What is the specificity of psychological science. Depending on the position of the observer

Question number 2. Features of psychology as a science

Psychology should be given a very special place in the system of sciences.

First of all, it is the science of the most complex thing that is known to mankind so far, about the psyche.

Interestingly, the outstanding ancient Greek philosopher Aristotle (6th century BC) begins his treatise “On the Soul” with the same thought. He writes that among other knowledge, the study of the soul should be given one of the first places, since "it is knowledge about the most sublime and amazing."

Secondly, psychology is in a special position because it can be said to merge the object and the subject of knowledge.

To clarify this, we will use one comparison proposed by Dubrovina I.V. A person is born. At first, being in infancy, he does not realize and does not remember himself. However, its development is proceeding at a rapid pace. His physical and mental abilities are being formed; he learns to walk, to see, to understand, to speak. With the help of these abilities he cognizes the world; begins to act in it; expands his social circle.

And finally, a very special feeling comes to him and gradually grows - a feeling of one's own "I". Somewhere in adolescence, it begins to take on conscious forms. Questions arise: “Who am I? What am I?”, and later “Why me?”. Those mental abilities and functions that until now have served the child as a means for mastering the external world - physical and social, are turning to knowledge of oneself; they themselves become the subject of reflection and awareness.

Exactly the same process can be traced on the scale of all mankind. In primitive society, the main thoughts of people went to the struggle for existence, to the development of the outside world. People made fire, hunted wild animals, fought with neighboring tribes, received the first knowledge about nature.

The humanity of that period, like a baby, does not remember itself. Gradually, the strength and capabilities of mankind grew. Thanks to their psychic abilities, people have created a material and spiritual culture; writing, arts and sciences appeared. And then the moment came when a person asked himself questions: what are these forces that give him the opportunity to create, explore and subjugate the world, what is the nature of his mind, what laws does his inner, spiritual life obey?

This moment was the birth of the self-consciousness of mankind, i.e. birth psychological knowledge. An event that once happened can be briefly expressed as follows: if earlier a person’s thought was directed to the outside world, now it turned to itself. Thus, the tasks of psychology are incommensurably more difficult than the tasks of any other science, for only in psychology does thought return to itself.

Thirdly , The peculiarity of psychology lies in its unique practical consequences.

Practical results from the development of psychology should not only be incommensurably greater than the results of any other science, but also qualitatively different.

After all, to know something means to master this "something", to learn how to manage it.

Learning to manage your mental processes, functions, abilities is an immeasurably difficult task. At the same time, it should be emphasized in particular that knowing himself, man will change himself.

Psychology has already accumulated many facts showing how a person's new knowledge of himself makes him different: it changes his attitudes, goals, his states and experiences. If we again turn to the scale of all mankind, then we can say that psychology is a science that not only cognizes, but also constructive, constructive person.

And although this opinion is not now generally accepted, lately there has been more and more talk about this feature of psychology, which makes it a science. special type.

4th The peculiarity of psychology lies in the fact that its appearance was preceded by the development of two large areas of knowledge: the natural sciences and philosophy. Psychology arose at the intersection of these areas, so it has not yet been determined whether psychology should be considered a natural science or a humanitarian one. It follows from the above that none of these answers seem to be correct.

And the last one fifth feature lies in the intersection of scientific and practical psychology.

Any science has as its basis some worldly, empirical experience of people. For example, physics is based on the knowledge we acquire in everyday life about the movement and fall of bodies, about friction and inertia, about light, sound, heat, and much more. Mathematics also proceeds from ideas about numbers, shapes, quantitative ratios, which begin to form already in preschool age.

And How is it with psychology? Each of us has a store of worldly psychological knowledge.This can be judged by the fact that each person to some extent can understand another influence on his behavior predict it deeds, take account his personality, help him, etc.There are even outstanding worldly psychologists. These, of course, are great writers, as well as some representatives of professions that involve constant communication with people: teachers, doctors, clergymen, etc. This was already mentioned in the first question, which dealt with the subject of psychology.

Let's answer the question: What is the difference between everyday psychological knowledge and scientific knowledge?

1. Everyday psychological knowledge is concrete; they are timed to specific situations, specific people, specific tasks. They say taxi drivers are good psychologists. But in what sense, for what tasks? As we know, often - quite pragmatic. Also, the child solves specific pragmatic tasks by behaving in one way with his mother, in another way with his father, and in a completely different way with his grandmother. In each case, he knows exactly how to behave in order to achieve the desired goal. But we can hardly expect from him the same insight in relation to other people's grandmothers or mothers. So, everyday psychological knowledge is characterized by concreteness, limitedness of tasks, situations and persons to which they apply.

Scientific psychology, like any other science, strives to generalizations. To do this, she uses scientific concepts. The development of concepts is one of the most important functions of science. Scientific concepts reflect the most essential properties of objects and phenomena, general connections and correlations. Scientific concepts are clearly defined, correlated with each other, linked into laws.

For example, in physics, thanks to the introduction of the concept of force, I. Newton managed to describe thousands of different specific cases of motion and mechanical interaction of bodies using the three laws of mechanics.

The same thing happens in psychology. You can describe a person for a very long time, listing in everyday terms his qualities, character traits, actions, relationships with other people. Scientific psychology, on the other hand, seeks and finds such generalizing concepts that not only optimize descriptions, but also, behind many particulars, allow us to see the general trends and patterns of personality development and its individual characteristics.

One feature of scientific psychological concepts should be noted: they often coincide with everyday ones in their external form, i.e. expressed in the same words. However, the inner content, the meanings of these words, as a rule, are different. Everyday terms are usually more vague and ambiguous.

Once, high school students were asked to answer the question in writing: what is a personality? The answers turned out to be very different, and one student answered: “This is something that should be checked against the documents.” It is clear that this definition is very different from the one proposed by the student.

2. Everyday psychological knowledge is intuitive character. This is due to the special way they are obtained: they are acquired through practical trial and error.

A similar way is clearly visible in children, especially from the example given above. Their good intuition is achieved through daily and even hourly tests to which they subject adults and which the latter are not always aware of. And in the course of these tests, children discover from whom they can get what they want, and from whom they cannot.

In contrast, scientific psychological knowledge rational and quite conscious. The usual way is to put forward verbally formulated hypotheses and test the consequences logically arising from them.

3. Third the difference is ways transfer of knowledge and even in the the possibility of their transmission. In the field of practical psychology, this possibility is very limited. This follows directly from the two previous features of worldly psychological experience - its concrete and intuitive character. The famous writer F.M. Dostoevsky expressed his intuition in the works he wrote - have we become equally insightful psychologists after reading them? Is life experience passed on from the older generation to the younger? As a rule, with great difficulty and to a very small extent. The eternal problem of “fathers and sons” is precisely that children cannot and do not even want to adopt the experience of their fathers. Every new generation, every young person has to make mistakes himself in order to gain this experience.

At the same time, in science, knowledge is accumulated and transferred with a large, so to speak, efficiency factor.

D Ubrovina I.V. cites a long-standing comparison of representatives of science with pygmies who stand on the shoulders of giants - outstanding scientists of the past. They may be much smaller, but they see farther than the giants, because they stand on their shoulders. The accumulation and transfer of scientific knowledge is possible due to the fact that this knowledge is crystallized in concepts and laws. They are recorded in the scientific literature and transmitted through verbal means, i.e. speech and language.

4. The fourth difference is in the methods of obtaining knowledge in the fields of everyday and scientific psychology. In everyday psychology, a person is forced to confine himself to observations and reflections. In scientific psychology, these methods are supplemented experiment.

The essence of the experimental method is that the researcher does not wait for a confluence of circumstances, as a result of which a phenomenon of interest arises, but causes this phenomenon himself, creating the appropriate conditions. Then he purposefully varies these conditions in order to reveal the patterns that this phenomenon obeys. With the introduction of the experimental method into psychology, psychology took shape as an independent science.

5. The advantage of scientific psychology is that it has a vast, varied and sometimes unique factual material, inaccessible in its entirety to any bearer of worldly psychology. In other words, the structure of modern scientific psychology is very multidimensional. The resulting material is accumulated and comprehended, in including in special branches of psychological science, such as developmental psychology, educational psychology, patho- and neuropsychology, labor and engineering psychology, social psychology, zoopsychology and others.

In these areas, dealing with different stages and levels of mental development of animals and humans, with defects and diseases of the psyche (for example, work through touch with deaf and dumb children), with unusual working conditions - conditions of stress, information overload or, conversely, information hunger etc. - the psychologist not only expands the range of his research tasks, but also encounters new unexpected phenomena. After all, consideration of the work of any mechanism in the conditions of development, breakdown or functional overload from different angles highlights its structure and organization.

Now that evidence has been given of the superiority of scientific psychology over everyday psychology, it is logical to raise the question: what position should scientific psychologists take in relation to the bearers of everyday psychology?

The development of science is reminiscent of moving through a complex labyrinth with many dead-end passages. To choose the right path, you need to have, as they often say, good intuition, and it arises only through close contact with life.

So a scientific psychologist must be at the same time a good worldly psychologist. Otherwise, he will not only be of little use to science, but will not find himself in his profession. The relationship between scientific and everyday psychology, writes IV Dubrovina, is similar to the relationship between Antey and the Earth; the first, touching the second, draws its strength from it.

So, scientific psychology, First of all, relies on everyday psychological experience; Secondly, extracts its tasks from it; finally, third, at the last stage it is checked.

First of all, this is the science of the most complex that is known to mankind so far. After all, the psyche is a “property of highly organized matter”: after all, the human brain is the most highly organized matter known to us.

Secondly, psychology is in a special position because it seems to merge the object and subject of cognition (who cognizes and what cognizes). Mankind of primitive society, like a baby, does not remember itself. Gradually, the strength and capabilities of mankind grew. Thanks to their psychic abilities, people have created a material and spiritual culture; writing, arts and sciences appeared. And then the moment came when a person asked himself questions: what are these forces that give him the opportunity to create, explore and subjugate the world, what is the nature of his mind, what laws does his inner, spiritual life obey? This moment was the birth of the self-consciousness of mankind, that is, the birth of psychological knowledge. An event that once happened can be briefly expressed as follows: if earlier a person’s thought was directed to the outside world, now it turned to itself. Man ventured to begin to explore thinking itself with the help of thinking. So, the tasks of psychology are incommensurably more difficult than the tasks of any other science, because only in it thought turns on itself. Only in her the scientific consciousness of man becomes his scientific self-consciousness.

Thirdly, the peculiarity of psychology lies in its unique practical consequences.

Practical results from the development of psychology should not only be incommensurably greater than the results of any other science, but also qualitatively different. After all, to know something means to master this "something", to learn how to manage it. Learning to control one's mental processes, functions, and abilities is, of course, a more grandiose task than, for example, space exploration. At the same time, it should be especially emphasized that, knowing himself, a person will change himself. We can say that psychology is a science that not only cognizes, but also constructs, creates a person.

The outstanding ancient Greek philosopher Aristotle in his treatise "On the Soul". claims that among other knowledge, the study of the soul should be given one of the first places, since "it is knowledge about the most sublime and amazing"

Branches of psychology

(structure of modern psychology)

At present, psychology is a complex, branched system of sciences. Each branch of science included in this system is a relatively independent developing direction, which has its own subject and uses its own methods.

At the present stage, psychology is a number of scientific disciplines that are at different degrees of formation, associated with various areas of practice. How to classify (structure) these numerous branches of psychology?

The main basic branch of psychology is general psychology.

At present, psychology is a very branched system of sciences. It can be divided into fundamental and applied, general and special.

Fundamental, or basic, branches of the psychological sciences are of general importance for understanding and explaining the psychology and behavior of people. These areas are designed to provide knowledge that is equally necessary for everyone who is interested in the psychology and behavior of people (general psychology, psychophysiology, social psychology, developmental psychology, etc.). Due to this universality, this knowledge is sometimes combined with the term "general psychology".

Applied called branches of science that strive to acquire new knowledge, but give priority to the study of mental phenomena in a natural setting and the use of knowledge gained in fundamental science in specific situations and conditions (ergonomics, advertising psychology, management psychology, organizational psychology, legal, etc.).

A variety of applied research is practical psychology, which solves on a scientific basis specific problems that arise in real life and the activities of people and teams, and obtaining new knowledge is, as a rule, an optional application. Practical psychology is a special type of activity of a psychologist, which involves obtaining psychological information about a particular person or group of people, analyzing this information based on knowledge gained in fundamental or applied psychology, developing (planning) and implementing an impact on them in order to change or measure their behavior .

General industries pose and solve problems that are equally important for the development of all scientific areas without exception, and special- highlight questions of particular interest for the knowledge of any one or more groups of phenomena.

General psychology(Fig. 2) explores individual highlighting cognitive processes and personality in it. Cognitive processes cover sensations, perception, attention, memory, imagination, thinking and speech. With the help of these processes, a person receives and processes information about the world, they also participate in the formation and transformation of knowledge. Personality contains properties that determine the deeds and actions of a person. These are emotions, abilities, dispositions, attitudes, motivation, temperament, character and will.

Special branches of psychology(Fig. 3), closely related to the theory and practice of teaching and raising children, include genetic psychology, psychophysiology, differential psychology, developmental psychology, social psychology, educational psychology, medical psychology, pathopsychology, legal psychology, psychodiagnostics and psychotherapy.

genetic psychology studies the hereditary mechanisms of the psyche and behavior, their dependence on the genotype.

differential psychology reveals and describes the individual differences of people, their prerequisites and the process of formation.

In developmental psychology these differences are presented by age. This branch of psychology also studies the changes that occur during the transition from one age to another. Genetic, differential and developmental psychology together are the scientific basis for understanding the laws of a child's mental development.

Social Psychology studies human relationships, phenomena that arise in the process of communication and interaction of people with each other in various groups, in particular in the family, school, in student and pedagogical groups. Such knowledge is necessary for the psychologically correct organization of education.

Pedagogical psychology combines all information related to education and upbringing. Particular attention is paid to the justification and development of methods for teaching and educating people of different ages.

The three following branches of psychology - medical and pathopsychology, as well as psychotherapy- deal with deviations from the norm in the psyche and behavior of a person. The task of these branches of psychological science is to explain the causes of possible mental disorders and to substantiate methods for their prevention and treatment. Such knowledge is necessary where the teacher deals with the so-called difficult, including pedagogically neglected, children or people in need of psychological help.

legal psychology considers a person's assimilation of legal norms and rules of behavior and is also needed for education.

Psychodiagnostics poses and solves the problems of psychological assessment of the level of development of children and their differentiation.

If we put its principles as the basis for the classification of branches of psychology, then we get the following classification of branches.

1. According to the principle of activity: labor psychology, military, pedagogical, sports, engineering, clinical, legal, arts, aviation, science, space, etc.

Psychology labor and studies the psychological characteristics of human labor activity, the psychological aspects of the scientific organization of labor (NOT). The task of labor psychology includes the study of the professional characteristics of a person, the patterns of development of labor skills, the elucidation of the impact on the worker of the production environment, the design and location of instruments and machine tools, signaling equipment, etc.

Pedagogical psychology has as its subject of study the psychological patterns of education and upbringing of a person. It explores the formation of students' thinking, studies the problems of managing the process of mastering the techniques and skills of intellectual activity, finds out the psychological factors that affect the success of the learning process, the relationship between the teacher and the student and the relationship in the student team, individual psychological differences among students, the psychological characteristics of the educational work with children who show deviations in mental development, the psychological specifics of working with adults in the process of their education, etc. Sections or narrow areas of educational psychology include: the psychology of education, the psychology of education, the psychology of the teacher, the psychology of educational work with abnormal children.

medical psychology- studies the psychological aspects of the doctor's activity and the behavior of the patient. It is subdivided into neuropsychology, which studies the correlation of mental phenomena with physiological brain structures; psychopharmacology, which studies the effect of medicinal substances on a person's mental activity; psychotherapy, which studies and uses means of mental influence to treat a patient; psychoprophylaxis and psychohygiene, developing a system of measures to ensure the mental health of people.

legal psychology– considers psychological issues related to the implementation of the system of law. It is subdivided into forensic psychology, which studies the mental characteristics of the behavior of participants in a criminal process (the psychology of testimonies, the characteristics of the behavior of the accused, the psychological requirements for interrogation, etc.); criminal psychology, which deals with the psychological problems of behavior and the formation of the personality of the offender, the motives of the crime, etc.; penitentiary or corrective labor psychology, which studies the psychology of a prisoner in a corrective labor colony, the psychological problems of education by methods of persuasion and coercion, etc.

Military psychology explores human behavior in combat conditions, the psychological aspects of the relationship between superiors and subordinates, methods of psychological propaganda, counter-propaganda, psychological problems of controlling military equipment, etc.

Sports Psychology considers the psychological characteristics of the personality and activity of athletes, the conditions and means of their psychological preparation, the psychological parameters of the athlete's fitness and mobilization readiness, psychological factors associated with the organization and conduct of competitions.

Psychology of trading- finds out the psychological conditions of the impact of advertising, individual, age and other characteristics of demand, the psychological factors of customer service, explores issues of fashion psychology, etc.

Recently, the development of problems of psychology has begun, scientific creativity(features of a creative personality, factors stimulating creative activity, the role of intuition in the implementation of a scientific discovery, etc.)

A peculiar section of the psychology of scientific creativity is heuristic, whose tasks include not only the study of the patterns of creative (heuristic) activity, but also the development of methods for managing heuristic processes.

Psychology of artistic creation(in the field of literature and art) and aesthetic education - an area whose significance is not in doubt, but still poorly understood.

2. According to the principle of development: Age, comparative, zoopsychology, ethology, pathopsychology, psychogenetics, etc.

Age-related psychology, which studies the ontogeny of various mental processes and psychological qualities of the personality of a developing person, branches into child psychology, adolescent psychology, youth psychology, adult psychology, and gerontopsychology. Developmental psychology explores age-related features of mental processes, age-related opportunities for acquiring knowledge, factors in personality development, etc. One of the central problems of developmental psychology - the problem of learning and mental development and their interdependence is widely discussed by psychologists who are busy finding reliable criteria for mental development and determining the conditions under which effective mental development is achieved in the learning process.

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Lecture notes

By discipline: "Fundamentals of General Psychology"

Topic: “General characteristics of psychology as a science. The main branches of psychology "

In scientific research, the spiritual qualities of a person are usually called mental, and the science that studies them is called psychology. The question naturally arises as to how this science got its name. The term "psychology" comes from two Greek words: "psyche" - soul and "logos" - teaching. Thus, psychology is the science of the soul. However, the term "soul" is rarely used in scientific psychology. But it is widely used in everyday life. Evaluating a person, people, first of all, talk about his soul: a bright soul, an honest soul, a kind soul, a dark soul, a low soul.

Psychology owes its name and first definition to Greek mythology. Eros, the son of Aphrodite, fell in love with a very beautiful girl, Psyche. Aphrodite was unhappy with her son's choice and did her best to separate the lovers. However, Eros and Psyche overcame all obstacles, their love won. For the Greeks, this myth was a model of true love, the highest realization of the human soul. Psyche has become a symbol of the soul seeking its ideal.

The word "psychology" itself, although it was found in the literature as early as the 10th century, was introduced as a designation for the science of the soul by the German philosopher H. Wolf only in the 18th century (in the books "Rational Psychology" and "Empirical Psychology"). Psychology is a young branch of knowledge that emerged as an independent science in the middle of the 19th century. It is dynamic and promising, as it responds to the demands of modern social and economic progress, which involves the improvement of people and their psyche. Instead of the term "soul" in modern scientific psychology, the term "psyche" is used.

Psychology- the science of the laws of origin, development and functioning of the human psyche and consciousness.

In its turn, psyche- this is a property of the brain that provides humans and animals with the ability to reflect the effects of objects and phenomena of the real world. Consciousness- the highest form of the human psyche, a product of socio-historical development.

Consider the main features of psychology as a science.

First of all, psychology is the science of the most complex that is known to mankind. It deals with the property of highly organized matter, called the psyche.

Secondly, the tasks of psychology are more difficult than the tasks of any other sciences, since only in it the thought, as it were, makes a turn on itself (in psychology, the object and subject of knowledge merge (a person studies himself).

Thirdly psychology is one of the youngest sciences. Conventionally, its scientific design is associated with 1879, when the world's first Laboratory of Experimental Psychology was created in Leipzig by the German psychologist Wilhelm Wundt.

Fourth, psychology has a unique practical value for any person. It allows:

to know oneself more deeply, and therefore to change oneself;

learn to manage their mental functions, actions and all their behavior;

better understand other people and interact with them.

The subject of study of modern psychology is mental processes, mental states and mental propertiespersonalities.

mental processes are dynamic formations of the psyche, which are characterized by great mobility, intensity and instability. Mental processes include three main aspects of mental life: knowledge, feelings and will. Cognitive processes include: sensations, perception, attention, memory, imagination, thinking; with their help we comprehend the world and ourselves. Feelings, emotions reflect a person's experience of attitude to the phenomena of the surrounding world, the events of his life. Will provides regulation of behavior.

mental states- holistic manifestations of the personality, reflecting the general internal mood, characterizing the level of its activity. These include, for example: curiosity, composure, absent-mindedness, passivity, confidence, etc.

Mental properties are not only stable, difficult to change formations, but are also characterized by a more complex structure than other mental phenomena. These include: orientation, motivation, temperament, character and abilities.

There is an inextricable connection between all the structural elements of the psyche. At the heart of mental activity are mental processes that reflect both the external and internal world of a person. On their basis, subjective, internal states arise that fill the spiritual world of a person. Mental properties arise on the basis of mental processes and states that are fixed and have a stable permanent character characteristic of a particular person.

The form of existence of mental phenomena can also be varied. It can be: impressions, images, ideas, thoughts, views, experiences, dreams and ideals.

The human psyche provides internal regulation of its activity, expressed in behavior and activity.

So the main tasks of modern psychology are:

The study of qualitative (structural) features of mental phenomena and processes:

analysis of the formation and development of mental phenomena in activity and in the conditions of life in general;

study of the physiological mechanisms underlying mental phenomena;

Assistance in the systematic introduction of psychological knowledge into the practice of people's lives and activities.

The inclusion of psychological science in the solution of practical problems significantly changes the features of the development of its theory. Tasks, the solution of which requires psychological competence, arise in all spheres of human life, determined by the growing role of the so-called human factor, which takes into account a wide range of socio-psychological, psychological and psycho-physiological properties of a person manifested in his life.

Psychology, like any other science, has gone through a certain path of development. Famous psychologist of the late XIX - early XX century. G. Ebbinghaus was able to say very briefly and precisely about psychology - psychology has a huge prehistory and a very short history. History refers to that period in the study of the psyche, which was marked by a departure from philosophy, a rapprochement with the natural sciences and the emergence of their own experimental methods. This happened in the second half of the 19th century, but the origins of psychology are lost in the mists of time.

From the point of view of changing a person's ideas about mental phenomena in the process of historical development and changing the subject of research in psychological science, four stages can be conventionally distinguished in the history of psychology. At the first stage, psychology existed as the science of the soul, at the second - as the science of consciousness, at the third - as the science of behavior, and at the fourth - as the science of the psyche. Let's consider each of them in more detail.

A feature of psychology as a scientific discipline is that a person has been confronted with manifestations of the psyche since he began to realize himself as a person. However, psychic phenomena for a long time remained an incomprehensible mystery for him. For example, the idea of the soul as a special substance, separate from the body, is deeply rooted among the people. This opinion was formed among people because of the fear of death, since even primitive man knew that people and animals die. At the same time, the human mind was not able to explain what happens to a person when he dies. At the same time, primitive people already knew that when a person sleeps, that is, does not come into contact with the outside world, he sees dreams - incomprehensible images of a non-existent reality. Probably, the desire to explain the relationship between life and death, the interaction of the body and some unknown intangible world led to the emergence of the belief that a person consists of two parts: tangible, i.e. body, and intangible, i.e. soul. From this point of view, life and death could be explained by the state of unity of soul and body. While a person is alive, his soul is in the body, and when it leaves the body, the person dies. When a person sleeps, the soul leaves the body for a while and is transferred to some other place. Thus, long before mental processes, properties, states became the subject of scientific analysis, a person tried to explain their origin and content in an accessible form.

It is likely that the desire of a person to understand himself led to the formation of one of the first sciences - philosophy. It was within the framework of this science that the question of the nature of the soul was considered. Therefore, it is no coincidence that one of the central issues of any philosophical direction is connected with the problem of the origin of man and his spirituality. Namely, what is primary: soul, spirit, i.e. ideal, or body, matter. The second, no less significant, question of philosophy is the question of whether it is possible to know the reality surrounding us and the person himself.

Depending on how the philosophers answered these basic questions, and all can be attributed to certain philosophical schools and trends. It is customary to single out two main directions in philosophy: idealistic and materialistic.

The study and explanation of the soul is the first stage in the development of psychology. But answering the question, what is the soul, was not so easy. Representatives of idealistic philosophy consider the psyche as something primary, existing independently, independently of matter. They see in mental activity a manifestation of an immaterial, incorporeal and immortal soul, and they interpret all material things and processes either as our sensations and ideas, or as some mysterious manifestation of the “absolute spirit”, “world will”, “ideas”. Such views are quite understandable, since idealism arose when people, having practically no idea about the structure and functions of the body, thought that mental phenomena represent the activity of a special, supernatural being - the soul and spirit, which instills in a person at the time of birth and leaves him at the moment of sleep and death. Initially, the soul was represented as a special subtle body or being living in different organs. With the development of religious views, the soul began to be understood as a kind of double of the body, as an incorporeal and immortal spiritual entity associated with the “other world”, where it lives forever, leaving a person.

The materialistic understanding of the psyche differs from idealistic views in that, from this point of view, the psyche is a secondary phenomenon derived from matter. However, the first representatives of materialism were very far in their interpretations of the soul from modern ideas about the psyche. So, Heraclitus(530-470 BC) speaks of the material nature of mental phenomena and the unity of soul and body. According to his teaching, all things are modifications of fire. Everything that exists, including the physical and mental, is constantly changing. In the microcosm of the organism, the general rhythm of the transformations of fire is repeated on the scale of the entire cosmos, and the fiery principle in the organism is the soul - the psyche. The soul, according to Heraclitus, is born by evaporation from moisture and, returning to a wet state, perishes. The drier the soul, the wiser it is.

With the idea of fire as the basis of the existing world, we also meet in the works of another famous ancient Greek thinker Democritus(460-370 BC), who developed an atomistic model of the world. According to him, the soul is a material substance, which consists of atoms of fire, spherical, light and very mobile. Democritus tried to explain all mental phenomena by physical and even mechanical causes. So, in his opinion, human sensations arise because the atoms of the soul are set in motion by air atoms or atoms that directly “flow” from objects.

We encounter much more complex concepts of the soul in the views Aristaboutbody(384-322 BC). His treatise "On the Soul" is the first specially psychological work, which for a long time remained the main guide to psychology, and Aristotle himself can rightfully be considered the founder of psychology. He denied the view of the soul as a substance. At the same time, he did not consider it possible to consider the soul in isolation from matter (living bodies), as the idealist philosophers did. The soul, according to Aristotle, is an expediently functioning organic system. The main essence of the soul, according to Aristotle, is the realization of the biological existence of the organism.

The ethical aspects of the soul were most clearly revealed for the first time by a student Socrates(470-399 BC) - Plato(427-347 BC). In the works of Plato, the view of the soul as an independent substance is stated. In his opinion, the soul exists along with the body and independently of it. The soul is an invisible, sublime, divine, eternal principle. The body is the beginning of the visible, base, transient, perishable. Soul and body are in a complex relationship. According to its divine origin, the soul is called to control the body. However, sometimes the body, torn apart by various desires and passions, takes precedence over the soul. Plato's idealism is clearly expressed in these views. Plato and Socrates draw ethical conclusions from their conception of the soul. . The soul is the highest thing in a person, so he must take care of its health much more than the health of the body. At death, the soul leaves the body, and depending on what kind of life a person led, a different fate awaits his soul: either it will wander near the earth, burdened with earthly elements, or it will fly off from the earth into an ideal world.

The next major stage in the development of psychology is associated with the name of the French philosopher Rene Descartes(1596-1650). Descartes is considered the founder of rationalist philosophy. According to his ideas, knowledge should be built on directly obvious data, on direct intuition. They must be deduced from it by the method of logical reasoning.

Based on his point of view, Descartes believed that a person from childhood absorbs many delusions, taking various statements and ideas on faith. Therefore, in order to find the truth, in his opinion, one must first question everything, including the reliability of the information received by the senses. In such a denial, one can reach the point that the Earth does not exist. What then remains? Our doubt remains, a sure sign that we are thinking. Hence the well-known expression belonging to Descartes "I think - therefore I exist." Further, answering the question "What is a thought?", he says that thinking is "everything that happens in us", everything that we "perceive directly by itself." In these judgments lies the basic postulate of the psychology of the second half of the 19th century. - the postulate that the first thing a person discovers in himself is his conscienceanie.

Approximately from this time, a new idea of the subject of psychology arises. The ability to think, feel, desire began to be called consciousness. Thus, the psyche was equated with consciousness. The psychology of the soul has been replaced by the psychology of consciousness. However, consciousness has long been considered separately from all other natural processes. Philosophers interpreted conscious life in different ways, considering it a manifestation of the divine mind or the result of subjective sensations. But all idealist philosophers were united by a common conviction that mental life is a manifestation of a special subjective world, cognizable only in self-observation and inaccessible either to objective scientific analysis or to causal explanation. This understanding has become very widespread, and the approach has become known as the introspective interpretation of consciousness. psychology process behavior human

For a long time, the method of introspection was not just the main, but the only method of psychology. It is based on two statements developed by representatives of introspective psychology: firstly, the processes of consciousness are “closed” to external observation, but, secondly, the processes of consciousness are able to open up to the subject. From these statements it follows that the processes of consciousness of a particular person can be studied only by himself and no one else.

The ideologist of the method of introspection was the philosopher John Locke (1632-1704), who developed Descartes' thesis about the direct comprehension of thoughts. J. Locke argued that there are two sources of all knowledge: the objects of the external world and the activity of our own mind. A person directs his external senses to the objects of the external world and as a result receives impressions of external things, and a special inner feeling lies at the basis of the activity of the mind - reflection. Locke defined it as "the observation to which the mind subjects its activities." At the same time, under the activity of the mind, Locke understood thinking, doubt, faith, reasoning, knowledge, desire.

In parallel with the teachings of J. Locke, science began to develop association direction. The emergence and development of associative psychology was associated with the names of D. Hume and D. Gartley.

The English physician D. Gartley (1705-1757), opposing himself to the materialists, nevertheless, laid the foundations of the associative theory, materialistic in its spirit. He saw the cause of mental phenomena in the vibration that occurs in the brain and nerves. In his opinion, the nervous system is a system subject to physical laws. Accordingly, the products of its activity were included in a strictly causal series, no different from the same in the external, physical world. This causal series covers the behavior of the whole organism: both the perception of vibrations in the external environment (ether), and the vibrations of nerves and brain matter, and the vibrations of muscles.

It should be noted that by the middle of the XIX century. associative psychology was the dominant trend. And it was within the framework of this direction at the end of the 19th century. the method of introspection became very widely used. The fascination with introspection was rampant. It was believed that the cause-and-effect relationship of mental phenomena is directly reflected in consciousness. It was believed that introspection, in contrast to our senses, which distort the information obtained by studying external objects, delivers psychological facts, so to speak, in their purest form.

However, over time, the widespread use of the method of introspection did not lead to the development of psychology, but, on the contrary, to a certain crisis. From the standpoint of introspective psychology, the mental is identified with consciousness. As a result of such an understanding, consciousness closed in on itself, and, consequently, there was a separation of the mental from objective being and the subject itself. Moreover, since it was argued that a psychologist can study himself, the psychological knowledge revealed in the process of such study did not find its practical application. Therefore, in practice, public interest in psychology has declined. Only professional psychologists were interested in psychology.

Thus, the impotence of the “psychology of consciousness” in the face of many practical tasks due to the development of industrial production, which required the development of means to control human behavior, led to the fact that in the second decade of the 20th century. a new direction of psychology arose, whose representatives announced a new subject of psychological science - it was not the psyche, not consciousness, but behavior, understood as a set of externally observed, mainly motor reactions of a person. This direction was called "behaviorism" (from the English. behavior - « behavior") and was the third stage in the development of ideas about the subject of psychology.

The founder of behaviorism, J. Watson, saw the task of psychology in the study of the behavior of a living being that adapts to its environment. Moreover, in the first place in the conduct of research in this area is the solution of practical problems due to social and economic development. Therefore, in only one decade, behaviorism has spread throughout the world and has become one of the most influential branches of psychological science.

In psychology, behavior is understood as the external manifestations of a person's mental activity. And in this regard, behavior is opposed to consciousness as a set of internal, subjectively experienced processes, and thus the facts of behavior in behaviorism and the facts of consciousness in introspective psychology are separated according to the method of their detection. Some are revealed by external observation, and others - by self-observation.

Watson believed that the most important thing in a person for the people around him is the actions and behavior of this person. And he was right, because, ultimately, our experiences, the features of our consciousness and thinking, that is, our mental individuality, as an external manifestation is reflected in our actions and behavior. But where we cannot agree with Watson is that, while arguing that it is necessary to study behavior, he denied the need to study consciousness. Thus, Watson separated the mental and its external manifestation - behavior.

According to Watson, psychology should become a natural science discipline and introduce an objective scientific method. The desire to make psychology an objective and natural science discipline led to the rapid development of an experiment based on principles different from introspective methodology, which brought practical results in the form of economic interest in the development of psychological science.

As you already understood, the main idea of behaviorism was based on the assertion of the significance of behavior and the complete denial of the existence of consciousness and the need to study it.

A special place in the development of psychological thought in Russia is occupied by the works of M. V. Lomonosov. In his works on rhetoric and physics, Lomonosov develops a materialistic understanding of sensations and ideas, speaks of the primacy of matter. According to Lomonosov, it is necessary to distinguish between cognitive (mental) processes and the mental qualities of a person. The latter arise from the correlation of mental faculties and passions. In turn, he considers the actions and sufferings of a person to be the source of passions. Thus, already in the middle of the XVIII century. the materialistic foundations of domestic psychology were laid.

The formation of Russian psychology took place under the influence of the French enlighteners and materialists of the 18th century. This influence is clearly visible in the works of Ya. P. Kozelsky and the psychological concept of A. N. Radishchev. Speaking about the scientific works of Radishchev, it must be emphasized that in his works he establishes the leading role of speech for the entire mental development of a person.

In our country, psychology as an independent science began to develop in the 19th century. A major role in its development at this stage was played by the works of A. I. Herzen, who spoke of “action” as an essential factor in the spiritual development of man. It should be noted that the psychological views of domestic scientists in the second half of the XIX century. largely contradicted the religious point of view on mental phenomena. One of the most striking works of that time was the work of I. M. Sechenov "Reflexes of the brain." This work made a significant contribution to the development of psychophysiology, neuropsychology, and the physiology of higher nervous activity.

At the end of XIX - beginning of XX century. in Russia, such psychological areas as general psychology, animal psychology, and child psychology are developing. Psychological knowledge began to be actively used in the clinic by S. S. Korsakov, I. R. Tarkhanov, V. M. Bekhterev. Psychology began to penetrate into the pedagogical process. In particular, the works of P. F. Lesgaft, devoted to the typology of children, were widely known.

G. I. Chelpanov, who was the founder of the first and oldest Psychological Institute in our country, played a particularly prominent role in the history of domestic pre-revolutionary psychology. Preaching positions of idealism in psychology, Chelpanov could not engage in scientific research after the October Revolution. However, the founders of Russian psychological science were replaced by new talented scientists. These are S. L. Rubinshtein, L. S. Vygotsky, A. R. Luria, who not only continued the research of their predecessors, but also raised an equally famous generation of scientists. Among them are B. G. Ananiev, A. N. Leontiev, P. Ya. Galperin, A. V. Zaporozhets, D. B. Elkonip. The main works of this group of scientists belong to the period of 30-60s of the XX century.

During this period, several scientific schools and directions arose. Thus, the well-known psychological school of D. N. Uznadze was formed in Georgia. Representatives of this trend adopted the concept of attitude and widely used it to analyze many psychological phenomena.

Another scientific direction is associated with the name of L. S. Vygotsky, the creator of the cultural-historical theory of the development of the human psyche. This direction mainly included scientists who worked at Moscow State University. The sphere of their scientific interests was the questions of general and pedagogical psychology.

The third school was created by S. L. Rubinshtein, who at one time directed scientific research at the Department of Psychology at Moscow State University and at the Institute of General and Pedagogical Psychology. S. L. Rubinshtein is credited with writing the first fundamental psychological work in our country, Fundamentals of General Psychology.

At the same time, such world-famous psychologists as B. M. Teplov and A. A. Smirnov lived and worked. The latter is known for his work in the psychology of memory, and B. M. Teplov laid the scientific foundations for the study of temperament and the psychology of creative activity.

In later years, the main modern psychological schools were formed. These are the schools of Leningrad (St. Petersburg) State University and Moscow State University. The creation of the first school is associated with the name of B. G. Ananiev, who not only formulated the principles of the study of man and determined from these positions the main directions in the development of psychology, but also created the Faculty of Psychology of Leningrad State University, from which a galaxy of famous scientists emerged.

A similar organizational role in the creation of the Faculty of Psychology at Moscow State University was played by A. N. Leontiev, the author of the psychological theory of activity. In addition, Leontiev's merit was the development of many problems in the field of perception, memory, consciousness, personality and the development of the psyche.

A. V. Zaporozhets, together with D. B. Elkonin, laid the foundations of child psychology. The sphere of the main scientific interests of Zaporozhets - the organizer and long-term head of the Institute of Preschool Education of the Academy of Pedagogical Sciences of the USSR - included issues of age development and education of children. Elkonin is known as the author of a textbook on child psychology, the theory of children's play, and the concept of periodization of age development.

The contribution to the development of pedagogical psychology by P. Ya. Galperin, the creator of the theory of planned (staged) formation of mental actions, is significant.

Thanks to the research of A. R. Luria, domestic psychology has made significant progress in the field of neurophysiological foundations of memory and thinking. The works of Luria laid the scientific and psychological basis for modern medical psychology. The results of his research are still widely used for diagnostic and therapeutic purposes in medical practice.

The works of the psychophysiologist E. N. Sokolov, who, together with his colleagues, created the modern theory of color vision, gained world fame; a theory that explains how a person perceives the shape of objects; neurophysiological theory of memory, etc.

No less well-known psychologists are working in our country at the present time, continuing the research and work of their predecessors. Their works make a worthy contribution to the development of modern psychological science.

Concluding this topic, it should be noted that psychology has come a long way of becoming. We will probably not be mistaken if we say that the first psychological views appeared together with humanity itself. Throughout the development of psychological science, idealistic and materialistic directions developed in parallel. Teachings based on materialistic views primarily contributed to the development of a natural scientific understanding of the nature of mental phenomena and the formation of experimental psychology. In turn, the teachings based on idealistic philosophical views brought ethical aspects of the mental into psychology. Due to this, modern psychology considers such problems as personal values, ideals, morality.

Modern psychology is a very branched science with many branches. Branches of psychology are relatively independently developing areas of scientific psychological research. Moreover, due to the rapid development of psychological science, new directions appear every four to five years.

The emergence of branches of psychology is due, firstly, to the widespread introduction of psychology into all areas of scientific and practical activity, and secondly, to the emergence of new psychological knowledge. Some branches of psychology differ from others primarily in the complex of problems and tasks that this or that scientific direction solves. At the same time, all branches of psychology can be conditionally divided into fundamental (general) and applied (special).

Fundamental(they are also called basic) branches of psychological science are of general importance for understanding and explaining various mental phenomena, including the behavior of people, regardless of what activity they are engaged in. Fundamental knowledge is necessary for everyone who deals with the problems of psychology and human behavior. Fundamental knowledge is the basis that not only unites all branches of the psychological science, but also serves as the basis for their development. Therefore, fundamental knowledge, as a rule, is united by the term "general psychology".

There are the following branches of fundamental psychology:

· general psychology- a branch of psychological science that combines fundamental psychological knowledge and solves problems in the study of an individual - a specific representative of a species Homo sapiens. It includes theoretical and experimental studies that reveal the most general psychological patterns, theoretical principles and methods of psychology, its basic concepts and categorical structure. The basic concepts of general psychology are mental processes (cognitive, volitional, emotional), mental properties (temperament, character, abilities, orientation) and mental states.

· age-related psychology, which studies the regularities of the stages of mental development and personality formation from birth to old age. Having emerged as child psychology, developmental psychology in the process of its development began to solve the problems of a holistic analysis of ontogenetic processes. Currently, the main sections of developmental psychology are: the psychology of childhood, the psychology of youth, the psychology of adulthood, and gerontopsychology. Developmental psychology studies the age-related dynamics of mental processes, which is impossible without taking into account the influence of cultural, historical, ethnic and socio-economic conditions on the individual development of a person. In addition, for developmental psychology, differential psychological differences, which include age-sex and typological properties, are of great importance, therefore very often studies in developmental psychology are carried out using the methods of differential psychology.

· differential psychology The branch of psychology that studies differences both between individuals and between groups, as well as the causes and consequences of these differences.

· social Psychology, which studies the patterns of behavior and activities of people, due to the fact of their inclusion in groups, as well as the psychological characteristics of the groups themselves. Modern social psychology as an independent science includes the following main sections: patterns of communication and interaction between people (here, in particular, the role of communication in the system of social and interpersonal relations is studied); psychological characteristics of social groups, both large (classes, nations) and small (where phenomena such as cohesion, leadership, etc. are studied); personality psychology (this includes problems of social attitude, socialization, etc.).

Applied called branches of science, the achievements of which are used in practice. In most cases, applied branches of psychological science solve specific problems within the framework of their direction. However, in some cases, achievements or scientific discoveries of applied industries can be of a fundamental nature, which determines the need to use newly acquired knowledge in all industries and areas.

Branches of applied psychology:

· pedagogical psychology- a branch of psychology that studies the psychological problems of training and education. Pedagogical psychology investigates the issues of purposeful formation of cognitive activity and socially significant personality traits, and also studies the conditions that ensure the optimal effect of learning. No less significant for educational psychology are the issues of taking into account the individual characteristics of the student in the construction of the educational process and the relationship between the student and the teacher, as well as relationships within the educational team. According to the areas of application, pedagogical psychology can be divided into the psychology of preschool education, the psychology of training and education at school age, divided into junior, middle and senior school age, the psychology of vocational training, and the psychology of higher education.

· political psychology- this is a branch of psychology that studies the psychological components of the political life and activities of people, their moods, opinions, feelings, value orientations, etc. These psychological phenomena are formed and manifested at the level of the political consciousness of nations, classes, social groups, governments, individuals and are realized in their specific political actions.

· psychology of art- a branch of psychological science, the subject of which is the properties and conditions of an individual or a group of individuals that determine the creation and perception of artistic values, as well as the influence of these values on the life of an individual and society as a whole.

· medical psychology studying the psychological aspects of hygiene, prevention, diagnosis, treatment, examination and rehabilitation of patients. The field of research in medical psychology includes a wide range of issues related to the onset, development and course of the disease, the influence of certain diseases on the human psyche and, conversely, the influence of the psyche on the disease. The structure of medical psychology includes the following sections: clinical psychology, including pathopsychology, neuropsychology, somatopsychology; general medical psychology; psychoprophylaxis and psychohygiene; psychocorrection.

· engineering psychology- a branch of psychology that studies the processes and means of interaction between man and machine. The main problems solved by engineering psychology are: analysis of human tasks in control systems, distribution of functions between humans and automatic devices; study of the joint activities of operators, information interaction between them and communication processes; analysis of the psychological structure of the operators' activity; study of factors affecting the efficiency, quality and reliability of operators' activities: study of the processes of receiving information by a person; analysis of the processes of information processing by a person, its storage and decision-making; development of methods for psychodiagnostics of human abilities in the interests of solving the problems of professional psychological selection and career guidance; analysis of the processes of optimizing the training of operators.

It should also be emphasized that in most cases the applied branches of psychology are not isolated from each other. Most often, in a particular branch of psychology, the knowledge or methodology of its other branches is used. For example, space psychology - a branch of psychological science dealing with the problems of psychological support for human activity in space - includes engineering psychology, medical psychology, educational psychology, etc. Consequently, the applied areas of psychology, according to the degree of their generalization, can be conditionally divided into syntheticeskies(combining knowledge of other areas) and primary(which are a relatively narrow and specific area of the applied industry). For example, medical psychology includes general medical psychology, clinical psychology, pathopsychology, psychohygiene and psychoprophylaxis, psychocorrection, etc. Similarly, in engineering psychology, the following sections can be distinguished: ergonomics, labor psychology, management, etc.

In conclusion, it should be noted that we have become acquainted with only a small number of branches of psychological science. In addition to those named, there are other branches of psychology that are no less interesting for scientific research and no less significant for practical human activity, including: sports psychology, legal psychology, aviation and space psychology, military psychology, psychology of computerization, experimental psychology. However, all these branches of psychology are not only independent areas, but also elements of a single complex science - psychology - and use common approaches to solving their specific problems. Thus, in order to specialize in a particular area of psychological science, it is necessary, first of all, to become familiar with its fundamental foundations.

1. Vygotsky L.S. Psychology. - M.: April-Press: Eksmo-Press, 2002.

2. Galperin P.Ya. Introduction to psychology. 3rd ed. - M.: University, 2000.

3. Gippenreiter Yu.B. Introduction to general psychology. - M.: AST, Astrel, 2008

4. Enikeev M.I. General psychology: Textbook for universities. - M.: Prior, 2002.

5. Ivannikov V. A. Branches of psychology // Reader for the course "Introduction to psychology" / Ed. E.E.Sokolova. - M., 1999.

6. Klimov E.A. Fundamentals of psychology: Textbook for universities. - M.: Unity, 2003.

7. Leontiev A.N. Lectures on General Psychology. - M.: Meaning, Academy, 2007.

8. Nemov R.S. Psychology. Textbook. - M.: Higher education, 2008.

9. Psychology: A textbook for the human. universities / Ed. V.N. Druzhinin. - St. Petersburg: Peter, 2002.

10. Rubinstein S.L. Fundamentals of General Psychology. - St. Petersburg: Peter, 2000.

11. Stankin M.I. General psychology: Functional phenomena of the human psyche: Teaching aid. - M.: MPSI; Voronezh: MODEK, 2001.

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Everyday and scientific psychology connection and differences

Everyday psychology is not a science, but simply views, ideas, beliefs and knowledge about the psyche, generalizing people's everyday experience, as well as life ... Scientific and everyday psychology are not antagonists, they cooperate, ... everyday and scientific psychologists are often one and the same man,

The main branches of psychological knowledge

With the development of psychology as a science, with the use of psychological knowledge in the most diverse spheres of human activity, certain branches of this knowledge gradually emerged and became independent.

Distinguish psychology general, age, pedagogical, social, genetic, engineering, military, medical, legal, sports, zoopsychology, labor psychology, art, pathopsychology. In connection with space flights, a special branch of psychology arose - space.

Each of these branches of psychological knowledge has certain subjects and methods for studying the uniqueness of mental activity, depending on the working conditions in a particular area of human life and activity and their requirements for the moral and psychological qualities of a person. However, all branches of psychological knowledge require knowledge of general psychology, which studies the methodological issues of psychology, the nature of psychological phenomena, the patterns of development and course of cognitive psychological processes, the individual characteristics of the human psyche, his feelings and will, temperament, character and abilities Warm floor teplofol, connecting warm floors. Profitable terms. .

In the era of scientific, technological and social progress, special attention of psychologists is attracted by the problems of labor psychology and social psychology.

Psychology theoretical and practical

Today, these two areas are significantly separated, but more and more people appear who understand the need to merge the theoretical and ... The main stages in the development of ideas about the subject of psychology Stages in the development of psychology:

The formation of domestic psychology

Later, at the turn of the century, experimental studies were continued by such scientists as A.F. Lazursky, N.N. Lange, G.I. Chelpanov. A.F. Lazursky dealt a lot with personality issues, especially with the study ... Having started a conversation about the experiment, we cannot but mention the name of N. N. Lange - one of the founders of the experimental ...

A. V. Zaporozhets, together with D. B. Elkonin, laid the foundations of child psychology. Elkonin is known as the author of a textbook on child psychology, the theory of children's play, and the concept of periodization of age development.

The contribution to the development of pedagogical psychology by P. Ya. Galperin, the creator of the theory of planned (staged) formation of mental actions, is significant.

The works of the psychophysiologist E. N. Sokolov gained worldwide fame, who, together with collaborators, created the modern theory of color vision; a theory explaining the perception of the shape of objects by a person; neurophysiological theory of memory, etc.

Domestic psychology initially developed as a materialistic one, so experimental methods were widely used in it.

Brief description of the features of the study of mental phenomena in foreign psychology

PSYCHOANALYSIS AS ONE OF THE TRENDS IN PSYCHOLOGY

The formation of 3. Freud's views went through two main stages. At the 1st stage, a dynamic model of the psyche was developed, including the idea of three ... However, very few followers of 3. Freud agreed with him that ... E. Erickson, on a large empirical material, proved the socio-cultural conditioning of the human psyche, as opposed to ...

Gestalt psychology.

The primary data of psychology are integral structures (gestalts), which in principle cannot be derived from the components that form them. Gestalts are inherent in ... Gestalt (German: Gestalt - form, image, structure) - spatially visual ... Gestalt psychology arose from the study of perception. In the center of her attention is the characteristic tendency of the psyche to ...

Psychology as the science of the soul.

The first stage is characterized as the stage of the science of the soul. At this period in the development of psychology, the human psyche was considered as something ... It was believed that the soul has the form of a subtle body or a creature that lives in all human organs. Later, due to...

What are Behavioral Facts?

secondly, individual movements and gestures, such as bowing, nodding, pushing, clenching the hand, knocking with the fist, etc.; thirdly, actions as larger acts of behavior that have a certain ... Based on these criteria, 16 types of behavior have been identified.

Perceptual behavior - the desire to cope with information overload due to perceptual categorization, as a result of which the variety of influencing information is classified, simplified and can lead to both a clearer understanding of what is being assessed and the loss of meaningful information. Protective behavior - any real or imaginary actions of psychological defense (rejection, substitution, projection, regression), which allow you to create, maintain a positive image of the "I", a positive opinion of a person about himself. Inductive behavior - people's perception and evaluation of themselves based on the interpretation of the meaning of their own actions.

Habitual Behavior – Satisfaction with Positive Reinforcement- creates a greater likelihood of reproducing familiar behaviors in appropriate situations. Utilitarian behavior - the desire of a person to solve a practical problem with maximum achievement(subjective experience of maximum possible success). Role behavior in accordance with role requirements, circumstances that force a person to take some action (even if it does not coincide with personal aspirations). Scenario behavior - a person is an executor of a set of rules of acceptable "decent" behavior corresponding to his status in a given culture, society. Modeling behavior - options for the behavior of people in small and large groups (infection, imitation, suggestion), but difficult to control both by the person himself and by other people. Balancing behavior - when a person has simultaneously conflicting opinions, assessments, attitudes and tries to "reconcile" them, harmonize them by changing their assessments, claims, memories. Liberating behavior - a person seeks to "secure himself" (physically or his reputation) from real or apparent "negative conditions of existence" (to maintain the stability of his internal emotional state through active external actions: avoid possible failures, rejection of unattractive goals, pliability. Attributive behavior - active elimination of contradictions between real behavior and the subjective system of opinions, weakening, elimination of cognitive dissonance between desires, thoughts and real actions, bringing them to mutual correspondence Expressive behavior - in those cases, areas in which a person has achieved a high level of mastery and satisfaction from "a job well done", while maintaining a consistently high self-esteem, the constant reproduction of which is the main regulator of everyday social behavior Autonomous behavior - when a sense of freedom of choice (even the illusion of such a choice and control of one's actions) is created there is a person’s readiness to overcome any barriers on the way to achieving the goal (a high level of internal “locus of control” of one’s actions, self-image as an active “doer”, and not an executor of someone’s orders, someone’s will). Approving behavior is the experience of one's actions as the accomplishment of one's plans with the maximum use of one's own internal conditions. Exploratory behavior - the desire for novelty of the physical and social environment, the willingness to "tolerate" information uncertainty, the "reduction" of various external information to a form to which previously mastered methods of processing it are applicable. Empathic behavior - accounting, a large coverage of sensory information underlying the interpersonal interaction of people, the ability to feel and understand the emotional and mental state of another person.

deeds- even larger acts of behavior that, as a rule, have a public, or social, sound and are associated with norms of behavior, relationships, self-esteem, etc. So, external bodily reactions, gestures, movements, actions, deeds - this is a list of phenomena related to behavior. All of them are objects of psychological interest, since they directly reflect the subjective states of the content of consciousness, personality traits.

Any act of a person can be:

1. the result of a response to external influences (reactive behavior) or

2. manifestation of some internal source of activity, internal need, desire (active behavior).

The purpose of a person's action can be:

1. maintaining a habitual, adaptive state (stability) or

2. acquisition of a new quality, new results (development).

An act can end when:

1. desired internal effect (opinion, assessment, feeling, mood) or

2. desired external effect, external result (achievement of agreement, understanding, desired result, etc.).

A human act has three components:

1. the action itself,

3. feelings experienced when performing a certain action. Outwardly similar actions may be different, since thoughts and feelings were different.

Methods of psychology.

Methods of psychology- the main ways and methods of scientific evidence of mental phenomena and their patterns.

In psychology, it is customary to distinguish four groups of methods for studying the psyche.

Organizational methods: comparative, comparative-age, longitudinal and complex.

Comparative age method - comparison of individual characteristics of people by age in order to identify the dynamics of the studied mental ... Longitudinal method - multiple examinations of the same persons over the course of ... The complex method involves the implementation of research programs in which representatives of different ...

Empirical methods: observation and self-observation; experimental methods; psychodiagnostic methods (tests, questionnaires, questionnaires, sociometric method, interview and conversation); analysis of the process and products of activity; biographical methods.

Data processing methods: quantitative (statistical) and qualitative (differentiation of material by groups, variants, description of typical cases, description of exceptions, etc.).

Interpretation methods: genetic and structural.

The structural method establishes "horizontal" structural links between all the studied personality characteristics. Any psychological research has several general stages. ... The processing of the material includes the following stages:

General classification of empirical research methods in psychology.

Observation is one of the main empirical methods of psychology, consisting in a deliberate, systematic and purposeful perception of mental phenomena in order to study their specific changes under certain conditions and to search for the meaning of these phenomena, which is not directly given.

The description of phenomena based on observation is scientific if the psychological understanding of the inner side of the observed act contained in it gives a natural explanation of its external manifestation.

Only exteriorized (external) manifestations of verbal and non-verbal behavior are available for observation:

pantomime (posture, gait, gestures, postures, etc.);

facial expressions (facial expression, its expressiveness, etc.);

Speech (silence, talkativeness, verbosity, laconism; stylistic features, content and culture of speech; intonation richness, etc.);

Behavior in relation to other people (position in the team and attitude to this, the method of establishing contact, the nature of communication, communication style, position in communication, etc.);

the presence of contradictions in behavior (demonstration of different, opposite in meaning ways of behavior in situations of the same type);

Behavioral manifestations of attitude towards oneself (to one's appearance, shortcomings, advantages, opportunities, personal belongings);

Behavior in psychologically significant situations (task completion, conflict);

Behavior in the main activity (work).

Factors that determine the complexity of knowing the internal through observation of the external are:

polysemy of connections of subjective psychic reality with its external manifestation;

· multilevel, hierarchical structure of mental phenomena;

· unique character and uniqueness of mental phenomena .

There is the following classification of types of observation

Depending on the position of the observer:

· open – observation, in which the observed are aware of their role as the object of research;

· hidden- observation, which is not reported to the subjects, carried out unnoticed by them.

Depending on the activity of the observer:

· passive– observation without any direction;

· active- observation of specific phenomena, the absence of interference in the observed process;

· laboratory (experimental)– observation in artificially created conditions. natural (field)– observation of objects in the natural conditions of their daily life and activities.

Depending on the frequency:

· random– observation not planned in advance, performed due to unexpected circumstances;

· systematic– intentional observation carried out according to a premeditated plan and, as a rule, according to a predetermined schedule;

· included- observation, in which the observer is a member of the group under study and studies it, as it were, from the inside;

unincluded– observation from the outside, without the interaction of the observer with the object of study. This type of observation, in fact, is an objective (external) observation.

In order:

· random - observation not planned in advance, performed due to unexpected circumstances;

· continuous– continuous observation of the object without interruption. It is usually used for short term studies or when it is necessary to obtain the most complete information about the dynamics of the phenomena under study;

· selective– observation carried out at separate time intervals chosen by the researcher at his own discretion;

· systematic- intentional observation, carried out according to a premeditated plan and, as a rule, according to a predetermined schedule.

5. From the point of view of the chronological organization of observation:

· longitudinal– observation for a long time;

· periodic– observation during certain intervals

kov time;

· single– description of a particular case.

Features of the application of the observation method

The wealth of information collected (analysis of both verbal information and actions, movements, deeds)

Subjectivity (the results largely depend on the experience, scientific views, qualifications, interests, work capacity of the researcher)

Preservation of the naturalness of the conditions of activity

It is acceptable to use a variety of technical means

It is not necessary to obtain the prior consent of the subjects

Significant loss of time due to passivity of the observer

Inability to control the situation, intervene in the course of events without distorting them

Requirements for recording data in the observation diary:

adequate transmission of the meaning of the observed phenomena;

accuracy and figurativeness of formulations;

a mandatory description of the situation (background, context) in which the observed behavior took place.

Experiment

Rice. 6. Classification of types of experiment: a - depending on the conditions of the experiment; b - depending on ... mental phenomena

Questionnaire

1. Determination of the content of the questionnaire. This may be a list of questions about the facts of life, interests, motives, assessments, relationships. 2. Selecting the type of questions. Questions are divided into open, closed and ... 3. Determining the number and order of questions asked.

Test method

A test is a method of psychological measurement, consisting of a series of brief tasks and aimed at diagnosing the individual severity of properties and ... Depending on the area that is to be diagnosed, there are ... The following types of tests are distinguished:

Method of expert assessments

One of the most important points in using this method is the choice of experts. Experts can be persons who know the subject well and ...

Method of analysis of the process and products of activity

biographical method

Characteristics of the main methods. Observation is a systematic and purposeful recording of psychological facts in natural conditions ...

The main types of psychological tests.

I. Tests of personality (features of intelligence): a) tests of action (targeted personality tests): · tests of the structure of the intellect by R. Amthauer (method of studying the features of thinking);

A natural experiment, or field experiment, is a type of experiment that is carried out under the conditions of normal life of the subject with a minimum of experimenter intervention in this process.

This is an experiment carried out in ordinary life, when there seems to be no experiment and no experimenter.

This type of psychological experiment is used, for example, in many studies on social psychology, and is often carried out in a pilot mode, a trial version.

Possibilities and limitations of the method

When conducting such an experiment, it remains possible, if ethical and organizational considerations allow, to leave the subject in the dark about his role and participation in the experiment, which has the advantage that the fact of conducting the study will not affect the naturalness of the subject's behavior.

Limitations of the method - the experimenter's ability to control additional variables is limited.

Types and forms of natural experiment

Introductory tasks. In its simplest form, it is widely used in the form of introductory tasks. Tasks… Formative experiment

Control over additional variables

As a control over additional variables, the researcher should carry out:

Finding out all the irrelevant factors that can be identified

If possible, keep these factors unchanged during the experiment

Tracking the change of irrelevant factors during the experiment

Examples of psychological laboratory experiments

The Milgram Experiment Participants were presented with this experiment as a study of the effects of pain on memory. The experiment involved an experimenter, a subject, and an actor who played the role of another subject. It was stated that one of the participants ("student") must memorize pairs of words from a long list until he remembers each pair, and the other ("teacher") - check the memory of the first and punish him for each mistake with an increasingly stronger electric discharge.

At the beginning of the experiment, the roles of teacher and student were distributed between the subject and the actor "by lot" using folded sheets of paper with the words "teacher" and "student", and the subject always got the role of teacher. After that, the "student" was tied to a chair with electrodes. Both the “student” and the “teacher” received a “demonstration” shock with a voltage of 45 V.

The “teacher” went into another room, began to give the “student” simple memory tasks, and with each mistake of the “student”, he pressed the button, supposedly punishing the “student” with an electric shock (in fact, the actor who played the “student” only pretended to who gets hit). Starting with 45 V, the "teacher" with each new error had to increase the voltage by 15 V up to 450 V.

At “150 volts”, the “student” actor began to demand to stop the experiment, but the experimenter said to the “teacher”: “The experiment must be continued. Please continue." As the tension increased, the actor acted out more and more discomfort, then intense pain, and finally yelled for the experiment to be stopped. If the subject showed hesitation, the experimenter assured him that he took full responsibility for both the experiment and the safety of the "student" and that the experiment should be continued. At the same time, however, the experimenter did not threaten the doubting "teachers" in any way and did not promise any reward for participating in this experiment.

Formative experiment

In such an experiment, two groups usually participate: experimental and control. The participants of the experimental group are offered a certain ... Formative psychological and pedagogical experiment as a method appeared due to ...

Advantages and disadvantages of the observation method.

There are certain requirements for the organization and conduct of scientific observation: - drawing up an observation plan; - fixing the results (most often in the form of an observation diary);

Leontiev singled out the instinctive, perceptual, intellectual stage of the psyche.

Irritability and sensitivity.

2. Changes in the physiological state of the whole organism, its organs, tissues or cells under the influence of external influences, called ... Irritability refers to the fundamental properties of living systems: its presence is ... SENSITIVITY (English sensitivity).

The simplest forms of animal behavior

Taxis The single-celled creatures at the bottom of the animal ladder have more complex behavior. Such, for example, is paramecia (Fig. 1.5) - a tiny organism, barely visible to the naked eye (its length is 0.25 mm), living in ponds and puddles almost all over the globe. It consists of a single cell, equipped with a "mouth" and a primitive digestive system, and scattered on its surface are areas that are sensitive to light, heat, touch, and various chemical factors. Paramecium is covered with cilia, due to the undulating beating of which, directed backward, the cell moves forward. Paramecia feeds on bacteria, which it digests, extracting nutrients from them and throwing the rest into the water. With very simple automatic movements, the paramecium is guided towards anything that looks like food and away from any unpleasant stimuli, particularly from too bright light. Such a general and, moreover, mechanical orientation of the organism in relation to the source of irritation was called taxis. Taxis are usually characteristic of unicellular organisms lacking a nervous system, but are also observed in some species with a higher organization.

As we have just seen, taxis are reactions of the organism as a whole to certain stimuli emanating from the environment. These primitive behaviors disappear as we move up the evolutionary ladder. Their place is taken by more localized and more precise reactions - reflexes; these are already mechanisms associated with the development of the nervous system. For unicellular organisms in the process of evolution, multicellular organisms follow, in which different groups of cells perform different functions. A good example is the jellyfish, whose body consists of a gelatinous mass in the shape of an umbrella. Jellyfish can be found swimming in the sea (Fig. 1.6). They do not yet have a brain, but already have a primitive nervous system, consisting of nerve cells interconnected like a fishing net. If you touch the surface of the jellyfish in some place, then the irritation quickly spreads throughout the network, and as a result of muscle contraction, the animal moves away from the stimulus. For example, when a crab tries to grab a jellyfish with its claws, the nervous network reacts to this irritation and the animal swims away from the source of danger. Instinctive behavior and individual skills.

. Instinctive behavior is a species behavior that is equally directed in all representatives of the same animal species. As a rule, instinctive behavior is determined by biological expediency and consists in ensuring the possibility of the existence (survival) of a particular representative or species as a whole. But it would not be entirely true to say that the behavior of an animal is only genetically determined and does not change during life.

The conditions in which the animal is located are constantly changing, therefore, individual adaptation exists in all animals.

A feature of animal behavior in the early stages of development is that it is always motivated and controlled individual properties of objects, affecting the animal.
Firstly, what explains the motivating effect of certain properties of objects and, secondly, why is any behavior of animals possible at all? The answer to the first question is simple: the vibration of the web is steadily associated with the absorption and assimilation of food by the spider - an insect that has fallen into the web. Therefore, such behavior of animals has a biological meaning, since it is associated with the satisfaction of biological needs, in this case with the absorption of food.

It should be noted that the biological meaning of the impact of objects that excite and direct the behavior of an animal is not constant, but changes and develops depending on the specific living conditions of the animal and the characteristics of the environment.
This stage of development, characterized by the fact that the animal's behavior is stimulated by individual properties of the object due to the fact that they are associated with the implementation of the basic vital functions of animals, is called stage of elementary behavior. Accordingly, this level of development of the psyche is called stage of the elementary sensory psyche.
individual skills.
Now it is necessary to answer the question, why is this behavior possible in animals? Such behavior of an animal is possible due to the existence of certain organs, which are the material basis of the mental. At the stage of elementary behavior in the development of animals, sensory differentiation. Mollusks are at a higher stage of development. Due to the bending of the plates, the light-sensitive organs acquire a spherical shape, due to which the molluscs are able to perceive the movement of surrounding objects.

Animals that have reached the stage of elementary behavior in their development have more developed organs of movement (which is associated with the need to pursue prey) and a special organ for communication and coordination of behavioral processes - nervous system. Initially, it is a network of fibers running in different directions and directly connecting sensitive cells laid on the surface of the body with the contractile tissue of the animal - networked nervous system.
In the process of further development of the nervous system, the allocation of central nerve nodes, or ganglia, is observed. This level of development of the nervous system is called nodal nervous system. The emergence of nodes in the nervous system is associated with the formation of segments of the animal's body. In this case, the complication of the behavior of the animal is observed. First, the appearance chain behavior, which is a chain of reactions to individual sequential stimuli. Describing this type of behavior, Leontiev A.N. cites as an example some insects that lay their eggs in cocoons of other species. At first, the insect goes to the cocoon under the influence smell. Then, when approaching the cocoon, the insect acts visually. Finally, the laying itself takes place depending on whether the larva is mobile in the cocoon, which is revealed upon direct contact with the cocoon, i.e. based touch.

STAGE OF INTELLIGENCE

Thanks to the experiments carried out by Pavlov's collaborators and his followers, today we have a clear idea of the level of development of animals... Firstly, if operations were formed at a lower stage of development... Secondly, if we repeat the experiment, the found operation, despite the fact that it was performed only 1 time, will be ...

Language and tool activity of animals.

Another important feature of the language of animals is the dependence of the alphabet of signals on the situation. Many animals have only 10-20 sounds in the alphabet... The language of postures and body movements. An important role in the exchange of information is played by the language of postures and ... The language of smells. The most important element of the language of animals is the language of smells. Many species have special scents...

General concept of the psyche

Psychology studies that property of the brain, which consists in the mental reflection of material reality, as a result of which ... Mental images provide the achievement of certain goals, and their content ... Consciousness does not photographically reflect the phenomena of reality. It reveals objective internal connections between...

Types of mental processes

cognitive

Feeling

· Performance

Imagination

· Attention

Related to higher mental functions:

· Perception

· Thinking

emotional

· Feelings

Affects

Volitional

Fighting motives

· Decision-making

・Goal setting

Classification of mental phenomena

Groups of mental phenomena:

1) Mental processes (the most short-term);

2) Mental states (more extended);

Mental properties (the most stable).

Cognitive mental processes: 1. Processes of sensory cognition; 2. Processes of logical (rational) knowledge.

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GENERAL PSYCHOLOGY

Literature:

a) basic literature

b) additional literature

The meaning of the word "psychology"

a) psyche - soul, psyche;

Features of psychology as a science

1. This is the science of the most complex that is known to mankind so far.

2. In psychology, a person is both a subject and an object of cognition, since a person explores his consciousness with the help of his own consciousness.

3. Its practical consequences are unique - they are not only incommensurably more significant than the results of other sciences, but also qualitatively different: since to know something means to master it and learn how to manage it, and managing your mental states, processes, functions and abilities is the most ambitious task; moreover, knowing himself, a person thereby changes himself.

4. The extraordinary promise of psychology and its research stems from the ever-increasing role and importance of people, their psyche and consciousness.

5. There is no single psychology of its own, but there are various directions, currents, scientific schools. They get their specificity through the allocation of the central category, through which the main manifestations of the psyche are explained.

Modern psychology is a widely developed field of knowledge, including a number of individual disciplines and scientific areas. The psyche is multidimensional. A.V. Petrovsky chose the psychological side as the basis for the classification of branches of psychology:

1. specific activity;

2. development (studies the mental aspects of human development);

3. relationship of a person to society (studies mental phenomena that arise in the process of interaction between people in various social groups).

Branches of psychology that study the psychological problems of specific types of human activity:

The psychology of labor explores the psychological characteristics of a person's labor activity, the psychological aspects of the scientific organization of labor;

Medical psychology studies the psychological aspects of health and illness, the psychological foundations of the activities of medical personnel;

Pedagogical psychology examines the psychological patterns of the processes of education and upbringing;

Legal psychology is subdivided into forensic psychology, which studies the mental characteristics of the behavior of participants in a criminal process, criminal psychology, which deals with the problems of behavior and personality formation of a criminal, the motives of a crime, as well as penitentiary psychology, which studies the psychology of a prisoner in correctional institutions;

Engineering psychology analyzes the processes of information interaction between a person and technical devices, solving the problems of engineering and psychological design in the "man - machine" system;

Sports psychology considers the psychological characteristics of the personality and activities of athletes, the conditions and means of their psychological preparation;

Industries that deal with the psychological aspects of advertising, business, management, creativity and many other human activities.

Concept of principles

The principles of psychology are the starting points that determine the understanding of the essence and origins of the human psyche, the features of its formation, development, mechanisms of functioning and forms of manifestations, ways of approaching its study and change. Principles accumulate in themselves the basic patterns and laws that operate in the sphere of the mental.

The variety of approaches to understanding the mental is explained by the variety of psychological schools, the originality of philosophical positions, and the predilections of the psychologist-researcher.

Based on philosophical, natural science and other scientific foundations, domestic psychology has formulated the leading methodological principles that determine its position in understanding the mental.

General principles of psychology

Reflection principle . It reveals the understanding of the essence of the mental and its main functions, levels in the development of the human psyche. The peculiarity of the human psyche - a special form of reflection, is due to many circumstances: features of the objective reality itself, perceived both by the senses and with the help of speech; the state of the brain; physical and mental health of a person; the content and state of his psyche.

The principle of determinism. Explains the reasons for the development of the psyche, its source. The human psyche is conditioned and is the result of the interaction of biological, natural, social factors. At the same time, the psyche is not just a product, but the result of the interaction and impact on a person of social, biological and natural factors. Thus, the psyche is able to change and develop.

The principle of activity. Orients the researcher in the study of mental phenomena to take into account that external and other circumstances are reflected in the mind of a person consciously, purposefully, and not just a mirror image.

development principle. Reveals the origins of the human psyche as a dynamic phenomenon. The psyche can be correctly understood if it is considered as the result of social interaction, the interaction of a person with the social and natural environment as a result of his activity and communication with other people, the result of his training and education.

The principle of interconnection, unity. The identification of two facets of the manifestation of the mental: subjective (what and how a person thinks, experiences, evaluates) and objective (real behavior, actions and deeds of a person, materialized and objectified results of his actions) gives reason to assert that the most adequate understanding of the mental is possible on the basis of its systems. subjective and objective manifestations.

The principle of a holistic, systematic approach. It involves the understanding and study of interrelated and interdependent mental phenomena, orienting the specialist to the awareness of the psyche as a holistic integral phenomenon.

The principle of relative independence. It does not contradict the previous principle, but indicates that any mental phenomenon has its own originality, both of its physiological foundations and its own patterns of formation, functioning and development.

The principle of a personal approach, taking into account group, public interests, values. The study of the psyche is adequate only when taking into account the totality of personal and group characteristics of people: their needs, interests, life and professional experience, abilities, taking into account the psychotypical and individual psychological characteristics of people.

The principle of unity. Focuses specialists on a meaningful, axiological analysis of the psyche of people, taking into account the specific historical conditions of their life and work.

General provisions on the methods of psychological research

In psychology, as in other sciences, a certain set of research methods is used to obtain facts, process them and explain them.

All methods used in psychological research can be divided into four groups: 1) organizational methods; 2) empirical methods of obtaining scientific knowledge; 3) data processing techniques; 4) interpretive methods.

to organizational include valid throughout the study comparative, longitudinal and complex methods ;

Comparative method - (the method of "cross section") is to compare different groups of people by age, education, activity and communication. For example, two large groups of people of the same age and sex (students and workers) are studied by the same empirical methods of obtaining scientific data, and the data obtained are compared with each other.

Longitudinal method (the "longitudinal cut" method) consists in multiple examinations of the same persons over a long period of time. For example, multiple examinations of students throughout the entire period of study at the university.

An integrated method is a method of study in which representatives of various sciences participate in the study, which makes it possible to establish connections and dependencies between phenomena of various kinds, for example, the physiological, mental and social development of the individual.

empirical methods.

observational methods

Observation (external) - a method consisting in a deliberate, systematic, purposeful and fixed perception of external manifestations of the psyche.

Self-observation (introspection) is a person's observation of his own mental phenomena.

Experimental Methods

The experiment differs from observation by active intervention in the situation on the part of the researcher, who systematically manipulates some factors and registers the corresponding changes in the state and behavior of the subject.

A laboratory experiment is carried out under artificial conditions, as a rule, with the use of special equipment, with strict control of all influencing factors.

A natural experiment is a psychological experiment that is included in an activity or communication unnoticed by the subject.

Formative (training) experiment - a method of research and formation of a mental process, state or quality of a person.

Psychodiagnostic methods

Test - a system of tasks that measure the level of development of a certain quality (property) of a person.

Achievement tests are one of the methods of psychodiagnostics, which makes it possible to reveal the degree of possession by the subject of specific knowledge, skills, and abilities.

Intelligence tests - a psychodiagnostic technique for identifying the mental potential of an individual.

Creativity tests - a set of methods for studying and evaluating creative abilities.

Personality tests - a psychodiagnostic technique for measuring various aspects of an individual's personality.

Projective tests (projective) - a set of methods for a holistic study of personality, based on psychological interpretation, i.e. conscious or unconscious transfer by the subject of his own properties and states to external objects under the influence of dominant needs, meanings and values.

Questionnaire - a methodological tool for obtaining primary socio-psychological information based on verbal (verbal) communication, representing a questionnaire for obtaining answers to a pre-compiled system of questions.

Sociometry is a method of psychological study of interpersonal relationships in a group in order to determine the structure of relationships and psychological compatibility.

An interview is a method of social psychology, which consists in collecting information obtained in the form of answers to questions posed, as a rule, in advance.

A conversation is a method that provides for the direct or indirect receipt of psychological information through verbal communication.

The effective application of an empirical method depends on how valid it is (corresponds to what it was originally intended to obtain and evaluate) and reliable (allows you to get the same results with repeated and repeated use).

GENERAL PSYCHOLOGY

Topic 1: Features of psychology as a science

1. The meaning of the word "psychology".

2. Features of psychology as a science.

3. Correlation between everyday and scientific psychology.

4. Subject and tasks of psychology.

5. The main forms of manifestation of the human psyche.

6. Research methods in psychology.

Literature:

a) basic literature

1. Nemov R. General psychology. Short course.-St. Petersburg. : Peter, 2010.- Access mode: http: // ibooks.ru

2. Rubinshtein S. L. Fundamentals of General Psychology. - St. Petersburg: Peter, 2010. - MO RF. - Access mode: http: // ibooks.ru

3. Stolyarenko L. D. Psychology. - St. Petersburg: Peter, 2010. - Access mode: http: // ibooks.ru

b) additional literature

1. Ananiev B.G. Man as an object of knowledge. - St. Petersburg: Peter, 2011, 288 p.

2. Krysko V.G. General psychology in schemes and comments. Tutorial. - St. Petersburg: Peter, 2009, 256 p.

3. Makarova K. V., Tallinn O. A. Human psychology. Study guide. - M .: Prometheus, 2011. - Access mode: http: // www. biblioclub

4. Makarova K.V., Tallinn O.A. Human psychology. Tutorial. M.: Prometheus, 2011. Access mode: http:// www. Biblioclub

5. Maklakov A. G. General psychology. - St. Petersburg: Peter, 2011, 592 p.

6. Martsinkovskaya T.D. General psychology. Uch. allowance for students of higher educational institutions. – M.: Academy, 2010, 384 p.

7. Nemov R. S. General psychology. Short course. St. Petersburg: Peter, 2010. Access mode: http://ibooks.ru

8. Panferov V. N., Miklyaeva A. V., Rumyantseva P. V. Fundamentals of human psychology. - St. Petersburg: Speech, 2009, 432 p.

9. Petrovsky A.V., Yaroshevsky M.G. Psychology. Textbook for higher students

10. Psychology of individual differences: Reader. Ed. Gippenreiter Yu.B., Romanova V.Ya. - M: AST, 2008, 720 p.

11. Psychology of personality: reader. Ed. Yu. B. Gippenreiter, A. A. Puzyreya, V. V. Arkhangelskaya. - M: AST, 2009, 618 p.

12. Psychology of thinking: Reader. Ed. Gippenreiter Yu.B., Spiridonova V.F., Falikman M.F., Petukhov V.V. - M: AST, 2008, 672 p.

13. Psychology: textbook for bachelors / Ed. R.M. Fatykhova.- Ufa: BSPU, 2013.-UMO

14. Rubinstein S.L. Fundamentals of General Psychology. - St. Petersburg: Peter, 2010. RF Ministry of Defense. Access mode: http:// ibooks.ru

15. Stolyarenko L. D. Psychology. Textbook for high schools. - St. Petersburg: Peter, 2010, 592 p. Access mode: http:// ibooks.ru

The meaning of the word "psychology"

The concept of "psychology" first arose in medieval European theology, and was introduced into science in the 18th century. German scientist Christian Wolf.

The term "psychology" is derived from two Greek words:

a) psyche - soul, psyche;

b) logos - knowledge, understanding, study

In its literal meaning, psychology is the knowledge of the psyche, the science that studies it. The psyche is a property of highly organized living matter, a subjective reflection of objective reality, necessary for a person (or animal) to be active in him and control his behavior.

In the second, most common meaning, the word "psychology" refers to the mental, "mental" life itself, thus highlighting a special reality. If the properties of the psyche, consciousness, mental processes usually characterize a person in general, then the features of psychology - a particular person. Psychology manifests itself as a set of typical for a person (or groups of people) ways of behavior, communication, knowledge of the world, beliefs and preferences, character traits.

Psychology owes its name and first definition to Greek mythology. Eros, the son of Aphrodite, fell in love with a very beautiful young woman, Psyche. But Aphrodite was unhappy that her son, the celestial god, wants to join fate with a mere mortal, and made every effort to separate the lovers, forcing Psyche to go through a series of trials. But Psyche's love was so strong, and her desire to meet Eros again was so great that it impressed the gods, and they decided to help her fulfill all the requirements of Aphrodite. Eros, in turn, managed to convince Zeus - the supreme deity of the Greeks - to turn Psyche into a goddess, making her immortal. So the lovers are united forever. For the Greeks, this myth was a classic example of true love, the highest realization of the human soul. Therefore, Psyche - a mortal who has gained immortality - has become a symbol of the soul, looking for its ideal.

What is the specificity of psychological science. Depending on the position of the observer

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Experiment

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biographical method

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Types and forms of natural experiment

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STAGE OF INTELLIGENCE

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General concept of the psyche

Mental properties (the most stable).

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