Sustainability of attention depends on. Development of auditory attention

The nature and essence of attention cause serious controversy in psychological science. Some experts even doubt the existence of attention as a special independent function, they consider it only a side or moment of other mental processes. But the discovery of attention neurons, novelty detector cells, the study of the functioning of the reticular formation and especially the formation of dominants, which are the physiological correlate of attention, allows us to assert that it is a mental formation, whose structures are anatomically and physiologically relatively independent of sensory processes. The complexity of explaining the phenomenon of attention is due to the fact that it is not found in a “pure” form; functionally, it is always “attention to something”. Therefore, attention should be considered as a psychophysiological process, a state that characterizes the dynamic features of cognitive processes.

When we talk about attention, we also mean concentration, depth into activity. The more difficult the task facing a person, the more intense, intense, deeper his attention will obviously be, and, conversely, the easier the task, the less deep his attention is (the function of selecting significant influences).

At the same time, as has been shown, concentration is associated with distraction from everything extraneous. The more we are focused on solving this problem, the less we notice everything around, or rather, we notice what is happening, but indistinctly.

Thus, with an attentive attitude to any object, it (this object) turns out to be in the center of our consciousness, everything else is perceived at this moment weakly, it turns out, figuratively speaking, on the periphery of the perceived (the function of ignoring insignificant influences). Thanks to this, the reflection becomes clear, distinct, ideas and thoughts are held in until the activity is completed, until its goal is achieved. Thus, attention provides another function - the control and regulation of activities.

Attention is usually expressed in facial expressions, in posture, in movements. It is easy to distinguish an attentive listener from an inattentive one. But sometimes attention is directed not to the surrounding objects, but to the thoughts and images that are in the mind of a person. In this case, we speak of intellectual attention, which is somewhat different from sensory (external) attention. It should also be noted that in some cases, when a person shows an increased concentration on physical actions, it makes sense to talk about motor attention. All this indicates that attention does not have its own cognitive content and only serves the activity of other cognitive processes.

Among modern domestic psychologists, P. Ya. Galperin proposed an original interpretation of attention.

The main provisions of his concept can be reduced to the following:

• Attention is one of the moments of orienting-research activity and is a psychological action aimed at the content of an image, thought, another phenomenon that is currently in the human psyche;
• In its function, attention represents control over this content. In every human action there is an indicative, performing and control part. This latter is represented by attention as such;
• Unlike actions aimed at the production of a particular product, the activity of control, or attention, does not have a separate, special result;
• From the point of view of attention as an activity of mental control, all specific acts of attention - both voluntary and involuntary - are the result of the formation of new mental actions.

It is quite obvious that these theories are based on real facts, however, by absolutizing the selected phenomena, they ignore all other manifestations. It is possible to correctly understand the phenomenon of attention only in the totality of all its properties. At present, the following definition is generally accepted.

Attention- this is the orientation and concentration of consciousness on some real or ideal object, suggesting an increase in the level of sensory, intellectual or motor activity of the individual.

Voluntary and involuntary attention

According to their origin and methods of implementation, two main types of attention are usually distinguished: involuntary and voluntary. involuntary attention, the most simple and genetically original, is also called passive, forced, since it arises and is maintained regardless of the goals facing a person. Activity captures a person in these cases by itself, because of its fascination, entertainment or surprise. A person involuntarily surrenders to the objects that affect him, the phenomena of the activity performed. As soon as we hear interesting news on the radio, we involuntarily get distracted from work and listen. The emergence of involuntary attention is associated with various physical, psychophysiological and mental causes. These reasons are closely related to each other.

Unlike involuntary voluntary attention driven by conscious purpose. They are closely connected with the will of a person and developed as a result of labor efforts, therefore it is also called strong-willed, active, deliberate. Having made a decision to engage in some activity, we carry out this decision, consciously directing our attention even to what we are not interested in at the moment, but what we consider it necessary to do. The main function of voluntary attention is the active regulation of the course of mental processes.

The reasons for voluntary attention are not biological in origin, but social: it does not mature in the body, but is formed in the child during his communication with adults. It should also be noted the close connection of voluntary attention with speech.

A number of psychologists single out another type of attention, which, like arbitrary, is purposeful and requires initial volitional efforts, but then the person, as it were, “enters” the work: the content and process of the activity become interesting and significant, and not just its result. Such attention was called N.F. Dobrynin post-voluntary. Imagine a person who is solving a difficult problem. Initially, she may not be attracted to him at all. He only takes it on because it needs to be done. The task is difficult and at first it is not solved in any way, the person is distracted all the time: he either looks out the window, or listens to the noise in the corridor, or aimlessly moves the pen over the paper. He has to bring himself back to the solution of the problem by constant effort. But now the decision is begun; the correct move is outlined more and more clearly, the task becomes more and more understandable. It turns out to be difficult, but possible to solve. A person becomes more and more interested in it, it captures him more and more. He ceases to be distracted: the task has become interesting for him. Attention from arbitrary became as if involuntary.

However, unlike truly involuntary attention, postvoluntary attention remains associated with conscious goals and is supported by conscious interests. At the same time, it is also dissimilar to voluntary attention, since there is no or almost no volitional effort here.

Basic properties of attention

As already mentioned, attention means the connection of consciousness with a certain object, its focus on it. The features of this concentration are determined by the main properties of attention: stability, concentration, distribution, switching and volume of attention.

The amount of attention is determined by the number of "simultaneously" (within 0.1 sec) perceived objects. The distribution of attention is characterized by the possibility of simultaneous successful performance of several different types of activities (actions). Switching is determined by the speed of arbitrary transfer of attention from one object to another. The concentration of attention is expressed in the degree of its concentration on the object, and stability is determined by the duration of concentration of attention on the object.

Sustainability of attention

Sustainability- this is a temporal characteristic of attention, the duration of attracting attention to the same object.

Stability can be determined by peripheral and central factors. Experimental studies have shown that attention is subject to periodic involuntary fluctuations. The periods of such oscillations, in particular according to N. Lange, are usually equal to 2-3 s, reaching a maximum of 12 s. If you listen to the ticking of the clock and try to focus on it, then the person will either hear or not hear them. Oscillations are of a different nature when observing more complex figures - in them alternately one or the other part will appear as a figure. Such an effect, for example, gives the image of a truncated pyramid: if you look at it for some time, then it will alternately appear either convex or concave.

However, attention researchers believe that the traditional interpretation of attention stability requires some clarification, because in reality such small periods of attention fluctuations are by no means a general pattern. In some cases attention is characterized by frequent periodic fluctuations, in others it is much more stable.

If attention were unstable under all conditions, more or less effective mental work would be impossible. It turns out that the very inclusion of mental activity, which reveals new aspects and connections in the subject, changes the patterns of this process and creates conditions for the stability of attention. In addition, the stability of attention depends on a number of conditions. These include the features of the material, the degree of its difficulty, familiarity with it, intelligibility, attitude towards it on the part of the subject, as well as on the individual characteristics of the individual.

Concentration of attention

Concentration of attention is the degree or intensity of concentration, i.e. the main indicator of its severity, in other words, the focus in which mental or conscious activity is collected.

A. A. Ukhtomsky believed that the concentration of attention is associated with the peculiarities of the functioning of the dominant focus of excitation in the cortex. In particular, concentration is a consequence of excitation in the dominant focus with simultaneous inhibition of other areas of the cerebral cortex.

Distribution of attention

Under distribution of attention understand the subjectively experienced ability of a person to keep a certain number of heterogeneous objects in the center of attention at the same time.

It is this ability that allows you to perform several actions at once, keeping them in the field of attention. A textbook example is the phenomenal abilities of Julius Caesar, who, according to legend, could simultaneously do seven unrelated things. It is also known that Napoleon could simultaneously dictate seven important diplomatic documents to his secretaries. However, as life practice shows, a person is able to perform only one type of conscious mental activity, and the subjective feeling of the simultaneous implementation of several is due to the rapid sequential switching from one to another. Even W. Wundt showed that a person cannot focus on two simultaneously presented stimuli. However, sometimes a person is really able to perform two types of activity at the same time. In fact, in such cases, one of the activities performed should be fully automated and do not require attention. If this condition is not met, the combination of activities is impossible.

Switching attention

Many authors believe that the distribution of attention is, in essence, the reverse side of its switchability. Switching or switching attention is determined covertly, moving from one type of activity to another. Switching means the conscious and meaningful shifting of attention from one object to another. In general, the switchability of attention means the ability to quickly navigate in a complex changing situation. The ease of switching attention in different people is different and depends on a number of conditions (this is, first of all, the ratio between the previous and subsequent activities and the attitude of the subject to each of them). The more interesting the activity, the easier it is to switch to it, and vice versa. Switching attention is one of the well-trained qualities.

attention span

The next property of attention is its volume. The amount of attention is a special issue. It is known that a person cannot simultaneously think about different things and perform various works. This limitation makes it necessary to split the information coming from the outside into parts that do not exceed the capabilities of the processing system. In the same way, a person has a very limited ability to simultaneously perceive several objects independent of each other - this is the amount of attention. An important and defining feature of it is that it practically cannot be regulated during training and training.

The study of the volume of attention is usually carried out by analyzing the number of simultaneously presented elements (numbers, letters, etc.) that can be clearly perceived by the subject. For these purposes, a device is used that makes it possible to present a certain number of stimuli so quickly that the subject cannot move his eyes from one object to another. This allows you to measure the number of objects available for simultaneous identification.

distraction

Absent-mindedness is the inability of a person to focus on anything specific for a long time.

There are two types of absent-mindedness: imaginary and genuine.

Imaginary absent-mindedness- this is a person's inattention to the immediately surrounding objects and phenomena, caused by the extreme concentration of his attention on some object.

Imaginary absent-mindedness is the result of great concentration and narrowness of attention. Sometimes it is called "professional", as it is often found in people of this category. The attention of a scientist can be so concentrated on the problem that occupies him that he does not hear questions addressed to him, does not recognize acquaintances, and answers inappropriately.

Absent-mindedness as a result of internal concentration does not cause much harm to the cause, although it makes it difficult for a person to orient himself in the world around him. Worse is genuine absent-mindedness. A person suffering from absent-mindedness of this kind has difficulty establishing and maintaining voluntary attention on any object or action. To do this, he needs much more willpower than an undistracted person. Arbitrary attention of an absent-minded person is unstable, easily distracted.

Genuine distraction

The causes of truly distracted attention are varied. The cause of true absent-mindedness may be a general disorder of the nervous system (neurasthenia), anemia, diseases of the nasopharynx, which impede the flow of air into the lungs. Sometimes absent-mindedness appears as a result of physical and mental fatigue and overwork, heavy experiences.

One of the reasons for true absent-mindedness is the overload of the brain with a large number of impressions. That is why one should not often let children go to the cinema, the theater during the school season, take them to visit, and allow them to watch TV every day. Dispersion of interests can also lead to genuine distraction. Some students enroll in several circles at once, take books from many libraries, are fond of sports, collecting and other things, and at the same time they do nothing seriously. The cause of true absent-mindedness may also be the improper upbringing of the child in the family: the lack of a certain regime in the child's classes, entertainment and recreation, the fulfillment of all his whims, and release from work duties. Boring teaching, which does not awaken thought, does not affect feelings, does not require effort of will, is one of the sources of absent-mindedness of students.

Continuation. See #17–19

General idea of ​​attention

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Term Attention firmly entered into everyday speech, and from the everyday point of view, we understand its meaning well. And what is attention from the point of view of psychophysiology?

All cognitive mental processes - sensation, perception, imagination, representation, memory, thinking - have their own specific content. Attention has no special content of its own and is manifested within all cognitive processes directed at an object. Attention characterizes the interest of the individual in the object.

Attention is the focus of consciousness on any object or phenomenon and focus on it. Attention is closely related to the attitudes, interests and needs of the individual. With an increase in the significance of an object, attention becomes more profound, the degree of concentration, concentration on it increases sharply, the image of the object itself changes, which becomes clearer and clearer. Consequently, attention carries out the relationship of the person and the object. Also, the more significant the object, the more intense the work of consciousness is.

The two-sidedness of attention, expressing the attitude of the individual to the object to which it is directed, is manifested in the fact that, on the one hand, attention is directed to the object, and on the other hand, the object attracts attention. Attention first manifests itself as alertness, the readiness of consciousness to perceive the signal and move on to action. Gradually, attention takes on new forms: it manifests itself in ignoring external stimuli, inhibition of external activity and in-depth, concentrated perception of the object. A sign of such attention, directed inward, is a motionless, fixed gaze. Behind the apparent immobility hides intense inner activity, which can be directed to the most diverse areas of human interests. In this regard, it is important to find out what are the physiological foundations for the formation of attention.

It is easy to imagine the logic of attention organization using the filter model proposed by D. Broadbent. According to this model, most of the sensory information that enters the brain, which is not currently of interest to this particular individual, is simply cut off, or, using Broadbent's vocabulary, filtered out. On the contrary, the information that the subject is tuned to perceive causes the activation of the corresponding parts of the brain even in the case of a very weak signal.

Basic properties of attention
(according to S.L. Rubinshtein)

Concentration. In psychological literature, concentration of attention is understood as the selective focus of consciousness on one or more objects of knowledge. At the same time, attention is focused on essential information, and non-essential information is ignored. The concentration of attention in this case consists of two interrelated parts - highlighting an essential feature and sifting out non-essential stimuli.

Volume is the ability to perceive a certain amount of information in a short period of time. It is believed that the average attention span of an adult is approximately 4–6 objects per 0.1 second, with a maximum of 9 objects. In a child, the average amount of attention is equal to no more than 2–3 objects. We are talking about the number of unrelated objects (numbers, letters, etc.).

The volume of attention becomes much larger if the objects in the field of our attention are interconnected by meaning. Therefore, attention span is a variable quantity. The amount of attention when reading a meaningful text is significantly larger compared to the concentration of attention on separate unrelated elements.

Distributability is an important property. It is closely related to the volume of attention, since the concept of volume implies the limitation of the field of attention and the redistribution of attention between several objects. Can a person focus on several subjects at the same time? Many scientists are of the opinion that a person can only deal with one subject, but moving from one to another with the highest speed, this creates the appearance that a person is distributing attention between two or more objects at the same time. However, it is known that people with a high ability to concentrate and distribute it can successfully perform several actions at the same time. So, for example, the French psychologist F. Polan could recite one poem and immediately write another, recite a poem and at the same time mentally perform arithmetic operations with numbers.

Distribution - a professionally important quality for people of many professions, for example, for a teacher who must be able to keep in his field of attention a change in the psychological, physiological state of one or more students, monitor the coherence of work in groups, etc.

Sustainability is the time during which concentration of attention is maintained. The results of experimental studies indicate that attention is subject to involuntary periodic fluctuations equal to 2–3 seconds, reaching up to 12 seconds. So, for example, a clock that is outside the subject's field of vision at the same distance seems to him either moving away or approaching due to their more or less clearly audible movement. Such a fluctuation in perception is associated with fatigue and adaptation of the sense organs to the stimulus. Sustainability of attention allows you to focus more deeply on the object being studied, discovering more and more new sides, characteristics, qualities in it. Moreover, even a strong extraneous stimulus cannot distract the consciousness, since the stability of attention makes it less prone to fluctuations and ensures the effectiveness of intellectual operations. In order for attention to any subject to be maintained, its content must be changed and updated. Monotony dulls attention, and monotony extinguishes it.

The stability of attention depends on a number of conditions: the characteristics of the material, the degree of its difficulty, fame, understandability, the attitude of the subject towards it - the degree of his interest in this material and, finally, the individual characteristics of the individual.

Stability of attention does not rule it out switchability , i.e. the ability to quickly move from one installation to a new one that arises according to changing conditions. The ability to switch determines the flexibility of attention, which is a very important quality. It allows you to consciously and meaningfully move your attention from one object to another.

The speed of switching attention is different for different people: some easily and quickly move from one job to another, for others, “entering” work is a difficult operation that requires a longer time and considerable effort. The speed of switching attention depends on a number of conditions, for example, the individual characteristics of the subject, in particular temperament.

Various properties of attention - its concentration, volume, switchability and stability - are largely independent of each other. High concentration of attention can be combined with poor switching.

Types of attention

According to the origin and mode of existence, attention is divided into three main types: involuntary, voluntary and post-voluntary. Their comparative characteristics are presented in the table.

involuntary attention - the most simple, as if arising by itself, without the conscious efforts of the individual, without prior intention. This kind of attention is sometimes called unintentional, passive, forced. Involuntary attention arises under the influence of external factors of two types: the nature and quality of the stimulus, its strength and intensity, its novelty and unusualness in a given situation; and internal: the general orientation of the individual to certain factors or phenomena, due to which they become attractive. In individual development, attention is revealed very early, in fact, from the first days of a person's birth. It is based on a biological reaction - an orienting reflex that occurs in response to any change in the environment. As a result of the analysis of information that comes from outside, a model of the situation is formed. A sudden change in the parameters of the situation (stimulus) leads to a mismatch of new information with existing ideas, which automatically causes an orienting reflex and awakens involuntary attention. The main motivating force of involuntary attention is novelty. The more pronounced a person's cognitive need, the more reason to expect activation of involuntary attention with changes in the surrounding reality.

Unlike the involuntary voluntary attention controlled by volitional effort, consciously set goal. It was developed as a result of labor activity, therefore it is also called volitional, active, deliberate. The causes of voluntary attention are mainly social in origin. The function of voluntary attention in the early stages of development is divided between adults and children. The adult selects the object, points to it to the child and gives a definition, the child responds to the signal by tracing the gesture, taking the object or repeating the word. Gradually, children set their own goals.

As speech is mastered, behavior obeys its own speech instructions. External conditions affect the organization of voluntary attention; it is difficult to force oneself to work in unusual conditions, where there are a lot of new stimuli. Therefore, it is better to work when there is a clear mode of operation, when the workplace is prepared and strong extraneous irritants are eliminated. Sometimes additional stimuli can contribute to concentration. When there is a dominant excitation in the central nervous system, extraneous weak stimuli create additional, not very strong foci of excitation, which are attracted to the main one and strengthen the dominant. That is why quiet music, slight working noise helps to concentrate. Arbitrary attention exists only in activity, is directed and adjusted by its goals and objectives, and regulates the pace of execution. The teacher, preparing to explain a new topic, foresees in advance which particular fragments of the material may be the most difficult to understand. And in the course of the explanation, the teacher, approaching these areas, activates attention in search of a response from the class.

Comparative characteristics of the main types of attention

Thus, voluntary attention fulfills its main purpose - to control the human mental sphere in solving various practical and theoretical problems. Teachers are well aware of how difficult it is sometimes to get a class up and running after recess. Overexcited children are not able to immediately focus on work. And in the course of the lesson, not all students can equally activate their attention at the moment when the teacher calls for this. But the timely activation of attention is the main condition for productive classroom work, and interest is of no small importance here. It represents the psychological need of the individual for certain objects and activities as a source of positive emotional experiences.

Enthusiasm leads to the development of voluntary attention into a special kind of attention - post-voluntary. Its distinctive feature is the connection of attention with conscious purposefulness. This connection is supported by conscious interests. On the other hand, the conscious volitional effort necessary to maintain attention disappears; everything that is not directly related to the content of the work disappears from the sphere of consciousness. And the will fades into the background; its function assumes an interest in the case. However, post-voluntary attention cannot arise immediately. To turn it on, one desire is not enough. It arises only as a reaction to the dedication to the matter, and the earlier, the greater the dedication. No calls and instructions will lead to increased attention if the students do not have a real interest in the work.

Post-voluntary attention is characterized by prolonged concentration, intense intensity of mental activity, and high labor productivity.

Ending to be

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Sustainability of attention.

Sustainability of attention- a property of attention, manifested in the ability for a long time to maintain a state of attention on any object, subject of activity, without being distracted and without weakening attention.

This is his characteristic in time. Stability of attention does not mean its focus all the time on the same object. The objects of actions and the actions themselves can change (and most often they do), but the overall direction of the activity must remain constant. However, the general direction of activity, determined by the task that must be performed (read or write a given text, etc.), continues to remain the same all the time. They say about steady attention, therefore, when a person is long absorbed in some business subordinated to one task.

Physiologically, the stability of attention means that the centers of optimal excitability are consistently those parts of the cerebral cortex that regulate actions that are links in one activity.

One of the important conditions for the stability of attention is the variety of impressions or actions performed. Everything monotonous quickly reduces attention. With prolonged exposure to the same stimulus, excitation, due to negative induction, causes inhibition in the same area of ​​the cortex, and this serves as the physiological basis for reducing attention. It is difficult to keep attention for a long time on one thing. If there is a change of objects or actions performed, attention remains at a high level for a long time. In order to keep attention on one thing for a long time, one must always reveal more and more new sides in the same thing, raise different questions in relation to it, perform different actions subordinate to the common goal that is being pursued. K.S.Stanislavsky correctly characterized the meaning of this condition, saying that in order to be attentive, it is not enough, even very closely, to look at an object, but it is necessary to consider it from different points of view, to diversify its perception.

To be attentive, it is especially important to perform any actions with the subject. This maintains the active state of the cerebral cortex, which is necessary to maintain optimal excitability of its individual sections, which is typical for attention.

Of great importance are outwardly expressed practical actions with objects, operating with them. This contributes to a variety of impressions received, a more complete, versatile acquaintance with the subject, and a better perception of it.

The importance of internal, mental activity is also great, which should be aimed at solving such problems, the content of which requires the best reflection of the object of attention. Setting within the same more and more new particular tasks and active attempts to solve them is one of the most important conditions for sustaining attention.

Even when performing simple and repetitive actions, attention can be maintained for a long time if it is constantly supported by such stimuli that each time require the performance of a certain action.

In Dobrynin's experiments, the subjects had to cross out with a pencil circles that quickly (at a speed of up to three per second) passed in front of them in the window of the screen, behind which was a tape (rewound from shaft to shaft) with circles printed on it, moving at a certain speed. The results of the experiments showed that under these conditions, the subjects could work without errors (despite the high speed of the tape) for a long time - up to 20 minutes. During this time they had to cross out up to 3600 circles.

The state opposite to the stability of attention is its distractibility. Its physiological basis is either external inhibition caused by extraneous stimuli, or internal inhibition as a result of the monotony of activity or the prolonged action of the same stimuli.

The distracting effect of extraneous stimuli depends on the nature of these stimuli and their relationship to what attention is directed to. Homogeneous stimuli, i.e. similar to those on which attention is focused, have a more distracting effect than heterogeneous stimuli. Visual stimuli, for example, if it is necessary to respond to some visual impression, have a more inhibitory effect than when, during the action of extraneous visual stimuli, it is necessary to respond to auditory stimuli.

The nature of the activity requiring attention is very important. Perception, for example, suffers less from the action of extraneous stimuli than mental activity that is not currently based on the perception of surrounding objects. Of the processes of perception, visual perceptions suffer less from extraneous stimuli.

Periodic distraction or weakening of attention, interspersed with a return to the same object or with an increase in focus on it, is called wavering attention.

Fluctuations in attention occur even with very concentrated work, which is explained by the constant change of excitation and inhibition in the cerebral cortex.

The presence of periodic fluctuations in attention can be well detected in the perception of the so-called dual images. To reduce fluctuations in attention, it is useful to try to mentally imagine the pyramid as, for example, a pedestal (then it will seem to be facing the top to us) or as an empty room in which three walls, floor and ceiling are visible (then the pyramid will seem to be facing the top away from us). Giving an image a specific objective meaning helps keep attention in one direction.

Small fluctuations in attention are observed very often. In a number of experiments to study the reaction rate, in which, in response to the action of some stimulus (sound, light), it is required to make a predetermined movement as soon as possible (for example, to press an electric key with a hand), it was found that if the stimulus is preceded by a warning signal “Attention!”, the best result is obtained when this signal is given approximately 2 seconds before the stimulus is given. With a longer time interval, there is already a fluctuation of attention. Such small fluctuations, of course, are harmful only when a very quick reaction to some short-term stimulus is required from a person. In conditions of longer and more varied work, their influence can be negligible.

Not every side irritation causes a distraction. In the complete absence of any external stimuli, holding attention is again difficult. Weak side stimuli do not reduce, but increase excitation in the focus of increased excitability. The dominant, according to Ukhtomsky, is not weakened, but is maintained by excitations caused by the action of side stimuli (unless, of course, due to their inherent characteristics, they are not such that they themselves are able to evoke a new dominant corresponding to them).

Stability of attention is one of the properties that characterizes the ability to concentrate on the same process or phenomenon for a long period of time.

What is attention

Attention is (in psychology) the purposeful perception of a certain object or phenomenon. It is important to understand that this is a rather changeable phenomenon, which can be influenced by both internal and external factors.

Attention is in psychology a kind of attitude of a person to an object with which he interacts. It can be influenced not only by mental and psychological characteristics, but also by the interest of the individual in working with one or another object.

We can say that the stability of attention is one of the most important conditions for successful activity in absolutely any field. Thanks to this category, the clarity of human perception of the world and the processes that take place in it is determined. Despite the fact that when concentrating on the main object, everything else seems to fade into the background, attention can constantly switch.

Scientists devote a lot of time to the study of attention; it cannot be considered a self-sufficient psychological phenomenon or process. It is inextricably linked with many other phenomena and is considered only in close connection with other accompanying processes, being one of their many properties.

Types and forms of attention

We can say that attention is a rather complex and multifaceted phenomenon. It can differ on the basis of primary or secondary perception of information. Thus, voluntary and involuntary attention can be distinguished.

If a person unconsciously concentrates on a particular object or process, then this is called involuntary. We are talking about unconscious attitudes that can be caused by a strong sudden exposure to a stimulus. This type often develops into conscious voluntary attention. Also, passive concentration is quite often caused by past impressions, which are repeated to some extent in the present.

Thus, if we summarize the above information, we can say that involuntary attention is due to the following number of reasons:

• unexpected exposure to an irritant;
• power of influence;
• new, unfamiliar sensations;
• the dynamism of the stimulus (it is moving objects that most often cause concentration of attention);
• contrasting situations;
• mental processes.

Occurs as a result of conscious excitatory processes in the cerebral cortex. Quite often, for its formation, extraneous influence is necessary (for example, teachers, parents, authoritative personalities).

It is important to understand that voluntary attention is an indispensable attribute of a person's labor activity. It is accompanied by physical and emotional effort, and also causes fatigue, like physical work. That is why psychologists recommend sometimes switching to abstract objects so as not to expose your brain to colossal stresses.

Psychologists distinguish not only arbitrary and involuntary attention. After a person has concentrated on an object and studied it well, further perception occurs as if automatically. This phenomenon is called post-arbitrary, or secondary.

If we talk about the forms of attention, then we can distinguish external (on surrounding objects), internal (on mental processes), and also motor (moving objects are perceived).

Basic properties of attention

Psychologists distinguish the following stability, focus, distribution, volume, intensity, switchability, concentration. Let's consider them in more detail.

• Concentration is the ability to keep attention on any particular object or process. This means that it stands out and stands apart from the general background. The strength of the connection with the object is determined by how bright, pronounced and clear it is.
• The amount of attention implies the number of objects that can be captured by the human mind at a time. Depending on this, people can perceive a different number of information units. The volume can be determined using special tests. Depending on the results, special exercises to increase it may be recommended.
• Stability of attention is an indicator that determines the duration of concentration on the same object.
• Switchability is a purposeful change in the object of attention. This may be due to both the nature of the activity and the need for rest and relaxation.
• Distribution determines the ability of attention to simultaneously concentrate on several objects of different nature. In this case, different organs of perception can be involved.

What is attention span

Stability of attention is a property that is determined by the ability to maintain focus on an object or activity for a long period of time. We can say that this is a characteristic that determines the duration of concentration.

It should be noted that the stability of attention cannot be determined in relation to any one object. A person can switch between objects or activities, however, the general direction and meaning must remain constant. Thus, if a person over a certain period of time is engaged in activities (or several types of activities) to achieve a specific goal, then one can judge the stability of his attention.

This category is characterized by a number of requirements, the main thing is the diversity of actions and impressions that they bring. If the nature of the stimulation remains unchanged, then in that part of the brain responsible for this or that activity, inhibition is observed, and, as a result, attention begins to dissipate. If the nature and conditions of activity constantly vary, then the concentration will be long-term.

It should be noted that the concentration and can alternate, depending on internal and external conditions. Even if the individual is in a state of highest concentration, due to internal brain processes, some fluctuations may occur. If we talk about external stimuli, then they can not always lead to distraction of attention (this largely depends on their intensity).

Distribution of attention

Divided attention is a state that occurs as a result of the simultaneous performance of several actions. So, for example, the driver of a minibus not only controls the vehicle, but also controls the situation on the road. The teacher, while conveying information to the students, also monitors the observance of discipline. This category can also be illustrated by the work of a cook who can simultaneously control the cooking process of several products.

Psychologists study not only the phenomenon of distribution itself, but also its physiological nature. This process is due to the appearance in the cerebral cortex of a certain focus of excitation, which can spread its influence to other areas. In this case, partial inhibition may be observed. Nevertheless, it absolutely does not affect the performance of actions if they are brought to automatism. This explains the ease of implementation of complex processes in people who have mastered their profession well.

The distribution of attention can be difficult if the individual simultaneously tries to perform actions that are in no way connected with each other (this has been proven by numerous experiments). However, if one of them is brought to automatism or habit, then the task is simplified. The ability to combine the performance of several actions at the same time belongs to such a category as health factors.

attention levels

The level of attention is the dependence of concentration on a certain activity on physiological and mental processes. So, we can talk about the following categories:

• the level of the physical body implies the realization that the objects to which attention is directed are separated from the organism itself, and therefore are foreign (this makes it possible to perceive them regardless of physiological processes);
• the energy level implies a higher level of interaction with objects, which consists in receiving some internal sensations associated with the work process (they can contribute to concentration or dispersion of attention);
• the level of energy metabolism implies that a high degree of concentration is achieved due to the fact that a person receives moral and physical satisfaction from the performance of a particular process;
• the level of common space implies that the concentration and stability of attention can to some extent come from the mere fact of being with the subject within the same limited territory;
• extra-spatial attention is associated with internal mental and psychological processes (we are talking about unconditional understanding or knowledge that an individual receives with the experience of activity);
• the level of will is the ability to force oneself to focus on an unwanted or uninteresting activity because it is necessary to achieve a certain result;
• the level of awareness implies that concentration occurs when a person understands the meaning and anticipates the results of the activity.

How to develop attention span

At the moment, there are many methods and tests that allow you to determine the levels of attention stability. Unfortunately, their results are not always satisfactory, but this situation is quite fixable. The development of attention stability becomes possible thanks to the techniques developed by psychologists. This improves performance and learning.

The most effective and frequently used are the following exercises:

• Set your cell phone timer to two minutes. All this time, you should completely focus your attention on the tip of your finger (no matter which one). If you can handle this task without problems, then try to complicate it. For example, turn on the TV and try to keep your attention on your finger against its background. It is best if you make such workouts daily.
• Get in a comfortable position and focus entirely on your breathing. You can also try to feel the heartbeat. At the same time, the room does not have to be perfect silence, you can turn on the music. This exercise is useful not only for developing concentration, but also for relaxation.
• When on public transport, take a seat by the window and concentrate fully on the glass, ignoring the objects behind it. Change the priority later.
• The following exercise is performed before going to bed, because it not only develops concentration, but also helps to relax. Take a standard sheet of text and put a dot in the middle with a green felt-tip pen or marker. You need to look at it for 5 minutes, while not allowing any extraneous thoughts to enter your consciousness.
• If your activity is connected with the perception of sounds, then it is necessary to train this particular apparatus. It is advisable to go to the park and for 10 minutes try to hear only the sounds of nature, while not paying attention to the conversations of passers-by or the noise of passing cars.

Psychological health factors are largely related to the ability to maintain stability of attention. This brings success in professional and daily activities. If your natural abilities are not at the highest level, then you need to develop them with the help of special exercises.

Neuropsychology

The neuropsychology of attention is a separate field of knowledge that deals with the study of concentration issues, linking them with nervous processes. Initially, such studies were carried out exclusively on animals, by connecting electrodes to certain areas of the brain. In order to investigate the stability of human attention, electroencephalogram technology is used. To do this, the body must be in an awake state. Thus, it is possible to fix the excitation or inhibition of nerve impulses during the performance of a certain kind of activity.

In this context, the psychologist E. N. Sokolov plays a huge role. Through a large number of studies, he proved that when the same action is performed repeatedly, attention becomes automatic. Thus, the brain ceases to actively respond to the stimulus, which affects the results of the electroencephalogram. The brain decides that in this case there is no need for excitation, because the body has a certain mechanical memory.

Selective Concentration Process

It is a psychological and mental process that consists in filtering out external stimuli and stimuli in order to isolate those that really require concentration and focus.

This phenomenon is constantly being studied by psychologists for the extent to which mental processes are dependent on the selective activity of the brain. This can be explained with a simple example. If at first we hear a hum of voices in a noisy place, then as soon as someone speaks directly to us, we begin to focus our attention only on this while the background noises are lost.

Psychologists conducted such an experiment: headphones were inserted into the ears of the subject, into which different sound sequences were fed. To their surprise, the man heard only one of the tracks. At the same time, when a certain signal was given, attention switched to another melody.

Selective attention concerns not only hearing, but also visual perception. If you try to catch different pictures on two monitors with each eye, then you will not succeed. You will only be able to see one image clearly.

Thus, we can say that the human brain has the ability to filter information that comes through certain channels, focusing on only one of the essential points. Concentration and switching of attention can be determined by internal or external factors.

Conclusion

Sustainability of attention is the ability of a person to focus on studying a particular object or performing a particular type of activity. It is this factor that largely determines the efficiency and volume of perceived information. It is important to understand that concentration of attention allows you to cast all secondary factors into the background, but this does not mean at all that a change of emphasis is excluded.

If we talk about the types of attention, we can distinguish voluntary and involuntary. The first one is conscious. The focus is on the object that directly interests the individual. At the same time, if such concentration occurs regularly, the brain begins to concentrate automatically. This kind of attention is called post-voluntary. But it often happens that an individual completely unexpectedly switches to objects or phenomena that have no direct relation to his activity. In this case, we can talk about involuntary attention. It can be harsh sounds, bright colors and so on.

Attention has a number of properties. The main one is concentration. It implies the ability to keep a specific object in the spotlight for a certain period of time. Volume characterizes the number of objects or activities that a person can focus on at the same time, but stability is the time during which a given state can be maintained.

Quite interesting is such a phenomenon as the distribution of attention. This means that it is not at all necessary for a person to concentrate on only one single type of activity. Sometimes, due to the specifics of the activity, several processes have to be performed simultaneously. At the same time, some of them are brought to automatism, while others require certain mental and psychological efforts. The most striking examples are the professional activities of a teacher or a driver of a vehicle.

It is important to understand that not every person is able to keep the same object in the spotlight for a long time or perform a homogeneous activity. In order to find out your abilities, you can pass certain psychological tests. Based on their results, it is easy to determine the level of stability of attention. If it turns out to be unsatisfactory, it is recommended to resort to a number of special exercises.

Quite actively psychologists study such a phenomenon as selective concentration. This mechanism allows you to select the desired object from a number of similar ones. Moreover, we can talk about visual, auditory, tactile and other types of perceptions. Among the noise of voices, a person can distinguish the speech of the interlocutor, from several melodies he hears only one, and if we are talking about two images, then it is impossible to catch them with each eye separately.

Chapter 12

12.1 Functions of attention and its varieties

Attention- reflects the direction and concentration of human consciousness on certain objects, which ensures their particularly clear reflection.

Main functions of attention:

· Ensuring the selection of information entering the body in accordance with its actual needs.

Ensuring selective and long-term concentration of mental activity on one object or type of activity

Activation of necessary and inhibition of currently unnecessary mental processes.

Types of attention

There are several approaches to the classification of different types of attention: based on the leading analyzer, according to the focus on various objects, according to the main form of activity in which attention is involved, etc.

According to the form of activity allocate sensory-perceptual attention, when the main type of human activity is the perception of information. This attention is realized through the work of the senses - for example, fixing the goalkeeper on the movement of the ball across the field, or the attention of a person listening to music. intellectual attention is activated when solving thought processes; motor attention is important when controlling the work of the muscular system (for example, in an athlete when performing complex movements). It is clear that some activities require combined attention. Thus, when a surgeon performs a complex operation, all three types of attention are activated.

According to the leading analyzer There are visual, auditory, kinesthetic, gustatory, olfactory and other types of attention. For example, a spectator who watches a ballet has active visual and auditory attention, while a coffee taster has mainly olfactory and gustatory attention.

By direction distinguish external(directed to the outside world) internal(aimed at sensations coming from within the body) and borderline attention (aimed at assessing sensations from the skin and mucous membranes).

Degree of volitional control Distinguish between involuntary, voluntary and post-voluntary attention. Some objects themselves “attract” our attention, while focusing on others requires some effort. First attention is called involuntary ("passive"). It can be caused either by the characteristics of the stimulus (its strength, brightness, loudness, etc.) or by the connection between the object and the needs of the person.

The second kind of attention arbitrary(it is also called "active"), is controlled by volitional effort. In this case, a person focuses on the object, even if he is not interested in it, but is needed to achieve the goal. So the seller must pay attention to every person who enters the store, because any of them may turn out to be a potential buyer and purchase goods. This type of attention can be enhanced by a number of factors: the inclusion of practical actions in the process of attention, and the removal of distracting stimuli.

Post-voluntary attention takes an intermediate character - at first it requires volitional efforts, and then, as a person begins to be interested in the process he is observing, it passes into involuntary.

12.2 Properties of attention

Human attention has different properties (Fig. 12.1). When a person focuses it at one point, they talk about high concentration attention, when it maintains its activity for a long time - about sustainability. The amount of attention is determined by the number of simultaneously clearly perceived objects (it coincides with the amount of short-term memory). Selectivity attention is called the possibility of successfully adjusting attention to the conscious perception of information in the presence of interference. The ability of attention to quickly switch from one object to another expresses switchability attention, and the simultaneous perception of several objects or the performance of several actions is called distribution attention. True, some psychologists believe that the latter property actually reflects a very rapid switching of attention, when it moves so quickly from one object to another that the observer has the illusion of simultaneously focusing attention on several objects. There is a legend that the Roman ruler Julius Caesar could do several things at the same time: read, listen and give orders. Most likely, he simply could very quickly switch his attention from one thing to another, but this ability made a strong impression on his contemporaries.

Evaluation of the properties of attention:

Concentration and sustainability attention is determined using a correction test: Bourdon's test (letters) or Landolt's rings (rings with a gap in four positions).

Switching and distribution attention is determined using the Schulte table (25 black numbers) or the red-black Platonov-Schulte table (24 red and 25 black numbers).

Switching attention can also be assessed using the Bourdon test, if you ask the subject to cross out one letter. and underline - another. The distribution of attention is not defined.

12.3 Physiological bases of attention.

According to I.P. Pavlova, attention reflects the presence in the cortex of the cerebral hemispheres focus of excitation, which, in turn, is a manifestation of an unconditioned orienting reflex. Such a focus of excitation, due to the process of negative induction, inhibits neighboring areas of the cerebral cortex, and at the same time all the mental activity of the organism is concentrated on one object.

According to Ukhtomsky, attention is determined dominant- the dominant, stable focus of excitation in the cortex. The dominant not only inhibits other foci of excitation, but is also able to intensify at their expense, switching over to itself the processes of excitation that occur in other nerve centers. The intensity of attention is especially pronounced when the goal is due to biologically significant motivation (hunger, thirst, sexual instinct). In this case, there is a kind of "pumping" of nervous energy from the part of the brain associated with the satisfaction of needs, to the part of the cortex associated with a certain object of the external world.

According to modern scientific data, in the process of activating attention, other brain structures play an important role in addition to the cerebral cortex. For example, thalamus serves as a kind of filter that filters out part of the information, and passes only new and important signals to the cortex. Reticular formation activates the brain and is an important energy component of the attention process.

12.5 Theories of attention

In psychology, there are six main approaches that explain the phenomenon of attention (Fig. 12.2). Each of them considers one side in the complex complex of human mental activity to be the main one, but so far none of these hypotheses has received universal recognition. It is possible that the true mechanisms of attention are either a form of integration of the processes described below, or due to other reasons.

The first, emotional, approach to understanding attention was promoted by T. Ribot, who believed that attention is always associated with emotions and is caused by them. Ribot believed that the intensity and duration of voluntary attention is due to the characteristics of those emotions that are caused by the object of attention. Such a view of attention is quite legitimate, because emotion is the body's reaction to the probability of satisfying an urgent need, and the body's attention is primarily riveted to such objects.

The second approach was put forward by scientists I. Herbert and W. Hamilton, who believed that more intense representations suppress less intense ones, forcing them into the subconscious, and what remains in the mind and attracts our attention.

The third approach is that attention is interpreted as the result of apperception, that is, the life experience of the individual. At the same time, in the nervous system (possibly at the level of the thalamus), incoming information is filtered based on the needs, knowledge and life experience of a person.

The fourth approach was developed by the Georgian scientist D.N. Uznadze, who argued that the attitude internally expresses the state of attention. The process of isolating a certain image under the influence of an attitude from the whole variety of surrounding objects, Uznadze called "objectification".

The fifth approach focuses on the motor aspect of the attention process. The fact is that involuntary attention is based on an orienting reflex - turning the body to a new source of irritation and tuning the analyzers to it. These phenomena occur with the active participation of muscles, so attention can be interpreted as a specially organized motor adaptation to the environment.

The sixth approach comes from the physiological idea of ​​attention as a complexly organized focus of excitation in the cerebral cortex, which suppresses the activity of neighboring areas of the brain. At present, physiologists believe that such a hypothesis interprets the process of attention too primitively, since the concentration of attention very often involves not only individual parts of the cortex, but the entire brain as a whole.

Synthetic ideas about the nature of attention include the concept of attention by P.Ya. Halperin, consisting of the following provisions:

1. Attention - there is one of the moments of the orienting and research activity of a person.

2. The main function of attention is control over the content of an action or mental image.

3. Attention has no independent result and is a service process. As an independent act, attention is released only when the action becomes mental and reduced.

Attention Research in Cognitive Psychology

In cognitive psychology, three groups of theories regarding the mechanisms of attention can be distinguished:

1. Attention as a selection.

2. Attention as mental effort or resources.

3. Attention as a perceptual action

Attention as a selection.

This approach was focused on the study of selection mechanisms (selection of one object from several). An example of selection is the situation of a “cocktail party”, when a person can arbitrarily choose the voices of certain people from a multitude of simultaneously sounding voices, recognize their speech, ignoring the voices of other people.

The first hypothesis of selective attention (early selection model) was created by D. Broadbent in his work "Perception and Communication". He compared the functioning of attention to the work of an electromechanical filter that selects information based on sensory features and works on the principle of an all-or-nothing neuron. This concept proceeded from the fact that the processing system is a channel with limited bandwidth, therefore, in order to select the necessary and ignore unnecessary information, a filter is located in front of this channel, which works based on the parameters determined by the final task of the activity. Information enters from the environment into the sensory register (receptors), then into short-term memory (here the information is processed in parallel) and then into the filter. The latter is connected with the system of long-term memory (repository of conditional probabilities of past events), which determines what should be extracted from the information flow. The filter setting is determined by the parameters of the current activity task (Fig. 12.3). Thus, attention is a filter in the information processing system, making it possible to perceive in a system with limited bandwidth and tuned to certain aspects of stimulation.

Attention as a mental effort or allocation of resources.

Theories aimed at studying the power characteristics of attention answered the question of what determines the policy of distributing the energy of attention to different objects. One of the models of attention created within the framework of this approach was proposed by D. Kahneman. Here are some of the points of this approach:

1. Attention is a waste of psychic forces on something, and since forces (resources) are never enough, the task of attention is to optimally distribute them among the many objects of the outside world.

2. The degree of mental effort (activation) is determined not so much by the desires of the subject as by the objective complexity of the task.

3. The main factor in the distribution of resources for a person is the "block for assessing the requirements of the task to the resources of attention."

4. There is another block (“permanent rules”) that works according to the laws of involuntary attention and can interfere with the process of solving a problem, redistributing energy between individual current tasks.

5. Also, the distribution of the energy of attention is influenced by the “block of desires and intentions acting at the moment”, working on the principle of arbitrary actions.

6. The intensity of attention is also affected by the general activation state of the organism. If it falls below a certain value, tasks cannot be completed.

Attention as a perceptual action

This approach was proposed by W. Neisser, who introduced the concept of "preattention" and identified two processes of information processing: at the first stage - passive, and the second, active - during the construction of the image. Attention was considered by this author as a perceptive action, which is largely automatic, innate, but can be modified in the process of learning. Changes in the settings of attention during learning prepare the subject to receive certain information and facilitate the selective use of its desired elements.

12.6 Attention disorder

Attention disorders are understood as negative changes in the direction, selectivity or stability of mental activity, noted in a state of fatigue or in violation of the normal functioning of the brain (both functional and organic nature). There are several types of attention disorders (Fig. 12.4).