Tropical africa territory image. Natural conditions and resources

Primitiveness and modernity are combined here, and instead of one capital - three. The article below discusses in detail the EGP of South Africa, the geography and features of this amazing state.

General information

The state known in the world as the Republic of South Africa, the local population used to call Azania. This name arose during the segregation policy and was used by the indigenous African population as an alternative to the colonial one. In addition to the national name, there are 11 official names of the country, which is associated with a variety of state languages.

The EGP of South Africa is much more profitable than that of many other states on the continent. This is the only African country that is included in. People come here for diamonds and impressions. Each of the nine provinces of South Africa has its own landscape, natural conditions and ethnic composition, which attracts a huge number of tourists. The country has eleven national parks and many resorts.

The presence of three capitals, perhaps, adds to the uniqueness of South Africa. They divide among themselves various state structures. The government of the country is located in Pretoria, so the city is considered the first and main capital. The judicial branch, represented by the Supreme Court, is located in Bloemfontein. Cape Town is home to the parliament building.

EGP South Africa: briefly

The state is located in southern Africa, washed by the Indian and Atlantic oceans. In the northeast, South Africa's neighbors are Swaziland and Mozambique, in the northwest - Namibia, the country shares its northern border with Botswana and Zimbabwe. Not far from the Dragon Mountains is the enclave of the Kingdom of Lesotho.

In terms of area (1,221,912 sq. km), South Africa is in 24th place in the world. It is about five times the size of the UK. The description of the EGP of South Africa will not be complete without a description of the coastline, the total length of which is 2798 km. The mountainous coast of the country is not strongly dissected. In the eastern part is the bay of St. Helena and there are also bays and bays of St. Francis, Falsbay, Algoa, Walker, Dining Room. is the southernmost point of the continent.

Wide access to two oceans plays an important role in the EGP of South Africa. Along the coast of the state there are sea routes from Europe to Southeast Asia and the Far East.

Story

The GWP of South Africa has not always been the same. Its changes were influenced by various historical events in the state. Although the first settlements appeared here at the beginning of our era, the most significant changes in the EGP of South Africa over time occurred from the 17th to the 20th century.

The European population, represented by the Dutch, Germans and French Huguenots, began to populate the territory of South Africa in the 1650s. Prior to that, Bantu, Khoi-Koin, Bushmen, and others lived on these lands. The arrival of the colonists caused a series of wars with the local population.

Since 1795, Great Britain has become the main colonizer. The British government pushes the Boers (Dutch peasants) to the Orange Republic and the Transvaal province, abolishes slavery. In the 19th century, wars began between the Boers and the British.

In 1910, the Union of South Africa was created, consisting of the British colonies. In 1948, the National Party (Boer) wins the elections and establishes an apartheid regime that divides the population into blacks and whites. Apartheid deprives the black population of almost all rights, even citizenship. In 1961, the country became the independent Republic of South Africa and eventually abolished the apartheid regime.

Population

The Republic of South Africa is home to approximately 52 million people. The EGP of South Africa has significantly influenced the ethnic composition of the country's population. Thanks to its favorable location and rich natural resources, the territory of the state attracted Europeans.

Now in South Africa, almost 10% of the population is made up of ethnic white Europeans - Afrikaners and Anglo-Africans, who are descendants of colonial settlers. represent the Zulu, Tsonga, Sotho, Tswana, Xhosa. They are about 80%, the remaining 10% are mulattoes, Indians and Asians. Most Indians are the descendants of workers brought to Africa to grow cane.

The population professes various religious beliefs. Most of the inhabitants are Christians. They support Zionist churches, Pentecostals, Dutch Reformers, Catholics, Methodists. Almost 15% are atheists, only 1% are Muslims.

There are 11 official languages in the republic. The most popular among them are English and Afrikaans. Literacy among men is 87%, among women - 85.5%. In the world, the country ranks 143rd in terms of education.

Natural conditions and resources

All types of landscapes and different climatic zones are represented in the Republic of South Africa: from subtropics to deserts. The Dragon Mountains, located in the eastern part, smoothly turn into a plateau. Monsoon and subtropical forests grow here. In the south are located. On the coast of the Atlantic Ocean, the Namibia desert is located, along the northern bank of the Orange River stretches part of the Kalahari Desert.

There are significant reserves of mineral resources on the territory of the country. Gold, zirconium, chromites, diamonds are mined here. South Africa has reserves of iron, platinum and uranium ores, phosphorites, and coal. The country has deposits of zinc, tin, copper, as well as rare metals such as titanium, antimony and vanadium.

Economy

Features of the EGP of South Africa have become the most important factor for the development of the country's economy. 80% of metallurgical products are produced on the continent, 60% are in the mining industry. South Africa is the most developed country on the mainland, despite this, the unemployment rate is 23%.

Most of the population is employed in the service sector. About 25% of the population works in the industrial sector, 10% is agriculture. The financial sector, telecommunications, and the electric power industry are well developed in South Africa. The country has huge reserves of natural resources; the extraction and export of coal are best developed.

Among the main branches of agriculture are animal husbandry of goats, sheep, birds, cattle), winemaking, forestry, fishing (hake, sea bass, anchovies, moquel, mackerel, cod, etc.), crop production. The republic exports more than 140 types of fruits and vegetables.

The main trading partners are China, the USA, Germany, Great Britain, the Netherlands, India and Switzerland. Among the African economic partners are Mozambique, Nigeria, Zimbabwe.

The country has a well-developed transport system, a favorable tax policy, developed banking and insurance business.

The world's first successful heart transplant was performed in Cape Town by surgeon Christian Barnard in 1967.
The largest depression on Earth is on the Vaal River in South Africa. It was formed as a result of the fall of a giant meteorite.
The Cullinan diamond weighing 621 was found in 1905 in a South African mine. It is the largest gemstone on the planet.

This is the only country in Africa that does not belong to the Third World.
It was here that gasoline was first produced from coal.
About 18,000 native plants grow on the territory of the country and 900 species of birds live.
South Africa is the first country to voluntarily give up its existing nuclear weapons.
The largest number of fossils is found in the Karoo region of South Africa.

Conclusion

The main features of the EGP of South Africa are the compactness of the territory, wide access to the oceans, location next to the sea route connecting Europe with Asia and the Far East. Most of the residents are employed in the service sector. Due to the large reserves of natural resources in South Africa, the extractive industry is well developed. The country's population is only 5% of the total population of Africa, however, the country is the most developed on the continent. Due to its economic position, South Africa has a fairly strong position in the world.

Africa is a part of the world with an area of \u200b\u200bwith islands of 30.3 million km 2, this is the second place after Eurasia, 6% of the entire surface of our planet and 20% of the land.

Geographical position

Africa is located in the Northern and Eastern Hemispheres (most), a small part in the Southern and Western. Like all large fragments of the ancient mainland Gondwana, it has a massive outline, large peninsulas and deep bays are absent. The length of the continent from north to south is 8 thousand km, from west to east - 7.5 thousand km. In the north it is washed by the waters of the Mediterranean Sea, in the northeast by the Red Sea, in the southeast by the Indian Ocean, in the west by the Atlantic Ocean. Africa is separated from Asia by the Suez Canal, from Europe by the Strait of Gibraltar.

Main geographical features

Africa lies on an ancient platform, which determines its flat surface, which in some places is dissected by deep river valleys. On the coast of the mainland there are few lowlands, the northwest is the location of the Atlas Mountains, the northern part, almost completely occupied by the Sahara desert, is the Ahaggar and Tibetsi highlands, the east is the Ethiopian highlands, the southeast is the East African plateau, the extreme south is the Cape and Draconian mountains The highest point in Africa is Mount Kilimanjaro (5895 m, Masai plateau), the lowest is 157 meters below sea level in Lake Assal. Along the Red Sea, in the Ethiopian Highlands and to the mouth of the Zambezi River, the world's largest fault in the earth's crust stretches, which is characterized by frequent seismic activity.

Rivers flow through Africa: Congo (Central Africa), Niger (West Africa), Limpopo, Orange, Zambezi (South Africa), as well as one of the deepest and longest rivers in the world - the Nile (6852 km), flowing from south to north (its sources are on the East African plateau, and it flows, forming a delta, into the Mediterranean Sea). The rivers are high-water only in the equatorial zone, due to the large amount of precipitation there, most of them are characterized by high flow speed, have many rapids and waterfalls. In lithospheric faults filled with water, lakes were formed - Nyasa, Tanganyika, the largest freshwater lake in Africa and the second largest after Lake Superior (North America) - Victoria (its area is 68.8 thousand km 2, length 337 km, max depth - 83 m), the largest salty drainless lake is Chad (its area is 1.35 thousand km 2, located on the southern outskirts of the largest desert in the world, the Sahara).

Due to the location of Africa between two tropical zones, it is characterized by high total solar radiation, which gives the right to call Africa the hottest continent on Earth (the highest temperature on our planet was recorded in 1922 in El Azizia (Libya) - +58 C 0 in the shadow).

On the territory of Africa, such natural zones are distinguished as evergreen equatorial forests (the coast of the Gulf of Guinea, the Congo depression), in the north and south turning into mixed deciduous-evergreen forests, then there is a natural zone of savannahs and light forests, extending to Sudan, East and South Africa, to Sevre and southern Africa savannas are replaced by semi-deserts and deserts (Sahara, Kalahari, Namib). In the southeastern part of Africa there is a small zone of mixed coniferous-deciduous forests, on the slopes of the Atlas Mountains - a zone of hard-leaved evergreen forests and shrubs. The natural zones of mountains and plateaus are subject to the laws of altitudinal zonation.

African countries

The territory of Africa is divided among 62 countries, 54 are independent, sovereign states, 10 are dependent territories belonging to Spain, Portugal, Great Britain and France, the rest are unrecognized, self-proclaimed states - Galmudug, Puntland, Somaliland, the Saharan Arab Democratic Republic (SADR). For a long time, the countries of Asia were foreign colonies of various European states and only by the middle of the last century gained independence. Africa is divided into five regions based on geographic location: North, Central, West, East and South Africa.

List of African countries

Nature

Mountains and plains of Africa

Most of the African continent is a plain. There are mountain systems, uplands and plateaus. They are presented:

the Atlas Mountains in the northwestern part of the continent;
the Tibesti and Ahaggar uplands in the Sahara Desert;
Ethiopian highlands in the eastern part of the mainland;
Dragon Mountains in the south.

The highest point in the country is Mount Kilimanjaro, with a height of 5,895 m, belonging to the East African Plateau in the southeastern part of the mainland ...

Deserts and savannas

The largest desert zone of the African continent is located in the northern part. This is the Sahara desert. On the southwestern side of the continent is another smaller desert, the Namib, and from it, inland to the east, is the Kalahari Desert.

The territory of the savanna occupies the main part of Central Africa. In terms of area, it is much larger than the northern and southern parts of the mainland. The territory is characterized by the presence of pastures typical for savannahs, low shrubs and trees. The height of grassy vegetation varies depending on the amount of precipitation. It can be almost desert savannas or tall grasses, with grass cover from 1 to 5 m in height...

Rivers

On the territory of the African continent is the longest river in the world - the Nile. Its direction of flow is from south to north.

In the list of major water systems of the mainland, Limpopo, Zambezi and the Orange River, as well as the Congo, which flows through the territory of Central Africa.

On the Zambezi River is the famous Victoria Falls, 120 meters high and 1,800 meters wide...

lakes

The list of large lakes of the African continent includes Lake Victoria, which is the second largest freshwater reservoir in the world. Its depth reaches 80 m, and its area is 68,000 square kilometers. Two more large lakes of the continent: Tanganyika and Nyasa. They are located in the faults of the lithospheric plates.

There is Lake Chad in Africa, which is one of the world's largest endorheic relict lakes that have no connection with the oceans ...

Seas and oceans

The African continent is washed by the waters of two oceans at once: the Indian and the Atlantic. Also off its coast are the Red and Mediterranean Seas. From the Atlantic Ocean in the southwestern part of the water form the deep Gulf of Guinea.

Despite the location of the African continent, coastal waters are cool. This is influenced by the cold currents of the Atlantic Ocean: the Canary in the north and the Bengal in the southwest. From the Indian Ocean, the currents are warm. The largest are Mozambique, in the northern waters, and Needle, in the southern ...

Forests of Africa

Forests from the entire territory of the African continent make up a little more than a quarter. Here are subtropical forests growing on the slopes of the Atlas Mountains and the valleys of the ridge. Here you can find holm oak, pistachio, strawberry tree, etc. Coniferous plants grow high in the mountains, represented by Aleppo pine, Atlas cedar, juniper and other types of trees.

Closer to the coast there are cork oak forests, in the tropical area evergreen equatorial plants are common, for example, mahogany, sandalwood, ebony, etc...

Nature, plants and animals of Africa

The vegetation of the equatorial forests is diverse, there are about 1000 species of various tree species: ficus, ceiba, wine tree, olive palm, wine palm, banana palm, tree ferns, sandalwood, mahogany, rubber trees, Liberian coffee tree, etc. . It is home to many species of animals, rodents, birds and insects living right on the trees. On earth live: bush pigs, leopards, African deer - a relative of the okapi giraffe, large apes - gorillas ...

40% of the territory of Africa is occupied by savannas, which are huge steppe areas covered with forbs, low, thorny shrubs, milkweed, and stand-alone trees (tree-like acacias, baobabs).

Here there is the largest accumulation of such large animals as: rhinoceros, giraffe, elephant, hippopotamus, zebra, buffalo, hyena, lion, leopard, cheetah, jackal, crocodile, hyena dog. The most numerous animals of the savannah are such herbivores as: bubal (antelope family), giraffe, impala or black-fifth antelope, various types of gazelles (Thomson, Grant), blue wildebeest, and in some places there are rare jumping antelopes - springboks.

The vegetation of deserts and semi-deserts is characterized by poverty and unpretentiousness, these are small thorny shrubs, separately growing bunches of herbs. In the oases, the unique Erg Chebbi date palm grows, as well as plants that are resistant to drought conditions and the formation of salts. In the Namib Desert, unique velvichia and nara plants grow, the fruits of which feed on porcupines, elephants and other animals of the desert.

Of the animals, various species of antelopes and gazelles live here, adapted to the hot climate and capable of traveling great distances in search of food, many species of rodents, snakes, and turtles. Lizards. Among mammals: spotted hyena, common jackal, maned sheep, Cape hare, Ethiopian hedgehog, gazelle dorcas, saber-horned antelope, Anubis baboon, wild Nubian donkey, cheetah, jackal, fox, mouflon, there are permanently living and migratory birds.

Climatic conditions

Seasons, weather and climate of African countries

The central part of Africa, through which the equator line passes, is in an area of low pressure and receives sufficient moisture, the territories north and south of the equator are in the subequatorial climatic zone, this is a zone of seasonal (monsoonal) moisture and arid desert climate. The extreme north and south are in the subtropical climate zone, the south receives precipitation brought by air masses from the Indian Ocean, the Kalahari Desert is located here, the north has the minimum amount of precipitation due to the formation of a high pressure area and the characteristics of the movement of the trade winds, the largest desert in the world is the Sahara, where the amount Precipitation is minimal, in some areas it does not fall at all ...

Resources

African Natural Resources

In terms of water resources, Africa is considered one of the least prosperous continents in the world. The average annual volume of water is only enough to meet primary needs, but this does not apply to all regions.

Land resources are represented by large areas with fertile lands. Only 20% of all possible land is cultivated. The reason for this is the lack of the proper volume of water, soil erosion, etc.

The forests of Africa are a source of timber, including species of valuable varieties. The countries in which they grow, the raw materials are exported. Resources are misused and ecosystems are slowly being destroyed.

In the bowels of Africa there are deposits of minerals. Among those sent for export: gold, diamonds, uranium, phosphorus, manganese ores. There are significant reserves of oil and natural gas.

Energy-intensive resources are widely represented on the continent, but they are not used due to the lack of proper investments...

Among the developed industrial sectors of the countries of the African continent, one can note:

the mining industry that exports minerals and fuels;
the oil refining industry, distributed mainly in South Africa and North Africa;
chemical industry specializing in the production of mineral fertilizers;
as well as the metallurgical and engineering industries.

The main agricultural products are cocoa beans, coffee, corn, rice and wheat. In the tropical regions of Africa, oil palm is grown.

Fishing is poorly developed and accounts for only 1-2% of the total volume of agriculture. The indicators of animal husbandry are also not high, and the reason for this is the infection of livestock with tsetse flies ...

culture

The peoples of Africa: culture and traditions

About 8,000 peoples and ethnic groups live on the territory of 62 African countries, which in total is about 1.1 billion people. Africa is considered the cradle and ancestral home of human civilization, it was here that the remains of ancient primates (hominids) were found, which, according to scientists, are considered the ancestors of people.

Most of the peoples in Africa may number from several thousand people to several hundred living in one or two villages. 90% of the population are representatives of 120 peoples, their number is more than 1 million people, 2/3 of them are peoples with more than 5 million people, 1/3 - peoples with more than 10 million people (this is 50% of the total population of Africa) - Arabs , Hausa, Fulbe, Yoruba, Igbo, Amhara, Oromo, Rwanda, Malagasy, Zulu...

There are two historical and ethnographic provinces: North African (the predominance of the Indo-European race) and Tropical-African (the majority of the population is the Negroid race), it is divided into such areas as:

West Africa. The peoples who speak Mande (Susu, Maninka, Mende, Wai), Chadian (Hausa), Nilo-Saharan (Songhai, Kanuri, Tubu, Zagawa, Mawa, etc.), Niger-Congo languages (Yoruba, Igbo, Bini, nupe, gbari, igala and idoma, ibibio, efik, kambari, birom and jukun, etc.);
Equatorial Africa. Inhabited by Buanto-speaking peoples: Duala, Fang, Bubi (Fernandese), Mpongwe, Teke, Mboshi, Ngala, Komo, Mongo, Tetela, Cuba, Kongo, Ambundu, Ovimbundu, Chokwe, Luena, Tonga, Pygmies, etc.;
South Africa. Rebellious-speaking peoples, and speaking Khoisan languages: Bushmen and Hottentots;
East Africa. Bantu, Nilotic and Sudanese groups of peoples;
North East Africa. Peoples speaking Ethio-Semitic (Amhara, Tigre, Tigra.), Cushitic (Oromo, Somalis, Sidamo, Agau, Afar, Konso, etc.) and Omotian languages (Ometo, Gimirra, etc.);
Madagascar. Malagasy and Creoles.

In the North African province, the main peoples are considered to be Arabs and Berbers, belonging to the South European minor race, mainly practicing Sunni Islam. There is also an ethno-religious group of Copts, who are direct descendants of the Ancient Egyptians, they are Monophysite Christians.

PECULIARITIES. The specificity of African history is the extreme unevenness of development. If in some territories during the end of the 1st - first half of the 2nd millennium, fully formed states, often very extensive, were formed, then in other lands they continued to live in conditions of tribal relations. Statehood, with the exception of the northern, Mediterranean lands (where it has existed since ancient times), in the Middle Ages extended only to the territory north and partly south of the equator, primarily in the so-called Sudan (the zone between the equator and the Northern Tropic).

A characteristic feature of the African economy was that, throughout the continent, land was not alienated from its owner, even with communal organization. Therefore, the conquered tribes almost did not turn into slavery, but were exploited by the collection of taxes or tribute. Perhaps this was due to the peculiarities of land cultivation in hot climates and the predominance of arid or waterlogged lands, which required careful and lengthy processing of each plot suitable for agriculture. In general, it should be noted that south of the Sahara, very harsh conditions have developed for humans: a mass of wild animals, poisonous insects and reptiles, lush vegetation, ready to stifle every cultural sprout, stupefying heat and drought, excessive abundance of rainfall and floods in other places. Because of the heat, many pathogenic microbes have divorced here. All this predetermined the routine nature of African economic development, which led to a slowdown in social progress.

ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT OF WESTERN AND CENTRAL SUDAN. Agriculture predominated among the occupations of the population. Nomadic pastoralism as the basis of existence was characteristic of only a few tribes in the region. The fact is that tropical Africa was infected with the tsetse fly, a carrier of sleeping sickness, fatal to cattle. Goats, sheep, pigs and camels were less vulnerable.

Agriculture was mainly slash and shift, which was facilitated by the low population density and, consequently, the availability of free land. Periodic showers (1–2 times a year) followed by a dry season (except for the equatorial zone) required irrigation. The soils of the Sahel 1 and savannas are poor in organic matter, are easily depleted (stormy rains wash out mineral salts), and in the dry season the vegetation burns out and does not accumulate humus. Fertile alluvial soils are located only in islands, in river valleys. The lack of pets limited the ability to fertilize the soil with organic matter. The small number of cattle made it impossible to use draft power. All this made it possible to cultivate the soil only manually - with iron-tipped hoes and to fertilize the earth only with ashes from burning vegetation. They did not know the plow and the wheels.

Based on modern knowledge, we can conclude that the predominance of hoe agriculture and the non-use of draft power in tillage was a forced adaptation to natural conditions and did not necessarily indicate the backwardness of agriculture in Tropical Africa. But, nevertheless, it also slowed down the overall development of the population.

The craft developed in communities in which artisans occupied a privileged position and fully provided their communities with the necessary products. Blacksmiths, potters, weavers stood out first of all. Gradually, with the development of cities, trade and the addition of urban centers, an urban craft appeared, serving the court, the army, and urban residents. In the Х1V-XV centuries. in the most developed regions (Western Sudan), associations of artisans of one or related professions arose - a kind of European workshops. But, as in the East, they were not independent and obeyed the authorities.

In some states of Western Sudan in the XV-XVI centuries. elements of manufactory production began to take shape. But the original development of the African handicraft and its organizational forms was delayed, and in many places interrupted by European colonization and the slave trade.

SOCIO-POLITICAL DEVELOPMENT OF THE STATES OF WESTERN AND CENTRAL SUDAN. The population of the Sahel was characterized by an ancient tradition of exchange with the northern nomads - the Berbers. Traded products of agriculture and cattle breeding, salt and gold. The trade was "mute". The merchants did not see each other. The exchange took place in forest clearings, where one side brought their goods and then hid in the forest. Then the other side came, examined what was brought, left their goods of the appropriate value and left. Then the first ones returned and if they were satisfied with the offer, they took it away and the deal was considered completed. Deception was rare (on the part of northern merchants).

The trans-Saharan trade in gold and salt was most developed. Placers of gold were found in the forests of Western Sudan, Upper Senegal, in Ghana, in the Upper Volta basin. There was almost no salt in the Sahel and to the south. It was mined in Mauritania, the oases of the Sahara, the salt lakes of modern Zambia and in the upper reaches of the Niger. There, even houses were built from salt blocks covered with camel skins. Southern tribes of Western Sudan - hausa who bought Saharan salt knew 50 names of its varieties.

It was here, in the north of Western Sudan in the 7th-8th centuries. large shopping centers were formed, around which political associations were then formed.

The most ancient here was the state Ghana or Aukar, the first information about which refers to the VIII century. Ethnic basis - nationality soninke. In the ninth century Ghana's rulers stubbornly fought with their northern neighbors - the Berbers for control of trade routes to the Maghreb. By the beginning of the tenth century Ghana reached its greatest power, which was based on monopoly control over the trade of the entire Western Sudan with the north, which contributed to economic prosperity. However, in the second half of the eleventh century. Sultan of the Almoravid (Moroccan) state Abu Bekr ibn Omar subjugated Ghana, imposed tribute on it and took control of the country's gold mines. The king of Ghana converted to Islam. After 20 years, during the uprising, Abu Bekr was killed and the Moroccans were expelled. But the importance of Ghana was not restored. New monarchies have grown up on its greatly reduced frontiers.

In the XII century. the kingdom was the most active Soso, which in 1203 conquered Ghana and soon subjugated all trade routes in the region. Mali, located in the center of Western Sudan, becomes a dangerous rival to the kingdom of Soso.

Emergence of the state Mali(Manding) refers to the VIII century. Initially, it was located in the Upper Niger. Tribes made up the majority of the population. raspberry. Active trade with Arab merchants contributed to the penetration of Islam into the environment of the ruling elite by the 11th century. The beginning of the economic and political flourishing of Mali dates back to the second half of the 12th century. By the middle of the thirteenth century with a prominent commander and statesman Sundiata almost the entire territory of Soso with gold mining areas and caravan routes was subordinated. A regular exchange is being established with the Maghreb and Egypt. But the expansion of the state territory led to the growth of separatism on the ground. As a result, from the second half of the fourteenth century. Mali weakens and begins to lose some territories.

An active foreign policy had little effect on rural communities. They were dominated by subsistence farming. The presence of artisans in the main specialties in the communities did not cause the need to trade with neighbors. Therefore, local markets, although they existed, did not play a special role.

Foreign trade was conducted primarily in gold, salt, slaves. Mali has achieved a monopoly in the gold trade with North Africa. Sovereigns, aristocracy, service people participated in this trade. Gold was exchanged for handicraft products of the Arabs and, especially, for salt, so necessary that it was exchanged for gold in a ratio of 1: 2 by weight (there was practically no salt in the Sahel and it was delivered from the Sahara). But a lot of gold was mined, up to 4.5-5 tons per year, which fully provided for the nobility and did not require special pressure on the peasants.

The main unit of society was a large patriarchal family. Several families made up the community. There was no equality in the communities. The dominant layer - the elders of patriarchal families, below were the heads of small families, then - ordinary members of the community - free peasants and artisans, even lower - slaves. But slavery was not permanent. In each subsequent generation, they acquired separate rights, up to becoming freedmen, who even held important government posts. 5 days a week, ordinary community members, slaves and freedmen worked together on the land of the patriarchal family, and 2 days worked on individual allotments allocated to them - vegetable gardens. The plots were distributed by the heads of large families - "lords of the earth." Part of the harvest, products from hunting, etc. went in their favor. In fact, these “lords” were leaders with elements of feudal lords. That is, here - a kind of feudal-patriarchal relations. Communities united into clans, the heads of which had their own military detachments of slaves and other dependent people.

The top of the ruling class consisted of noted heads of patriarchal families that were part of the ruling family. The lower group of the ruling stratum were the leaders of subordinate clans and tribes, who, however, retained internal autonomy. But there appeared a military stratum of overseers, chiefs of the slave guard, and freedmen in government positions. They often received land from the rulers, which allows them to see a semblance of the nobility (at the stage of its inception). But this, as elsewhere, led to the growth of separatism and, in the end, to the disintegration of Mali.

Another reason for the collapse of the state was the noted trade in gold. It covered the needs of the nobility and did not encourage them to increase incomes through the development of other elements of the economy. As a result, the wealth from the possession of gold led to stagnation. Mali began to overtake the neighbors.

With the decline of Mali, a state grew up on its eastern borders Songhai(or Gao - by the name of the capital). In the fifteenth century Songhai achieved independence and created its own state in the Middle Niger, all along the same trade routes. But numerous conquests caused uprisings, especially in the conquered lands of Mali, and by the first half of the 16th century. The Songhai was in decline. In the position of the ruling class, in contrast to Mali, a significant role was played by large estates, on which slaves planted on the land worked. But the position of the descendants of slaves (from prisoners of war) softened in each subsequent generation. Significant in the state was the role of cities. Up to 75 thousand people lived in the capital - Gao, and more than 50 people worked in separate weaving workshops in Timbuktu.

To the west, in the Upper Volta basin among the tribes mosi in the eleventh century several state formations were formed with a significant role of slaveholding in the estates, which is similar to the order in Songhai. Some of the noted states existed until the arrival of the French in the 19th century.

In the extreme west of Africa, in the middle and lower reaches of Senegal in the VIII century. formed a state Tekrur. Created from different ethnic groups, it is marked by constant clashes between different tribes, to which in the 9th century. conflicts between supporters of local religions and emerging Muslims increased. This led to a constant change of dynasties.

A vast territory to the west of Lake Chad, inhabited by tribes hausa , in the VIII-X centuries. covered by a network of separate city-states with a significant slave-owning way of life. Slaves were used in crafts and agriculture. Until the sixteenth century political fragmentation reigned in these lands.

In the 8th century a state arose to the east of Lake Chad Kanem, which in the XI-XII centuries. also subjugates some tribes of the Hausa group.

The ancient center of African culture was the coast of the Gulf of Guinea, inhabited by tribes yoruba . Of the states in this territory, the largest was oyo founded in the 9th-10th centuries. At the head was the monarch, limited to the council of the nobility. The latter was the highest administrative and judicial body, passed death sentences, including the ruler himself. Before us is a kind of constitutional monarchy with a highly developed bureaucracy. Oyo was connected by trade with the northern lands and had significant income from this. A highly developed handicraft has developed in the cities and associations such as workshops are known.

To the south of the considered states of Western and Central Sudan in the XIII-XIV centuries. appeared Cameroon and Congo.

Customs. Most of the peoples of Western Sudan did not create their own written language. Some used elements of the Arabic script. Religion was predominantly pagan. Islam truly began to spread from the 13th-14th centuries, and began to reach the rural population from the 16th century. But even in Muslim times, not to mention the earlier ones, monarchs were treated as pagan priests. It was believed that the king, by virtue of his position, controlled nature. The reproduction of subjects, animals and plants in his state depended on his health, the magical rituals performed by him. The king determined the timing of sowing and other work.

Curious observations on the life of Africans were made by Arab travelers. According to Ibn Battuta (XIV century), they, more than any other people, express devotion and respect to their sovereign. For example, as a sign of respect in front of him, they take off their outer clothing and remain in tatters, crawl on their knees, sprinkle sand on their heads and backs, and it’s amazing how the sand does not get into their eyes. He also noted the almost complete absence of thieves and robbers, which made the roads safe. If a white man died among them, then his property was kept by a special trustee from the locals until the arrival of relatives or others from the homeland of the deceased, which was important for merchants. But, the traveler regretted, in the courtyard of the king, girls and women walk with open faces and naked. Many of them eat carrion - the corpses of dogs and donkeys. There are cases of cannibalism. And preference is given to black. White meat is considered immature. In general, the food of the Malians, among whom Battuta was, did not cause delight in him. Even at the ceremonial dinner, he complained, only millet, honey and sour milk were served. Rice is usually preferred. He also wrote in detail about the "friends" of men and women who were married, that is, about fairly free extramarital affairs, and argued how this correlated with the Muslim religiosity of the inhabitants.

ETHIOPIA. In Eastern Sudan, in the northern part of the Abyssinian plateau, there was a kingdom Aksum. Its roots go back to the middle of the 1st millennium BC, when the newcomers from South Arabia brought the Semitic languages to the Nile Valley. This state at the beginning of its history was associated with the Greco-Roman world. Its heyday falls on the 4th century AD, when the power of the Aksumite kings extended not only to most of the Ethiopian lands, but also to the southern Arabian coast (Yemen and southern Hijaz - in the 5th century). Active ties with Byzantium contributed to the spread of Christianity among the upper strata of society around 333. In 510, the Iranians, led by Khosrow, ousted Aksum from Arabia. In the 8th century the beginning of the Arab expansion caused the gradual decline of Aksum. The population was pushed back from the sea and gradually moved to the barren interior lands of the Abyssinian plateau. In the thirteenth century the Solomon dynasty comes to power, which lasted until the revolution of 1974.

The social system of medieval Ethiopia was characterized by the predominance of the feudal system. The peasants who were part of the community were considered the holders of the land, the supreme owner of which was the king - negus. He, and during the period of fragmentation, the rulers of the regions, had the right to land, along with the peasants who sat on it, on the terms of service. There was no serfdom, but landowners could demand that the peasants work for them every fifth day - a kind of corvée. Slavery also existed, but was of an auxiliary nature.

FINDINGS. In the considered part of Tropical Africa, except for Ethiopia, the formation of state formations began approximately in the 8th century BC. Socio-economic relations were characterized by diversity. Depending on local conditions and stages of social development, slave-owning (earlier stage) or early feudal (later stage) relations prevailed. But the presence throughout the region of a significant layer of communal peasants contributed to the development of feudal elements as a leading trend. The considered type of social relations, in general, is closer to the medieval civilizations of the East. But, unlike them, there were no clearly defined social groups - estates here until the 19th century. There was a kind of ingrowth of the tribal system into the state, which made up the specifics of African civilization.

The originality of this civilization, probably (there are different opinions), was caused by the fact that the ruling strata began to stand out here not due to the appearance of an excess product in routinely developing agriculture, but in the process of fighting for income from transit trade, which was most active in Western Sudan. The agricultural population did not need the objects of this trade and did not participate in it. Therefore, tribal-communal orders were preserved in the countryside for a long time, on which the organized power of the tribal aristocracy was imposed in a certain way from above.

The state here was formed without the allocation of social groups and private property. The ruling stratum is not only at first, but for a long time, before the arrival of the Europeans - big families - clans. Their heads became leaders. The servants with them turned out to be relatives who, due to family ties, were not paid for their service with land. Therefore, there was no private ownership of land. The lowest ruling stratum in the communities is the heads of families, who at the same time become, as it were, administrators. Under such conditions, naturally, the separation of the ruling stratum from the bulk of the population, its transformation into a special estate, and even more so into a class, proceeded very slowly and in many places has not been completed to this day. Stagewise, this is a very protracted early stage in the formation of feudalism, which in Europe, for example, was overcome in 100-150 years.

It should be noted that feudalism in the considered part of Africa is not recognized by those researchers who understand by feudalism only the domination of large feudal land ownership. The author of this manual, let me remind you, considers a feudal society to be one that is characterized by the whole complex of socio-political and economic relationships of the Middle Ages (power based on personal domination, existing at the expense of various types of rent from users-peasants sitting on the land). With this understanding, a society can be considered feudal, the life of which is determined by the subjective aspirations of the landowning nobility, who subordinated the objectively existing economic and social laws to their will. The discrepancy between these two factors, the ignorance by the feudal class of these objectively existing laws, ultimately led to the disintegration of the feudal order.

Ethiopia by origin and typologically close to the Middle Eastern model.

The total area of Tropical Africa is more than 20 million km 2, the population is 600 million people. It is also called Black Africa, since the vast majority of the population of the subregion belongs to the equatorial (Negroid) race. But in terms of ethnic composition, individual parts of Tropical Africa differ quite strongly. It is most complex in West and East Africa, where at the junction of different races and linguistic families, the greatest "interlacing" of ethnic and political boundaries arose. The population of Central and South Africa speaks numerous (with dialects up to 600), but closely related languages of the Bantu family (this word means "people"). Swahili is the most widely spoken language. And the population of Madagascar speaks the languages of the Austronesian family. .

There is also much in common in the economy and settlement of the population of the countries of Tropical Africa. Tropical Africa is the most backward part of the developing world, within its borders are 29 least developed countries. Now it is the only major region world, where the main sphere of material production is agriculture.

About half of the rural residents are engaged in natural Agriculture, the rest - low-commodity. Hoe tillage prevails with the almost complete absence of a plow; It is no coincidence that the hoe, as a symbol of agricultural labor, is included in the image of the state emblems of a number of African countries. All major agricultural work is done by women and children. They cultivate root and tuber crops (cassava or cassava, yams, sweet potatoes), from which they make flour, cereals, cereals, flat cakes, as well as millet, copgo, rice, corn, bananas, and vegetables. Animal husbandry is much less developed, including because of the tsetse fly, and if it plays a significant role (Ethiopia, Kenya, Somalia), it is carried out extremely extensively. In the equatorial forests there are tribes and even peoples who still live by hunting, fishing and gathering. In the zone of savannahs and tropical rainforests, the basis of consumer agriculture is the slash-and-burn system of the fallow type.

Against the general background, areas of commercial crop production stand out sharply with a predominance of perennial plantations - cocoa, coffee, peanuts, hevea, oil palm, tea, sisal, spices. Some of these crops are cultivated on plantations, and some - on peasant farms. It is they who primarily determine the monocultural specialization of a number of countries.

According to the main occupation, the majority of the population of Tropical Africa lives in rural areas. The savannahs are dominated by large riverside villages, while the tropical forests are dominated by small villages.

The life of the villagers is closely connected with the subsistence farming they lead. Local traditional beliefs are widespread among them: the cult of ancestors, fetishism, belief in the spirits of nature, magic, witchcraft, and various talismans. Africans believe. that the spirits of the dead remain on earth, that the spirits of the ancestors strictly monitor the deeds of the living and can harm them if any traditional commandment is violated. Christianity and Islam brought from Europe and Asia also became quite widespread in Tropical Africa. .

Tropical Africa is the least industrialized (apart from Oceania) region of the world. Only one fairly large mining area has developed here, the Copper Belt in the Democratic Republic of the Congo and Zambia. This industry also forms several smaller areas, which you already know.

Tropical Africa is the least urbanized region in the world(See Figure 18). Only eight of its countries have millionaire cities, which usually rise like lone giants above numerous provincial towns. Examples of this kind are Dakar in Senegal, Kinshasa in the Democratic Republic of the Congo, Nairobi in Kenya, Luanda in Angola.

Tropical Africa also lags far behind in the development of the transport network. Its pattern is determined by the "penetration lines" isolated from each other, leading from the ports to the hinterland. In many countries there are no railways at all. It is customary to carry small loads on the head, and at a distance of up to 30-40 km.

Finally, in T In tropical Africa, environmental quality is rapidly deteriorating. Desertification, deforestation, depletion of flora and fauna have assumed the most menacing proportions here.

Example. The main area of drought and desertification is the Sahel zone, stretching along the southern borders of the Sahara from Mauritania to Ethiopia across ten countries. In 1968-1974. not a single rain fell here, and the Sahel turned into a scorched earth zone. In the first half and in the middle of the 80s. catastrophic droughts have recurred. They claimed millions of human lives. The number of livestock has been greatly reduced.

What happened in the area came to be called the "Sahelian tragedy". But it is not only nature that is to blame. The onset of the Sahara is facilitated by overgrazing, the destruction of forests, primarily for firewood. .

In some countries of Tropical Africa, measures are being taken to protect flora and fauna, and national parks are being created. First of all, this applies to Kenya, where international tourism in terms of income is second only to coffee exports. . (Creative task 8.)

Africa is a huge continent, the main inhabitants of which are people, which is why it is called "black". Tropical Africa (about 20 million km 2) covers a vast territory of the continent, and divides it with North Africa into two unequal parts. Despite the significance and vastness in tropical Africa, there are the least of this continent, the main occupation of which is agriculture. Some countries are so poor that they do not have railways, and movement on them is carried out only with the help of cars, trucks, while residents move on foot, carrying loads on their heads, sometimes overcoming considerable distances.

Tropical Africa is a collective image. It contains the most paradoxical ideas about this region. These are the humid and tropical deserts of Africa, and huge wide rivers, and wild tribes. For the latter, the main occupation is still fishing and gathering. All this is tropical which would be incomplete without its unique flora and fauna.

Tropical forests occupy a solid territory, which, however, is decreasing every year due to the deforestation of this precious pearl of nature. The reasons are prosaic: the local population needs new territories for arable land, in addition, valuable tree species are found in the forests, the wood of which brings good profits on the market in developed countries.

Twisted with vines, with dense lush vegetation and unique endemic flora and fauna, they shrink under the onslaught of Homo sapiens and turn into tropical deserts. The local population, occupied mainly by arable farming and animal husbandry, does not even think about high technologies - it is not for nothing that the emblems of many countries still contain the image of a hoe as the main tool of labor. All residents of large and small settlements are engaged in agriculture, except for men.

The entire female population, children and the elderly, grow such crops that serve as the main food (sorghum, corn, rice), as well as tubers (cassava, sweet potato), from which they make flour and cereals, bake cakes. In more developed areas, more expensive crops are cultivated for export: coffee, cocoa, which is sold to developed countries both as whole beans and squeezed oil, oil palm, peanuts, as well as spices and sisal. Carpets are woven from the latter, strong ropes, ropes and even clothes are made.

And if it is so difficult to breathe in the humid equatorial forests due to the constant evaporation of large-leaved plants and the mass of water and air moisture, the tropical deserts of Africa are practically devoid of water. The main territory, which eventually turns into a desert, is the Sahel zone, which stretches across the territory of 10 countries. For several years, not a single rain fell there, and deforestation, as well as the natural death of the vegetation cover, led to the fact that this area turned into a practically scorched and cracked barren wasteland. The inhabitants of these places have lost their main means of subsistence, and are forced to move to other places, leaving these territories as zones of ecological disaster.

Tropical Africa is a unique part, which includes a vast territory, unique and original. It is polar different from North Africa. Tropical Africa is still a territory full of secrets and mysteries, this is a place that, once seen, one cannot help but fall in love.