of salary around the ancient walls.

And what we see with you now conveys only the general structure of the building, but not the details of the old building.

They peep through only here, in the small gaps between the attached new supports, we see with you an important innovation in Andrey's architecture. This is now not only an arcade, but also an arcade-columnar belt, which bypasses the entire temple, which includes both windows and, as we will see later, sculpture.

Inside the temple, the central part, which has been preserved, shows us, on the one hand, a grandiose scale. On the other hand, if we raise our eyes up, standing under the famous vault, painted by Andrei Rublev in a few centuries, we will see one amazing detail with you. Tromps suddenly appeared here instead of sails familiar to Russia. Tromps are a form that is more characteristic of the East or the West. This is probably the influence of the same Romanesque masters who came here. Where they came from is unknown. Tatishchev's message that the masters were presented by Friedrich Barbarossa is a late invention.

Andrei is trying to organize Vladimir as a new capital in the likeness of Kyiv, so the Golden Gate appears here.

Unfortunately, the ancient temple on these Golden Gates was dismantled in the 18th century, but the arch of the gate itself, the opening, retained its ancient forms.

Just like Yuri, Andrei had his favorite residence, Bogolyubovo, not far from Vladimir, and here he is building a luxurious complex, which included his own palace, and a temple connected to this palace with passages with two towers on the sides. Fortunately, after the collapse of the temple in the 18th century, the towers and part of the walls of the temple still survived, and we can understand how grandiose this building was. The main facade, reminiscent of the facades, rather, of the buildings of the Romanesque era, rather than even the Byzantine ones, a luxurious phial, that is, a vessel for water with a ciborium, with a canopy above it.

In front of it is a fantastic monument, which is being reconstructed in the form of a column with the heads of maidens (they have been preserved with us), the decor of the internal mosaic, the polished copper floor, the gilded pilasters of the round columns - all this was supposed to create something unprecedented, something absolutely new in Russia.

Alas, little of this splendor is left, and we can only guess how powerful an impression this palace and Andrew's temple could have on visitors.

At the bottom of this same tower, Andrei was, as you know, killed. But if we raise our eyes upwards, we will see the arcade-columnar belt already known to us, and the triple window, and the completely Romanesque completions of these same angular rods. One can only guess where these masters came from.

The most powerful beam pilasters that we see on the corners of buildings have caused great controversy among scientists. Alexey Ilyich Komech believed that these masters came from the Middle Rhine, Oleg Mikhailovich Ionesyan - that they came from Northern Italy, likening these profiles to the cathedral in Modena. Be that as it may, these were masters from the empire, and Andrey's imperial manners are felt in architecture.

For the first time in a long time, he refuses the square, cross-shaped or octagonal pillars typical of Russia and tries to reproduce the columns, on which, as I have already said, there were gilded capitals. The richest sculptural decoration, completely alien to Russian architecture before.

It manifests itself especially well in that temple, which is considered to be one of the symbols of Russia, in the Church of the Intercession on the Nerl, which so mysteriously and thoughtfully stands in the fields on the banks of the small river Nerl.

But archaeological research, which was carried out here by Nikolai Nikolaevich Voronin, showed that this temple looked completely different. It was a high, solemnly decorated hill, paved with slabs, with a grand staircase that led up from the river, and the temple itself stood not as a single candle, but rather, such a powerful pyramid, surrounded by a gallery, with a balcony at the top, from where the prince could survey his possessions . The function of this temple is unknown. Some believe that there was a small monastery here, some - that some other residence of the prince.

We do not know this, but we see that the facades of the temple are richly decorated with carvings. Where these masters came from is another mystery. The same Oleg Mikhailovich Ionesyan not so long ago suggested that these masters came from Poitou, from the west of France, where they suddenly found themselves out of work due to the political situation. The main theme of these reliefs, along with decorative motifs, with these female heads, lions, and so on, is the glorification of princely power in the form of the image of the prophet David, which appears on various facades and should symbolize some ideal prince.

Fine carving of the column, which is made possible thanks to the white stone, shows the highest level of these craftsmen, who come here by order of Andrei Bogolyubsky.

And, finally, when we enter the temple, we immediately pay attention to its height, to the aspiration upwards, which is generally a common feature of the architecture of the XII century, but which, perhaps, is not so noticeable from the outside, and even less so when it was around the temple had galleries. Of course, we pay attention to the choirs for the prince in the west, because it was from these choirs that, perhaps, the correct, balanced view of this building was opened.

But this spatially expressed cross, these proportions directed upwards and the minimal carved decor inside, apparently, there was a fresco decor here, only in the bases of the girth arches we see small images of lions - all this should have created the impression, on the one hand, of the greatness of the prince, and on the other hand, its completely innovative, in fact, function in Russian architecture, which was for the first time to fully combine the architecture of ancient Russian, Byzantine in its origin, with the architecture of Western Europe.

In Novgorod, Smolensk, Polotsk, Grodno, a new social force is formed early - the urban population. People's assemblies - veche - had a special power in Polotsk and Smolensk, limiting the power of the princes. In the 12th century, princely courts were located outside the main urban area. It is quite natural that building artels interpreted the generally accepted types of religious buildings more independently and in a peculiar way.

Polotsk architecture. The features of Polotsk architecture include: The contrast of the vertical development of the volumes of the temple of the longitudinal composition of its plan The opposition of the masses directed upwards to the monumental foundation The dynamism of the semi-columns and rods The opposite of the impression of constriction, compression of the side aisles and freedom, airiness of the under-dome space The listed features of the composition are the result of a rethinking of the Byzantine cross-dome system under the influence of local aesthetic ideals, formed in the process of interaction between folk wooden architecture, ancient Russian stone architecture and elements of Romanesque architecture.

Using the Kyiv building traditions, the local craftsmen develop their own system and somewhat change the cross-domed system of the temple. They narrow the side aisles, the outermost apses are laid out in the thickness of the walls, reinforcing the compositional role of the east-west axis, introducing elements of the basilic construction. Plan of the Borisoglebskaya Church, Polotsk, (XII century)

The only well-preserved monument of the Polotsk school. The creator of this temple is the architect John. He, like the northern "woodworkers", clearly delineated the volumetric and spatial components of the building. The narthex with the choirs was made lower, the central apse was strongly extended, and the side apses were hidden in the thickness of the wall, focusing on the main square volume

Smolensk school By the end of the 12th century, the characteristic features of Smolensk architecture were formed: Forms similar to those of Polotsk can be traced. Lateral apses begin to be made in the thickness of the wall. The desire for centric dynamic compositions is complemented by heavily dissected tufts of blades.

The centric composition of the court temple with three lowered limits and side apses. The volume-spatial unity, the concentration of masses around the central axis was facilitated by the covering of the corner parts of the temple with semi-cylindrical vaults. Like flying buttresses, curvilinear corner coverings transferred thrust from the overlying vaults to the lower sections of the walls, forming a constructively justified and expressive three-bladed top. The shape of the ceiling of the central part of the temple was also justified from a functional point of view, because it improved the removal of atmospheric precipitation from the roof.

A special place in Smolensk architecture is occupied by cult buildings on the verge of the 13th century, with a slightly protruding rectangular apse, which has analogues only in Polotsk. The plans of such four-pillared temples approach a square, which suggests that their composition was centric and developed vertically, like the church of Michael the Archangel.

Grodno school The meager remains of the architectural works of the Grodno masters allow us to express only general considerations. Everything speaks of sufficient originality and independence of the Grodno architectural school, as well as a wide range of sources. The architects of Grodno, apparently, were familiar with the architectural monuments of Polotsk, the Dnieper region, Northern Europe and even the Balkan countries, and the level of their skill allowed them to artistically comprehend the achievements of other peoples.

A distinctive feature of the partially preserved Lower Church (mid-12th century) in Detinets and Borisoglebskaya (80s of the 12th century) on Kolzhsky Hill is the polychrome of their facades. Huge granite boulders of various shades, polished to a shine, were inserted into the lower part of the outer walls of these temples, built of brick using the technique of ordinal masonry; above, crosses and ornamental inserts of colored majolica tiles sparkled like gems. Wall sections between stones and majolica were covered with a thin layer of plaster. The coloristic richness of the facades (far from the asceticism of medieval religious buildings) introduced a folk flavor into the architecture of Grodno churches.

The interior of the Borisoglebskaya church had a hall character not typical of cross-domed buildings due to round multifaceted internal pillars and a wooden balcony stretching along three walls from the northern apse to the southern, and the entrance to these peculiar choirs was arranged not on the western side, but in the thickness of the walls of the side apses. The treatment of the inner walls with small niches and a large number of golosniks inserted into the walls were also unusual.

Galicia-Volyn Rus Galicia-Volyn lands separated from Kyiv in the middle of the XII century. They were associated with the states of both Northwestern and Southern Europe. Volyn craftsmen made their first steps in the field of stone architecture with the help of Dnieper architects. However, when Prince Roman Mstislavich united the Galicia-Volyn lands into a single principality, their architecture acquired peculiar features.

Vladimir-Volynsky is the capital of the Galicia-Volyn principality. It was one of the largest cities with powerful fortifications. In 1160, the Assumption Cathedral, which has survived to this day, was erected in it.

The Assumption Cathedral in Vladimir-Volynsky is not inferior in size to Kyiv churches. Reminds the temples of the Chernihiv school of the XII century.

Galich is an important political and cultural center of the early 13th century. The Galician architectural school was formed in close contact with Western European art, which naturally left its mark on the appearance of buildings. The presence of dense fine-grained limestone, which made it possible to perform fine ornamental carving, also contributed to the creative development of Romanesque forms.

Assumption Cathedral in Galich In 1157, the city's Assumption Cathedral was built, surrounded by a gallery. This building, which once adorned Galich, has common features with the buildings of the era of Yaroslav the Wise - the time of the power of the Old Russian state. Unfortunately, it is difficult to judge the appearance of this monument, since only its foundations and fragments of the exterior decoration have been preserved. However, this also gives an idea of ​​its features. The Assumption Cathedral was built of white limestone on rubble foundations. The laying was carried out from well-hewn and carefully fitted stone blocks with backfilling of the space between the outer surfaces with limestone mortar. The facades of the cathedral were decorated with carved details: stone capitals completed the columns of portals, and masks, obviously, complemented the frieze. The nature of the hewn masonry of carved details indicates that the Galician masters were familiar with the artistic culture of neighboring countries - Poland and Hungary.

Church of Panteleimon The usual four-pillar structure of the Church of Panteleimon has acquired a peculiar embodiment: the blades on the northern and southern facades do not coincide with the internal pillars, they are moved apart in the middle, forming a large plane, on which a carved perspective portal stands out as a colorful spot. A particularly strong contrast between the geometrically strict surface of the wall with simple arched window openings and the multi-ledged portal with carved columns and archivolts was created on the western façade. The transformation of portals into the main element of the facade, which is not typical for the temples of Ancient Russia, the design of the plinth, the profiling of which resembles Attic bases, the character of capitals and carved ornaments, which retained traces of the influence of Hellenistic art, indicate that the architects of Galich combined the structure of an ancient Russian temple with Romanesque decorative forms . Time has not preserved the upper parts of the Church of Panteleimon, which most likely corresponded to the cross-domed structure.

Hill Founded in the second quarter of the XIII century. , the city was distinguished by its expressive architectural appearance, which we mainly know from the annals. The picturesque silhouette of the city with the expressive outlines of white-stone temples was successfully complemented by a high "vezha" - a defensive tower made of wood on a stone foundation, which dominated the entire building. Numerous artisans from neighboring devastated principalities flocked to the Hill, which was almost not affected by the invasion of the Mongol-Tatar yoke, and contributed to the construction of the capital city. Various architectural schools interacted in Kholm, the skills of the Galician masters were intertwined with the techniques of the Vladimir-Suzdal masons, the principles of the Dnieper masters were intertwined with the traditions of the artistic culture of the Romanesque world.

Church of St. John Chrysostom and St. George's Cathedral As it appears from the Ipatiev Chronicle, in the Church of St. John Chrysostom, the vaults rested on four-faced capitals; similar capitals also crowned St. George's Cathedral (1230-1234) in Yuryev. Polish. Multi-colored carved portals with gilded details were made by the “sly Avdey” from white Galician and green Kholmsky stone. The tympanums were decorated with reliefs of the Savior and John. The windows of this temple, which caused universal admiration, flaunted amazing "Roman glasses" - stained-glass windows unusual for Russia.

Features of palaces in Przemysl, Zvenigorod and Lvov Of particular interest are the remains of princely stone palaces that have survived to this day in Przemysl, Zvenigorod and Lvov. Fragments of these unique civil structures, supplemented by the description of the chronicler of the princely court in Galich, allow us to recreate in general terms the appearance of the ancient Russian palace complex of the period of feudal fragmentation. The formation of specific small principalities, constant civil strife and military attacks from outside gave rise to the type of fortified princely court, which had some common features with the medieval castles of Western Europe. Princely palaces in the Galician land were made not only in wood, as in other principalities, but also in stone. The complex of the stone palace in Przemysl included a church.

Defensive towers Construction in the XIII-XIV centuries. stone defensive towers (towers) in the western lands of Ancient Russia is associated with a constant military threat, both from the Mongol-Tatars and neighboring states. A remarkable monument of military art is the grandiose, 29 m high Belaya Vezha in Kamenetz-Litovsky, built in 1271-1289. Prince Vladimir Vasilkovich

Dictionary Archivolt - framing an arched opening, highlighting the arc of the arch from the plane of the wall. Serves as an element of decoration of facades and interiors. Vezha is a defensive tower. Golosniks are small ceramic vessels or chambers used in laying walls or vaults, with their necks turned towards the inner space of the building. Narthex - a vestibule (Late Greek Narthex, from Greek narqhx a chest, a casket) an entrance room that usually adjoined the western side of a Christian church. It was intended for persons who did not have the right to enter the main premises. Tympanum - the inner field of the pediment, tongs, zakomara. May be triangular, semicircular or other shape. Frieze - a decorative composition in the form of a horizontal strip or ribbon, crowning or framing one or another part of an architectural structure.

A special branch of the Volyn architectural school is the architecture of the small Grodno principality. The borders of the Volyn land reached in the north of the Neman, where the city of Grodno stands, which early found itself in the power of Lithuania. The attention of researchers has long been attracted by the only monument of the 12th century that has survived here - the Borisoglebskaya Church on Kolozha, a suburb of ancient Grodno. When considering the history of Russian architecture, it was usually attached to the Polotsk-Smolensk circle of monuments, from which it nevertheless differs in many of its features.

Excavations on the territory of the ancient Kremlin in Grodno revealed new architectural monuments of the 12th century. In the center of the Kremlin's high cape lie the ruins of the second six-pillar brick church, conventionally called the "Lower Church". Like the Kolozha church, it is made of thin plinth; in the processing of its facades, huge colored spots of polished and unworked flat boulders of gneiss and granite were also used; in the decoration of the upper parts of the walls, in addition to majolica tiles, green glazed dishes and bowls were introduced. The composition of the plan differs from the Kolozha church. From the east, the arch of the middle apse protrudes very slightly from the plane of the facade, the lateral ones are cut into the thickness of the walls - this feature resembles the technique used in the cathedral of the Polotsk Spaso-Evfrosiniev Monastery. The location of the pillars indicates that the head of the temple was shifted to the west, and the composition of the masses of the building was, as in Kolozha, asymmetrical. In this regard, it should be noted that flat, with rounded corners, facade blades are found only on the axes of the pillars, while the corners of the building are devoid of blades and are cut at an angle of 45 °, like the corners of the internal square pillars. Choirs were located in the western part of the temple; the passage to them was also arranged in a peculiar way - in the southwestern corner, in a special semicircular brick box. As in the Kolozha church, numerous golosniks were built into the walls. The picturesque decoration of the temple, apparently, was limited to icons placed on a small wooden altar barrier, decorated with gilded engraved copper. The richness of decorative fantasy was also manifested in the bright colors of the majolica floor of the temple. In the domed part, the floor was decorated with complex ornaments, and near the portals - pavements made of polished granite. The Grodno Kremlin had not only stone churches. The towers of its fortifications were also built of brick; insignificant fragments have been preserved from them, which do not allow us to judge any fully about the architecture of the whole: only part of one wall has survived from the western tower at the corner of the fortress; the southern tower (the so-called “terem”), overlooking the Neman, was built with the same “inlaid” facade with colored boulder stones as the Grodno churches.

The chronology of these monuments has not been precisely established, but they all belong to the 12th century. Apparently, the "Lower Church", dating back to the first half of the 12th century, was built first. The Kolozha temple most likely dates back to the third quarter of the 12th century. The brick towers, which replaced the wooden ones, were built, as there is reason to believe, later than the temples.

The originality of architectural forms and, in particular, the polychrome decoration of facades with majolica and natural stone, which is not found in the architecture of the pre-Mongolian period and involuntarily makes one recall the polychrome of Russian architecture of the 17th century, allow us to consider the Grodno architectural school as a special branch of Russian architecture of the 12th-13th centuries. We do not know whether the small principality of Grodno had its own architects or whether it used the building forces of its metropolis - Volhynia or Smolensk. But whoever these builders were, in Grodno they created monuments that have their own local appearance, which do not find direct analogies in the buildings of other schools of feudal Russia.

In the monuments of Volhynia and Grodno, one can still clearly feel the connection with the technical and artistic culture of the Dnieper region and the Polotsk-Smolensk lands. The architectural development of the second large city of the Galicia-Volyn land - Galich, which became one of the most important political and cultural centers of Russia in the XII-XIII centuries, proceeded differently. The appearance of this wonderful city was clarified only as a result of a series of archaeological works that determined its topography, location and character of its temples that have long disappeared from the face of the earth. Ancient Galich is located on the picturesque hills between the tributary of the Dniester river. Lukva and its tributary Mozolev Creek. In the northern, well-defended part of the hill, there was the prince's court; to the south, there was a vast trading area fenced with ramparts, on which stood the majestic Assumption Cathedral. Outside the ramparts lay an equally vast settlement, protected in turn by a powerful defensive line of triple ramparts and ditches with gates guarded by towers pushed forward. In the immediate vicinity of the city, there were separate settlements and monasteries with their temples, which played an important role in defending the approaches to the city.

The ruins of temples discovered by excavations of the 19th-20th centuries represent only more or less surviving parts of the foundations and the lower parts of the walls, which makes it very difficult to judge their original appearance; most of them are undated, and their names are not precisely established. All of them were built from various varieties of local limestone, which replaced brick, in a very mature technique of hewn block masonry, with filling the internal cavity of the wall with rubble on lime. In a number of temples, remains of majolica floor tiles, typical for the 12th century, fragments of internal fresco painting and external decorations made of carved stone were found. Among these buildings there are both ordinary cross-domed churches and temples of completely unusual types. Such are the Church of the Resurrection - a small round chapel with a crown of three apses; "Polygon" - a building of indeterminate purpose in the form of an irregular polygon; the pillarless Church of the Annunciation with a very elongated rectangular plan and the Church of Elijah of the type of a round rotunda with one apse.

A group of white-stone cross-domed churches of Galich speaks about the acquaintance of Galich architects with Romanesque architecture: the four-pillar church of the Savior, the six-pillar church of Cyril and Methodius, the ruins of the church on Tsvintarisk and the church of Panteleimon (beginning of the 13th century) that has survived to this day. During the excavations of the first three monuments, fragments of white-stone carved details were found, and in the Church of Panteleimon, a beautiful processing of apses with arcades on semi-columns with Attic bases and carved capitals and two carved portals has been preserved. Tkachev V.N. History of architecture. M.: Nauka, 1987, - 234 p.

The most important among the Galich temples is the large white-stone Cathedral of the Assumption, discovered by excavations, which is believed to have been built around 1157 by Prince Yaroslav Osmomysl. Only the foundations and a small part of the plinth survived from the temple. The connection of the Assumption Cathedral with the Kyiv tradition was expressed in imitation of the planned scheme of the Church of the Tithes. But, unlike the latter, the outer galleries of the Assumption Cathedral, surrounding the main core of the three-aisled, four-pillar church, were built simultaneously with the church; the galleries were closed, being in fact the outer walls of the building. In its southwestern corner there was a baptismal in the form of a small closed chapel with an apse, reminiscent of the baptismal of the Yelets Cathedral in Chernigov. Where and how the passage to the choir was arranged remains unclear, but there is no doubt that there were no longer any stair towers like those in Kyiv. A carved portal led into the cathedral from the west. The floors of the temple were covered with colored majolica tiles, which became a favorite type of interior decoration in the 12th century. The outer facades were divided by flat blades, corresponding to the inner pillars, and ended with zakomaras. The vaults were covered with tin. Found during excavations, fragments of capitals with volutes and palmettes, hewn plinths, fragments of carved ornamented details testify to the use of plastics in the decoration of the white-stone church. The cornice of the apses was decorated with an arcade belt with carved masks instead of consoles and a curb. A comparison of these fragments with modern monuments of the Romanesque West establishes the closest analogies with the architecture of France and especially Germany of the 12th century. The architects of the border Galich more actively than their counterparts from the lands of the Dnieper region mastered the artistic techniques of foreign masters, organically linking them with the Russian architectural basis. E.S. Smirnova "Old Russian Art"

Also in the middle of the 12th century, the palace of the Galician princes was built on the opposite end of the city's Kremlin hill. The story of the Galician-Volhynian chronicle about the reception by the Galician Prince Vladimir of the ambassador, Prince Izyaslav, contains, in the course of the presentation of the negotiations, a few cursory remarks about the nature of this palace. When Vladimir drove the ambassador away from him, “Peter moved out of the princely court, and Vladimir went to the goddess to the holy Savior for Vespers; and when he was at the crossings to the goddess, and then he saw Peter riding and cursed after him ... and then he said, walking on the platform. And after the funeral service, Vladimir went from the goddess, and when he was at that place, on the steps where he scolded Peter, and said: “Ole! Someone hit me on the shoulder "- and can not retreat from that place at all, and wanted to fly (throw), and then they grabbed him by the arms and carried him to the upper room ... ". The ambassador was returned, and the prince's servants in black mourning cloaks came down to meet him; Peter, having risen to the canopy, found Yaroslav sitting "in his father's place", i.e. on the throne. Judging by this story, the Galician Palace was an extensive architectural ensemble, which included the court stone church of the Savior with choirs connected by a passage with the stair tower of the vestibule; their second floor was a kind of throne room, also connected by a passage with the second floor of a wooden palace with its numerous gorenkas.

In the XII century. a new type of temple appears in Kyiv, the Three Saints (Vasilevsky) church in Kyiv and the church, discovered during excavations in the Kudryavts tract in the Kopyrev end of Kyiv, belong to it, both belong to the end of the 12th century. These buildings are small, single-domed temples with four pillars and three apses, and probably with choirs in the western third. But it is characteristic that in these buildings of the end of the 12th century features appear that point to the non-Kiev origin of their architects. The outer shoulder blades of the Church of the Three Hierarchs are complicated by semi-columns, which is reminiscent of the monuments of Smolensk. The church on Kudryavets was built by a Smolensk master: its corner apses are rectangular on the outside, and the blades took the form of complex beam pilasters, known from the Cathedral of the Archangel Michael in Smolensk and the Church of Pyatnitsa in Chernigov. The architecture of Kyiv at the end of the XII century loses its local features; it is possible that the strong influence of the Smolensk architecture was associated with the struggle for the Kyiv throne of the princes of the Smolensk and Chernigov dynasties. It is only known about the interior decoration of these buildings that there were simpler majolica floors and fresco paintings.

But these buildings, in which memories of the architecture of Yaroslav's Kyiv sound, brought to life by the political aspirations of the builder princes, do not change the general course of development of the architecture of the Dnieper region.

In the middle - second half of the XII century. in Kyiv and the Kiev principality, which became the scene of a fierce feudal struggle, the influence of regional architectural schools affected. Prince Vladimir Andrey Bogolyubsky was going to send his Vladimir architects to Kyiv to build a beautiful temple in the great Yaroslavl courtyard; Smolensk architects built a church on Kudryavets; maybe they or the Volyn architects also created a temple in Ovruch. Famous in the architectural history of Kyiv for the construction in 1199 of a stone embankment under the Vydubitsky Monastery, Peter Miloneg, a friend of Prince Rurik Rostislavich, was most likely a Smolensk architect. The regional architectural schools, which grew up on the basis of the Kyiv artistic heritage, seemed to be paying their debt to the impoverished "mother of Russian cities." "Monuments of urban planning and architecture of the Ukrainian SSR", volume 2, pp. 226-227.

Preface. Yu. S. Yaralov... 5
INTRODUCTION P. N. Maksimov... 7

Chapter 1. BYZANTIAN ARCHITECTURE. N. I. Brunov... 16
Introduction... 16
I. Early Byzantine architecture... 23
1. The addition of Byzantine architecture... 23
2. Constantinople architectural school... 27
3. Architecture in the provinces of the empire... 60
II. Middle Byzantine architecture... 77
1. The main features of the Middle Byzantine architecture ... 77
2. Constantinople architectural school in the Middle Byzantine period... 86
3. Eastern Byzantine architectural school in the Middle Byzantine period... 113
4. Greek school of Middle Byzantine architecture... 123
III. Late Byzantine architecture... 143
Conclusion... 158

Chapter 2. BYZANTIAN CONSTRUCTION TECHNOLOGY. Yu. K. Milonov... 161
1. Technical heritage of the Roman Empire... 161
2. Architectural and construction encyclopedia of the Byzantine era... 163
3. Probable calculation methods ... 165
4. Building materials... 170
5. Building structures... 175
6. Design and production of construction works... 182
7. Technical heritage of the building art of the Byzantines... 193

Chapter 3. ARCHITECTURE OF ARMENIA. O. X. Khalpakhchyan... 197
Introduction... 197
I. Architecture IV-VII centuries. ... 199
II. Architecture of the IX-XI centuries. ... 223
III. Architecture XII-XIV centuries. ... 245
IV. Architecture of Cilician Armenia (1080-1375) ... 273
V. Architecture of the XV-XIX centuries. ... 284
Conclusion... 296

Chapter 4. ARCHITECTURE OF GEORGIA. G. N. Chubinashvili... 300
I. Architecture of ancient times (IV-VII centuries) ... 300
1. Socio-economic and political conditions for development ... 300
2. The level of construction equipment ... 301
3. Types of buildings... 302
4. Monuments of IV-VII centuries. ... 324
5. Basic urban planning techniques in the early feudal period ... 325
II. Architecture of the 8th and 9th centuries ... 328
III. Architecture of the 10th and 11th centuries ... 336
IV. Architecture of the 12th and 13th centuries ... 358
V. Architecture of the XIII-XV centuries. ... 366
VI. Architecture of the XVI-XVIII centuries. ... 370

Chapter 5. ARCHITECTURE OF BULGARIA ... 376
Introduction. K. Miyatev... 376
I. Pre-Bulgarian architecture on the territory of Bulgaria. K. Miyatev... 380
II. Architecture of the era of the First Bulgarian Kingdom. K. Miyatev... 387
1. Capitals Pliska and Preslav. Fortresses in Madara and Ohrid... 387
2. Iconic architecture... 391
3. Architecture of the dwelling... 397
III. Architecture of the era of the Second Bulgarian Kingdom. K. Miyatev... 398
1. Fortress and palace architecture... 398
2. Iconic architecture... -
IV. Architecture of the XV-XVIII centuries. G. Kozhukharov... 411
1. Architecture of the dwelling... 411
2. Iconic architecture... 414
Conclusion. K. Miyatev... 417

Chapter 6. ARCHITECTURE OF SERBIA AND MACEDONIA. D Boskovic... 418
Introduction... 418
I. Urban planning, fortress and civil architecture ... 422
II. Iconic architecture... 429
1. Architecture of the early feudal period... 429
2. The period of domination of Byzantium ... 432
3. Rash architectural school... 433
4. Macedonian and Kosovo-Metokhian school... 446
5. Moravian school... 454
6. Frescoes of Serbian churches... 462
Conclusion... 463

Chapter 7. ARCHITECTURE OF MOLDOVA AND WALACHIA. G. Ionescu... 465
Introduction... 465
I. Architecture of the period of early feudalism (X-XIII centuries) ... 467
II. Architecture of the period of strengthening and development of feudalism (XIV - first half of the XV century) ... 470
III. Architecture of the heyday of feudalism (the second half of the 15th century and the 16th century) ... 475
IV. 17th century architecture and the first third of the XVIII ... century. ... 485
Conclusion... 500

Chapter 8. ARCHITECTURE OF THE NORTHERN BLACK SEA REGION. Yu. S. Aseev... 502
I. Architecture of Crimea V-IX centuries... 502
II. Crimean architecture X-XIII centuries. ... 511

Chapter 9. ARCHITECTURE OF THE OLD RUSSIAN STATE (X - EARLY XII century). Yu. S. Aseev and P. N. Maksimov... 510
Introduction... 510
I. Urban planning... 518
II. Defensive architecture... 525
III. Wooden churches... 528
IV. Stone architecture of the late X - first half of the XI centuries. ... 530
V. Stone architecture of the second half of the 11th - early 12th centuries. ... 551
1. Kyiv architecture of the second half of the 11th - early 12th centuries. ... 552
2. Pereyaslav architecture of the end of the 11th century. ... 558
Conclusion... 560

Chapter 10. ARCHITECTURE OF SOUTH AND WESTERN RUSSIA IN THE XII-XIII centuries. Yu. S. Aseev... 562
I. Architecture of the Dnieper region in the XII - early XIII century. ... 562
1. Construction machinery... 563
2. Urban planning... 564
3. Defensive construction... 566
4. Monumental architecture of the Dnieper region in the 30-80s of the XII century. ... 567
5. Monumental architecture of the Dnieper region of the late XII - early XIII centuries. ... 578
II. The architecture of the western regions of ancient Russia in the XII century. ... 584
III. Architecture of the southwestern regions of ancient Russia in the XII-XIII centuries. ... 590

Chapter 11. VLADIMIR-SUZDAL ARCHITECTURE. N. N. Voronin. ... 598
I. Building time of Vladimir Monomakh. ... 598
II. Construction of the time of Yuri Dolgoruky... 600
III. Construction of the time of Andrey Bogolyubsky... 603
IV. Construction of the time of Vsevolod III ... 618
V. Construction of the heirs of Vsevolod III ... 628
Conclusion... 637

Chapter 12. ARCHITECTURE OF NOVGOROD LAND XII - EARLY XIII century. P. N. Maksimov... 640
I. Urban planning and residential buildings ... 640
II. Cult architecture before 1136 ... 641
III. Cult architecture of the second half of the 12th - early 13th centuries. ... 645

CONCLUSION. P. N. Maksimov... 657

APPS... 661
1. Literature... 663
2. Index of architectural monuments at their location. L. G. Dzisko, E. I. Kirichenko... 668
3. Nominal index of architects, sculptors and muralists. L. G. Dzisko, E. I. Kirichenko... 683