Scientists and travelers of the Middle Ages. Historical and geographical forms of tourism development

Antiquity possessed many knowledge that it ceased to possess. The karmas of the world, which were compiled in the monasteries of the Middle Ages, had little in common with the geography of the earth, they had only very important cities, which were often randomly located on the map, as well as several seas and rivers. Usually, Jerusalem was located in the center of the map. Above was Eden (located in the east, but maps were drawn differently in those days). They rather reflected the opinion of the world as a whole, rather than reflected reality. True, the maps drawn by pilots, merchants, sailors differed, based on their own experience. At that time, people also traveled, and merchants carried goods. Gregory of Tours writes that in the 6th century, many ships arrived in Marseille with "ordinary cargo" from Spain. Merchants opened roads to the Hebrides, Faroe, Shetland, the islands, to Iceland, and some reached India and China. Embassies also traveled from country to country, but how long were their roads? We know about the embassies of the Caliph of Cordoba to the Volga Bulgaria, Khazaria and the Scandinavian lands, about the embassy of Charlemagne to Caliph Harun al Rashid in the city of Baghdad.

The Vikings made unparalleled daring voyages to Greenland and Iceland, to North America and North Africa. Unfortunately, people have already forgotten about most of these trips. Archaeologists and modern historians already in our time find or dig up the remains of settlements in places where they should not have been, and again tell the world about it.

In the era of the developed Middle Ages, travel became longer and much larger. Maps of sea coasts appeared in the 12th-13th centuries, they accurately preserved the scale of distances. And they were compiled for the Black Sea, the shores of the Atlantic and the Mediterranean. The geographical image of the land was called “mappa”, and the image with distances was called “map”. Itineraria (descriptions of the path, which indicated the time and the place to which it was required to reach, the exact paths from city to city, parking places, rivers, bridges, and much more) served as a guide for moving around the land. At this time, the Europeans finally learned the Arabic names of the cities, which were invented in the early Middle Ages. The Arabs described a lot of European and Eastern countries. Europeans also began to reread Eastern treatises on geography.

In the 12th-14th centuries, the boundaries of the world for a European expanded to Japan, China, one of the important roles was given to the traveler Marco Polo to China and Mongolia. At this time, the French monks (missionaries and ambassadors of Rubruk and Carpinia) reached Mongolia, coming to the great khan in his capital Karakorum. Spanish and Portuguese sailors began to enter the Atlantic Ocean already in the 14th century. In the same century, the Canary Islands were discovered. Overseas expansion into Portugal began in the 15th century, followed by Spain, and the great geographical discoveries. At the end of the 15th century, almost the entire African continent along the coast was already known to Europe, as well as America was discovered, and the way to India was found, bypassing Africa. Acquainted with the islands of Oceania at the beginning of the 15th century. Magellan reached the south of America, then he crossed the Pacific Ocean. Magellan's satellites made the first ever circumnavigation of the world when he died in the Philippines. 40s 17th century Australia opened, and the globe in general terms became known to man. At the same time, the globe was invented, and maps became more accurate and updated.

Travel has always attracted people, but before they were not only interesting, but also extremely difficult. The territories were not explored, and, setting off on a journey, everyone became an explorer. Which travelers are the most famous and what exactly did each of them discover?

James Cook

The famous Englishman was one of the best cartographers of the eighteenth century. He was born in the north of England and by the age of thirteen he began to work with his father. But the boy was unable to trade, so he decided to take up navigation. In those days, all the famous travelers of the world went to distant countries on ships. James became interested in maritime affairs and moved up the career ladder so quickly that he was offered to become a captain. He refused and went to the Royal Navy. Already in 1757, the talented Cook began to manage the ship himself. His first achievement was the drawing up of the fairway of the St. Lawrence River. He discovered in himself the talent of a navigator and cartographer. In the 1760s he explored Newfoundland, which attracted the attention of the Royal Society and the Admiralty. He was assigned to travel across the Pacific Ocean, where he reached the shores of New Zealand. In 1770, he did something that other famous travelers had not achieved before - he discovered a new continent. In 1771, Cook returned to England as the famous pioneer of Australia. His last journey was an expedition in search of a passage connecting the Atlantic and Pacific oceans. Today, even schoolchildren know the sad fate of Cook, who was killed by cannibal natives.

Christopher Columbus

Famous travelers and their discoveries have always had a significant impact on the course of history, but few have been as famous as this man. Columbus became a national hero of Spain, decisively expanding the map of the country. Christopher was born in 1451. The boy quickly achieved success because he was diligent and studied well. Already at the age of 14 he went to sea. In 1479, he met his love and began life in Portugal, but after the tragic death of his wife, he went with his son to Spain. Having received the support of the Spanish king, he went on an expedition, the purpose of which was to find a way to Asia. Three ships sailed from the coast of Spain to the west. In October 1492 they reached the Bahamas. This is how America was discovered. Christopher mistakenly decided to call the locals Indians, believing that he had reached India. His report changed history: the two new continents and many islands discovered by Columbus became the main travel destination for the colonialists in the next few centuries.

Vasco da Gama

Portugal's most famous traveler was born in Sines on September 29, 1460. From a young age, he worked in the Navy and became famous as a confident and fearless captain. In 1495, King Manuel came to power in Portugal, who dreamed of developing trade with India. For this, a sea route was needed, in search of which Vasco da Gama had to go. There were also more famous sailors and travelers in the country, but for some reason the king chose him. In 1497, four ships sailed south, rounded and sailed to Mozambique. I had to stay there for a month - half of the team had scurvy by that time. After a break, Vasco da Gama reached Calcutta. In India, he established trade relations for three months, and a year later he returned to Portugal, where he became a national hero. The opening of the sea route, which made it possible to get to Calcutta past the east coast of Africa, was his main achievement.

Nikolay Miklukho-Maclay

Famous Russian travelers also made many important discoveries. For example, the same Nikolai Mikhlukho-Maclay, who was born in 1864 in the Novgorod province. He could not graduate from St. Petersburg University, as he was expelled for participating in student demonstrations. To continue his education, Nikolai went to Germany, where he met Haeckel, a naturalist who invited Miklouho-Maclay to his scientific expedition. So the world of wanderings opened up for him. His whole life was devoted to travel and scientific work. Nikolai lived in Sicily, in Australia, studied New Guinea, implementing the project of the Russian Geographical Society, visited Indonesia, the Philippines, the Malay Peninsula and Oceania. In 1886, the naturalist returned to Russia and proposed to the emperor to establish a Russian colony across the ocean. But the project with New Guinea did not receive royal support, and Miklouho-Maclay fell seriously ill and soon died, without completing his work on a travel book.

Ferdinand Magellan

Many famous navigators and travelers lived in the era of the Great Magellan is no exception. In 1480 he was born in Portugal, in the city of Sabrosa. Having gone to serve at court (at that time he was only 12 years old), he learned about the confrontation between his native country and Spain, about traveling to the East Indies and trade routes. So he first became interested in the sea. In 1505, Fernand got on a ship. Seven years after that, he plied the sea, participated in expeditions to India and Africa. In 1513, Magellan went to Morocco, where he was wounded in battle. But this did not curb the craving for travel - he planned an expedition for spices. The king rejected his request, and Magellan went to Spain, where he received all the necessary support. Thus began his world tour. Fernand thought that from the west the route to India might be shorter. He crossed the Atlantic Ocean, reached South America and discovered the strait, which would later be named after him. became the first European to see the Pacific Ocean. On it, he reached the Philippines and almost reached the goal - the Moluccas, but died in battle with local tribes, wounded by a poisonous arrow. However, his journey opened up a new ocean for Europe and the realization that the planet is much larger than scientists had previously thought.

Roald Amundsen

The Norwegian was born at the very end of an era in which many famous travelers became famous. Amundsen was the last of the navigators who tried to find undiscovered lands. From childhood, he was distinguished by perseverance and self-confidence, which allowed him to conquer the South Geographic Pole. The beginning of the journey is connected with 1893, when the boy left the university and got a job as a sailor. In 1896 he became a navigator, and the following year he went on his first expedition to Antarctica. The ship was lost in the ice, the crew suffered from scurvy, but Amundsen did not give up. He took command, cured the people, remembering his medical background, and brought the ship back to Europe. After becoming a captain, in 1903 he went in search of the Northwest Passage off Canada. Famous travelers before him had never done anything like this - in two years the team covered the path from the east of the American mainland to its west. Amundsen became known to the whole world. The next expedition was a two-month trip to the South Plus, and the last venture was the search for Nobile, during which he went missing.

David Livingston

Many famous travelers are connected with seafaring. he became a land explorer, namely the African continent. The famous Scot was born in March 1813. At the age of 20, he decided to become a missionary, met Robert Moffett and wished to go to African villages. In 1841, he came to Kuruman, where he taught local people how to farm, served as a doctor, and taught literacy. There he learned the Bechuan language, which helped him in his travels in Africa. Livingston studied in detail the life and customs of the locals, wrote several books about them and went on an expedition in search of the sources of the Nile, in which he fell ill and died of a fever.

Amerigo Vespucci

The most famous travelers in the world were most often from Spain or Portugal. Amerigo Vespucci was born in Italy and became one of the famous Florentines. He received a good education and trained as a financier. From 1490 he worked in Seville, in the Medici trade mission. His life was connected with sea travel, for example, he sponsored the second expedition of Columbus. Christopher inspired him with the idea of trying himself as a traveler, and already in 1499 Vespucci went to Suriname. The purpose of the voyage was to study the coastline. There he opened a settlement called Venezuela - little Venice. In 1500 he returned home with 200 slaves. In 1501 and 1503 Amerigo repeated his travels, acting not only as a navigator, but also as a cartographer. He discovered the bay of Rio de Janeiro, the name of which he gave himself. Since 1505, he served the king of Castile and did not participate in campaigns, only equipped other people's expeditions.

Francis Drake

Many famous travelers and their discoveries have benefited humanity. But among them there are those who left behind a bad memory, since their names were associated with rather cruel events. An English Protestant, who had sailed on a ship from the age of twelve, was no exception. He captured local residents in the Caribbean, selling them into slavery to the Spaniards, attacked ships and fought with Catholics. Perhaps no one could equal Drake in terms of the number of captured foreign ships. His campaigns were sponsored by the Queen of England. In 1577 he went to South America to defeat the Spanish settlements. During the journey, he found Tierra del Fuego and the strait, which was later named after him. Rounding Argentina, Drake plundered the port of Valparaiso and two Spanish ships. When he reached California, he met the natives, who presented the British with gifts of tobacco and bird feathers. Drake crossed the Indian Ocean and returned to Plymouth, becoming the first British citizen to circumnavigate the world. He was admitted to the House of Commons and awarded the title of Sir. In 1595 he died in the last campaign in the Caribbean.

Afanasy Nikitin

Few famous travelers in Russia have achieved the same heights as this native of Tver. Afanasy Nikitin became the first European to visit India. He made a trip to the Portuguese colonizers and wrote "Journey Beyond the Three Seas" - the most valuable literary and historical monument. The success of the expedition was ensured by the merchant's career: Athanasius knew several languages and knew how to negotiate with people. On his journey, he visited Baku, lived in Persia for about two years and reached India by ship. After visiting several cities in an exotic country, he went to Parvat, where he stayed for a year and a half. After the province of Raichur, he headed to Russia, paving the route through the Arabian and Somali Peninsulas. However, Afanasy Nikitin never made it home, because he fell ill and died near Smolensk, but his notes survived and provided the merchant with world fame.

Until the middle of the XV century. the discoveries of the Greeks were forgotten, and the "center of geographical science" shifted to the East. The leading role in geographical discoveries passed to the Arabs. These are scientists and travelers - Ibn Sina, Biruni, Idrisi, Ibn Battuta. Important geographical discoveries in Iceland, Greenland and North America were made by the Normans, as well as the Novgorodians, who reached Svalbard and the mouth of the Ob.
Venetian merchant Marco Polo discovered East Asia for Europeans. And Afanasy Nikitin, who sailed the Caspian, Black and Arabian seas and reached India, described the nature and life of this country.
In the XVII-XVIII centuries, the search for new lands and routes was carried out on a state scale. The fixation, mapping and generalization of the acquired knowledge have become of great importance. The search for the southern mainland ended with the discovery of Australia and Oceania. J. Cook made three round-the-world expeditions, discovering Hawaii and the Great Barrier Reef. Russian pioneers advanced to Siberia to the Far East.
15 CENTURY Afanasy Nikitin - robbed. Across the Caspian to Derbent, I spent a year. Debts. Went south to Baku. In the spring of 1469, Athanasius Nikitin reached Hormuz, a large port at the entrance from the Arabian Sea to the Persian Gulf, where trade routes from Asia Minor, Egypt, India and China crossed. In April 1471, Afanasy Nikitin went to India under the name of Haji Yusuf. After spending more than three years in India, Afanasy Nikitin set off on his return trip.
Afanasy Nikitin was the first Russian to describe South and Southeast Asia from Iran to China. He was the first among Europeans 30 years before Vasco da Gama reached India.
16 CENTURY Ermak - Chusovaya, crossing the Urals, Tagil, Tura. In October 1582, Yermak's ships reached the Irtysh River and anchored in Tobolsk. Tatars, Isker. Along the Irtysh. From the beginning of the spring of 1585, the detachments of Khan Karachi kept Isker under siege for a whole month. Yermak, under the cover of night, with a detachment of Cossacks, made his way to the headquarters of Karachi and defeated it. The khan himself managed to avoid death, but his troops retreated from Isker.
Tatars spread a rumor that a caravan from Bukhara had been detained at the mouth of the Vagai River. In 1585, near the city of Vagai, the Cossacks stopped for the night and were attacked by numerous detachments of the Tatars. With heavy losses, the Cossacks managed to break out of the encirclement and get to Isker on ships. But in this battle Ermak died. Ermak's Siberian campaign was a harbinger of numerous expeditions. A few years later, Russian troops took Pelym, conquered the Pelym principality and defeated the remnants of the Siberian Khanate. Then the routes from Vishera to Lozva were mastered, more convenient and easier than Tagil. The Ural Range was finally conquered. Explorers moved to Siberia, who were waiting for new discoveries. Later, these lands began to be filled with military people, industrialists and peasant settlers.
16 CENTURY Magellan opened the western route to Asia and the Spice Islands. This first-ever circumnavigation of the world proved the correctness of the hypothesis about the sphericity of the Earth and the inseparability of the oceans washing the land.
15 CENTURY Vasco da Gama - the sea route from Western Europe to India and East Asia was opened. Portugal became a colonial empire stretching from Gibraltar to the Straits of Malacca.
13 CENTURY Marco Polo - Venetian traveler. Born in the family of the Venetian merchant Niccolo Polo. In 1260, Niccolo and Maffeo Polo, Marco's father and uncle, went to Beijing, which Kublai Khan, the grandson of Genghis Khan, made the capital of his possessions. Khubilai made them promise to return to China and bring some Christian monks with him. In 1271 the brothers set out on a long journey to the east, taking Marco with them. The expedition reached Beijing in 1275 and was warmly welcomed by Khubilai. Marco was a diligent young man and had a gift for languages. While his father and uncle were engaged in trade, he studied the Mongolian language. Khubilai, who usually brought talented foreigners closer to the court, hired Marco into the civil service. Soon Marco became a member of the secret council, and the emperor gave him several instructions. One of them was to draw up a report on the situation in Yunnan and Burma after the latter was conquered by the Mongols in 1287, the other was to buy a tooth of the Buddha in Ceylon. Marco subsequently became the prefect of Yangzhou. For 15 years of service, Marco studied China, collected a lot of information about India and Japan. Marco managed to get out of China only in 1292. Marco Polo died in Venice on January 8, 1324.
Abu Abdallah Mohammed Ibn Battuta is a famous Arab traveler and itinerant merchant who traveled all over the Islamic world - from Bulgar to Mombasa, from Timbuktu to China. During a nine-month stay in the Maldives, he married the daughter of a local Sultan
Pilgrimages to Mecca, Journeys to Yemen and East Africa Through Asia Minor To the Golden Horde and Constantinople To India and China To Mali.
In total, Ibn Battuta covered 120,700 km, which is beyond the power of many researchers, even those who use modern technical innovations. Ibn Battuta described all the visited countries as completely as possible. For the history of Russia, the description of the Golden Horde of the times of Khan Uzbek is of the greatest importance.
16 CENTURY Willem Barents - Dutch navigator and explorer. Leader of three Arctic expeditions.
First expedition - In 1594, the expedition with his participation left Amsterdam. The goal was to find the Northeast Passage to Asia. On July 10, Barents reached the coast of Novaya Zemlya, after which it turned north, but upon reaching the extreme northern point of the archipelago, it was forced to turn back.
The second expedition - An expedition of seven ships, which began the following year again under the command of Barents, made an attempt to pass between the coast of Siberia and the island of Vaygach. The expedition reached the strait too late - the strait was almost completely covered with ice.
The third expedition - May 16, 1596 launched the third expedition of the Barents to find the northern route to Asia. At the same time, he managed to discover Bear Island (Spitsbergen archipelago). Expedition of Barents, rounding Novaya Zemlya, reached the Kara Sea. Fearing death among the ice, the expedition landed on the shore and arranged a winter quarters. In the winter of 1597, while wintering, Barents fell ill with scurvy. Although by the beginning of June 1597 the Kara Sea was free of ice, the bay where the ship was anchored was still covered with ice. The winterers did not wait for the release of the ship - the northern summer is too short - and on June 14, 1597 they made a desperate attempt to get to the Kola Peninsula on 2 boats. Although the expedition reached the peninsula, Barents died on June 20 during this journey.
This expedition was the last Dutch attempt to find a northern route to Asia. Willem Barents was the first European to winter in the Arctic. The Barents Sea is named after him.

Travelers and pioneers era Middle Ages. Until the middle of the XV century. the discoveries of the Greeks were forgotten, and the "center of geographical science" shifted to the East. The leading role in geographical discoveries passed to the Arabs.

Travelers and pioneers era Middle Ages. Until the middle of the XV century. the discoveries of the Greeks were forgotten, and the "center of geographical science" shifted to the East. B. Merit of the Normans as travelers-navigators.

Travelers and pioneers era Middle Ages. Until the middle of the XV century. the discoveries of the Greeks were forgotten, and the "center of geographical science" shifted to the East. AT.

Travelers and pioneers era Middle Ages. Until the middle of the XV century. the discoveries of the Greeks were forgotten, and the "center of geographical science" shifted to the East.

Tourism era Middle Ages.
Majority travelers were missionaries, priests and pilgrims traveling to holy places.

AT era Middle Ages the wise men become the patrons of wanderers and travelers: Balthazar, Melchior and Caspar, who made an unprecedented, truly sacred journey in their time, who came to worship
They often help travelers money.

Perhaps in the entire history of mankind there would not have been a time when the importance of the church and religion would have been so great as in era middle ages. During the Middle Ages, the final Christianization of Europe took place.

European archeology arose as a science caused by the needs era Enlightenment, its relationship to the past.
Among these pioneers there were such bright and colorful figures as V. Poyarkov, E. Khabarov, S. Dezhnev and many others.

The role of the Normans in the early Middle Ages. Normans - participants in sea campaigns on the territory of the Franks at the end of the VIII - the middle of the XI century. Today we call them Vikings; contemporaries of the Franks called them Normans.

Travelers others
So, for example, if in era Paleolithic (40 - 15 thousand years ago) about 2 - 3 million people lived on Earth, then in era Neolithic (10 - 3 thousand years ago), the population of the Earth increased by more than 10 times.

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If in the period of antiquity travelers were officials and wealthy people who had official opportunities or personal means for traveling, then people of all classes and different incomes participated in pilgrimages. Along with the pilgrims, merchants and goods moved, trade relations and markets were established during the journey.

· medieval pilgrimage

In the Middle Ages, the religious factor became the main incentive for travel - the worship of the shrines of Christianity, Islam, Buddhism, a culture of religious travel was formed. For the Middle Ages, the main interest of Christian piety centers around three central moments: pilgrimage, mass and penance.

The medieval pilgrimage was a polymotivational phenomenon. The motivation for the pilgrimage varied. Among the motives approved by the church were gratitude (given vow) for recovery, avoidance of danger, victory in battle. The reason could be a dream or the appearance of a saint. Many pilgrims were destined for pilgrimage by their parents, according to a vow given when the future pilgrim was still lying in the cradle

Beginning in the 9th century, the pilgrimage began to be imposed in the form of a public punishment and a means of expiation. It was believed that the sinner was condemned to wander. Gradually, mitigation began to be allowed: a noble gentleman could replace himself with a servant or mercenary. Even secular guilds of professional hired pilgrims were formed, which soon multiplied greatly, since this peculiar trade turned out to be very profitable.

But in addition to religious feelings, a certain part of the pilgrims were possessed by completely worldly desires, which completely coincided with those motives that are inherent in modern foreign tourism. In practice, the pilgrimage was the only opportunity, leaving the daily routine, to see the world in that era, since, having received the status of a pilgrim, the traveler found himself under the special protection of the church and secular laws did not apply to him.

The privileges of the pilgrim were very great - he could not be brought to a secular court, his financial obligations were suspended for the duration of the pilgrimage, the property was under the protection of the church, etc. Helping pilgrims was considered a great merit before the church, so pilgrims could find shelter in almost any house, not to mention the monasteries, instead of paying them they were asked to pray for their hosts in a holy place.

Often under the guise of a pilgrimage, merchants and just business trips, wanderings of inquisitive travelers were hidden. Many rich people visited holy places simply out of vanity, boasting of adventures that were not always of a religious nature upon their return.

The pilgrimage was made throughout the Middle Ages, but the intensity and geography of trips changed markedly in different periods.

· Crusades????

· Educational travel

In the era of the mature Middle Ages, the role of oases of culture, learning and educational centers, which was previously performed by monasteries, passes to universities. Universities awarded degrees independently. Neither ecclesiastical nor secular authorities interfered in this process. This guaranteed the freedom of scientific and pedagogical activity, which neither the learned Byzantium nor the wise Arab East knew. In addition, in Europe, a degree removed social differences.

According to researchers, "the earliest university in medieval Europe" was Salerno. The first European university is traditionally considered the University of Bologna, which arose on the basis of the Bologna Law School. The year of its foundation is called 1088. The founder is considered to be the famous jurist of that time, Irnerius, who for the first time began to read Roman law in a wide audience. Lectures by Irnerius proved to be very popular and students from all over Europe began to flock to him. But the real growth in the significance of the Bologna school begins in the middle of the 12th century. In 1158, the German emperor Frederick I Barbarossa captured northern Italy and introduced a new order of government there. In gratitude for the help from the Bologna professors, in the same year he issued a law according to which:

1. took under his protection those who "travel for the sake of scientific pursuits, especially teachers of divine and sacred law";

2. Bologna schoolchildren were exempted from mutual responsibility in paying taxes and from subordination to the city courts of Bologna.

University of Paris - "Sorbonne", arises in 1200. In the 13th century, Oxford University also arises.

In the 13th century, a host of other universities arose:

By 1500 there were already 80 universities in Europe.

With the advent of universities in Europe, the tradition of educational travel was renewed.

Many students often moved from one university to another, looking for an interesting course or learning about the lectures of the famous professor. Wandering students were called vagants.

The Vagants are a group of Latin-speaking students from different countries.

A new type of traveler and traveler is emerging: itinerant students who leave their homelands in order to pursue an education. With the growth in the number of universities, this mobility has increased significantly and has become widespread.

· Medical travel

In the early Middle Ages, most of the ancient healing resorts were destroyed and abandoned, but gradually they began to revive under the auspices of monasteries. The best healing places pass into the possession of Catholic monasteries. One of the first medieval resorts was Aachen, in Germany, a favorite vacation spot of Emperor Charlemagne already in the 8th century.

Superstitious Christians, like the ancient Roman, make sacrifices to the healing waters. In 1556, in Piedmont, a law forbids local residents to give divine honors to springs revered as sacred.

Only from the 13th-14th centuries, resorts appeared, supported by secular authorities - Karlsbad, Baden-Baden. By the end of the Middle Ages, the waters had become, as in Rome, a place of pleasure. Especially willingly visited in the Middle Ages the waters of Baden, called the "global garden of voluptuousness."

Similar information.

Travelers of the Middle Ages. Born March 4, 1394 in Porto. The third son of King Joan I (founder of the Avis dynasty) and his wife Philippa of Lancaster (daughter of John of Gaunt). Henry (Enrique) the Navigator - a Portuguese prince, nicknamed the Navigator. For 40 years, he equipped and sent numerous sea expeditions to explore the Atlantic coast of Africa, creating the prerequisites for the formation of a powerful colonial empire of Portugal. Heinrich is a navigator.

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"Art of the Middle Ages" - Buildings are round or octagonal in plan. Norway. Chapels. Basilicas. Basilica. In 476, the Western Roman Empire fell under the onslaught of the barbarians. Perception of the soul and body as two opposite principles. The bull is the symbol of St. Chapel of Charles I in Aachen, 788-805. Bible - from the Greek "books". THE BIBLE - THE MAIN BOOK OF A CHRISTIAN In the Middle Ages, almost the only one.

"Culture of the Middle Ages" - What subjects were studied in the Middle Ages? What is the characteristic feature of each style? What architectural styles existed in the Middle Ages in Europe? Division into groups. What are the main trends in literature during this period? What worried medieval poets and artists? Art. Was the "dark Middle Ages" "bright"?

“Culture of the Middle Ages” - - the castle is a product of the feudal era, a period of fragmentation, wars, raids. The theatrical action was called - mystery. Culture of the Middle Ages. Another genre is Liturgical drama: from the birth to the crucifixion of Christ. Features of the sculpture of the Middle Ages. Leaning Tower of Pisa. cultural point of view. Gothic style in architecture.

"Travelers" - The Vikings called the open land Vinland - "rich". The first travelers English navigator. James Cook. Robots are controlled from Earth, and people don't have to risk their lives. Subsequently, Polo was elevated to the rank of a member of the Great Council in Venice. Was Columbus the first to land in the Americas? *Not.