In what form is the orientation of the personality expressed. Motivated behavior as a personality characteristic

Under personality orientation in psychology is usually understood as focus on certain areas of life. All areas in which a person acts are of great value to him. If you remove at least one of them, the person will not be able to fully develop and move forward.

Determining the orientation of a person implies, at its core, a clear adherence of a person to his needs. What is directionality? This is a consciously carried out movement on the way to solving a specific problem.

Types of personality orientation

Psychologists talk about the presence of several directions which determine how a person behaves in different situations. Each of the types affects any one area of activity, so it cannot be called good or bad.

Personal focus

It is characterized by the desire for one's own self-realization, the embodiment of personal goals and aspirations. Such people are often called selfish, because they seem to care little about others, but think more about themselves, build constructive plans in their heads and meaningfully move towards their implementation. inherent in such people: self-confidence, purposefulness, the ability to focus on an important problem, responsibility for the actions performed. People of the presented orientation will never blame others for their own failures. They do not expect help from others, but prefer to take everything into their own hands. Sometimes they develop a so-called desire for loneliness and have difficulty entrusting their affairs to someone else. This difficulty is dictated by the way of life of the individual, his strong-willed character ( read the article ""). These are inherently incredibly strong personalities who are able to move forward, relying only on their own support, relying on their own strengths.

Focus on other people

It is characterized by an increased need for communication, approval from other people. Such a person is too much guided by the opinions of others, therefore he is not able to build his own plans and realize individual aspirations and dreams. Before taking any action, a person will mentally or aloud coordinate his actions with the opinion of society. He is afraid to go beyond what is considered acceptable or normal in society, because he most often does not express his own opinion.

The focus on other people is also accompanied by a great desire to participate in public life, to fulfill requests at the request of relatives, friends and colleagues. Such people are very fond of in teams - they are trouble-free, easily get along with almost any person, and are ready to help at the right time. A healthy psychological climate in the team and at home is a fundamental component for them.

Business focus

It is characterized by high demands on one's own personality, the ability to organize affairs in such a way that both the individual himself and the society in which he lives are in a winning position. Such a person is distinguished by a business approach to everything that surrounds him. He does not necessarily seek to do business or develop his own business. The ability to find benefits in different situations (and not only for oneself, but also for people) puts a person in an advantageous position in front of colleagues and friends. As a rule, this is a sociable person who loves the company of other people very much, however, at the same time, he is quite freedom-loving and always plays by his own rules.

Emotional orientation of the personality

It is characterized by a tendency to worry about everything. Such a person, most often, is responsive and not indifferent to the sorrows of other people. His ability to empathize is developed to a fairly large extent, so those who are in dire need of it at the moment often turn to him for advice. People of this type are characterized by increased sensitivity, emotional instability, their mood often changes. Any insignificant incident can throw them out of a state of mental balance and give rise to a lot of disturbing experiences.

In addition to the above, they are well versed in art, in particular in music and literature, as they have a bright, unique ability to feel the feelings and moods of fictional characters.

Social orientation of the individual

It is characterized by increased attentiveness to the outside world, people. Such individuals always notice what is happening around them, delve into the essence of social and political changes. As a rule, people of this type cannot live outside of society. They can be both leaders and subordinates, the main thing is that their activity develops within the society.

The structure of personality orientation

Whatever a person aspires to, one way or another, he goes through several steps to achieve what he wants. Any activity occurs as a result of strong motivation, and it, in turn, is formed due to the following structural components, which determine the direction of the personality.

attraction helps to "feel" the initial moment of building activities, to determine the motives and preferences of the individual. At this stage, there is no movement towards the goal, since the need itself is not yet so clearly recognized.
Wish is a recognized need. It occurs when the individual already clearly imagines what he wants to do, what goal to achieve. Ways to achieve the desired have not yet been built, but the need itself can be called mature.
Pursuit is formed by activating the volitional element. At this stage, the person not only realizes his need, but begins to make the first efforts so that the desire can be fulfilled.
Interests determine the needs of a person, help him build an orientation in such a way that it brings the expected results. Interests help to determine and understand what a person really wants, to adjust his activities ( read about).
inclinations characterize the orientation of the individual to a particular occupation.
Ideals are a significant characteristic of a person's worldview. In fact, it is the ideals that can lead forward, we are guided by their values when we make important decisions ( read about).
outlook helps the individual to build a system of views on himself, society and the world around ( read about).
Beliefs are a system of motives that guide any action of an individual. They are designed to help a person in various situations to act in a certain way ( read about).

All forms of personality orientation are closely related to each other. Without passing one stage, it would be impossible to reach the next one. The perception and orientation of a person depend on the individual efforts of a person and the characteristics of his mental state. How strongly a person is motivated depends on his performance and faith in his own abilities.

Orientation and motives of personality activity

The degree of success in solving the set tasks largely depends on how well the person herself is well motivated in obtaining a favorable result. There are several factors that have a huge impact on any activity carried out by a person.

Intrinsic and extrinsic motivation

External is called motivation, aimed at external events and people around. For example, if you need to immediately prepare a history report just to get the approval of the leader and close the session, then there is an external motivation. In the case when it is necessary to perform research work because it represents the scientific or creative interest of the researcher himself, then they speak of intrinsic motivation.

I must say that internal motivation is much stronger than external, because it encourages a person to self-development, some new achievements, discoveries.

Mindfulness - unawareness of motives

When there is a clear understanding of why this or that activity is performed, the effectiveness of its implementation increases several times. Monotonous work, devoid of special meaning and significance, only brings melancholy and despondency. It happens that a person cannot realize the true motives of his actions for a long time, and this leads him to delusion.

Interests and Significant Needs

Acting from his own interests, a person always increases his labor efficiency. In other words, when what we do excites the imagination, causes pleasant feelings, and works much better. Satisfying the needs for recognition, approval from the team, self-realization, the individual grows, learns and expands his own capabilities. There are new prospects for further advancement and development. When the activity performed is in no way connected with the leading needs, the personal and spiritual components are not satisfied, the person gradually begins to doubt himself, his strength decreases over time.

Ability to set a goal

Whatever we strive for, it is extremely important from the very beginning to correctly determine the direction, the ultimate goal, to understand what we want to achieve as a result. It is also necessary to set an appropriate rhythm for the movement and maintain it throughout the entire period - then any work will be effective. The ability to see the end result of the activity will help to predict possible difficulties in advance in order to cope with them in time. It would be nice to keep in mind the so-called ideal of achievement, that is, to track how the current reality corresponds to a given model.

Self-confidence

No work can be done if a person is not confident in his own abilities. Even if a person has rare and exceptional talents, he will not be able to achieve success while he is engaged in self-flagellation, doubt that he will succeed. Self-confidence is a necessary tool for building strong and trusting relationships with the outside world. It is possible to cultivate self-confidence, but only when a person is ready to devote time to working with feelings, working out educational issues, gaining new knowledge - this cannot be avoided.

Professional orientation of the individual

Each of the professions known to people suggests that a person applying for a particular position must have the appropriate qualities of character. After all, when making decisions, acting in the workplace, we often require a high concentration of attention ( read about), greater stress resistance, etc. If these qualities remain undeveloped, the person will not cope with his duties. Professional orientation is a whole system of motives that drive a person.

Below is a classification of personality types with characteristics that show in which area it is more likely to succeed.

realistic type. These are people with a stable nervous system. They strive for maximum accuracy in everything and prefer to work with real objects. Most often, they are engaged in physical labor. Suitable professions: technicians, mechanics, builders, sailors.
conventional type. This group includes people who are focused on accuracy and accuracy. They are wonderful performers, they like to do everything on time. Often engaged in activities that require great concentration and attention. Professions: librarian, economist, accountant, merchandiser.
Intelligent type. These are real thinkers. People of this type can sit in one place for a long time, immersed in thought. They build far-reaching plans for the future, carefully plan their activities. Most of all, they are attracted by research work, which allows them to get closer to revealing the truth, some particular law. Professions: teacher, scientist, writer.
Enterprising type. Here you can meet excellent leaders who love to manage and strive to take a leading position in everything. The desire for superiority determines their personal success. Professions: head of enterprises, businessman, administrator.
social type. These people are distinguished by an open heart and a willingness to care for others. They build their professional activities in such a way as to help as many people as possible. They have a highly developed sense of responsibility, humanism, empathy. Professions: doctor, veterinarian, social worker, teacher, educator.
Artistic type. Here are, perhaps, the most unpredictable people who find it difficult to maintain a certain schedule in work. In their activities, they are guided rather by their own feelings, they do not like limits, they highly value freedom and independence. Professions: actor, artist, poet, designer.

Thus, the orientation of the personality entirely determines its success. Diagnosis of personality orientation largely depends on how satisfied the person is with what he is doing.

Medical psychology. Full course Polin A.V.

Forms of personality orientation

The simplest are drives and desires. At the heart of attraction is activity at the level of basic instincts inherent in both higher animals and humans. The difference from animals is their different content and ways of satisfaction. Attraction, formed in the mind in the form of a clarification of the ways and means of its satisfaction, turns into a desire. Interest is a specific orientation of a person of a cognitive nature to the surrounding objects and phenomena. The object of interest has an emotional connotation. With a small degree of activity, interest will be predominantly contemplative in nature, with a significant activity, interest prompts action and becomes an inclination. There is no person who does not have interests. They differ in breadth, stability and other qualities. The breadth of interests implies that among them there are one or more main ones, which contributes to the concentration of will and the achievement of certain successes. The ideal is the highest goal of the conscious active aspirations of the individual. Man tends to embody his ideals in specific life images. Ideals have significant educational value, although self-education also depends on the volitional properties of a particular person. A worldview is a system of views of a particular individual on the surrounding reality. The worldview is determined by the spirit of the times, a specific historical era and the social consciousness inherent in it in the context of upbringing in a particular family. Beliefs, which are the highest form of orientation, are determined by the desire for the real implementation of the existing worldview.

"Character" in Greek means "sign", "sign". Character is a combination of the most stable features of the main personality traits that are manifested in a person’s behavior and his attitude towards the surrounding reality and himself. Character is not a property of personality, it is an external manifestation of most of the components that define the concept of "personality". K. K. Platonov clearly formulated the relationship between the concepts of "personality" and "character": "All character traits are personality traits, but not all personality traits are character traits." Manifestations of character can be seen in the following aspects:

1) the attitude of the individual towards other individuals and society as a whole (collectivism or individualism, selfishness; humanity, sensitivity or misanthropy, cruelty and callousness; truthfulness or deceit);

2) attitude to the labor process (industriousness or a tendency to laziness; accuracy or negligence; frugality or wastefulness; striving for innovation or conservatism);

3) attitude towards oneself (high demands or complacency; modesty or arrogance; shyness or excessive self-confidence; self-criticism or non-criticism towards oneself; self-esteem or underestimation of oneself);

4) the presence and manifestation of volitional qualities (purposefulness or lack of defining goals in life; independence, determination or constant uncertainty in one's own actions; the ability or inability to bring the work begun to completion; endurance, self-control or lack of restraint in the manifestation of emotions and feelings; courage or cowardice; discipline or inability to subordinate their desires to the rules of the hostel). Character is not a once and for all established value; it can undergo changes during life under the influence of the surrounding reality and age characteristics.

character accents. In modern psychology, the definition of this concept given by A. E. Lichko is usually used: “Character accentuations are extreme variants of the norm, in which certain character traits are excessively strengthened, as a result of which selective vulnerability is found in relation to a certain kind of psychogenic influences with good, even increased stability to others." Accentuations are explicit and hidden. The definition of accentuation given by A. E. Lichko is more suitable for explicit accentuations, since they are an extreme version of the norm, hidden accentuations are the usual variant of the norm. Hidden accentuation manifests itself clearly in a variety of traumatic situations and disappears as the situation is resolved. Manifestations of obvious accentuation go on throughout life, and when a traumatic event occurs, decompensation occurs.

Psychopathies refer to character pathology. To assert that this character is pathological, three conditions must be met: manifestations of maladjustment, the stability of these manifestations, and their totality. Due to the occurrence of psychopathy, they are divided into constitutional, acquired and organic. In the constitutional form, the decisive question relates to hereditary factors, among them cycloid, epileptoid, schizoid are more common. Acquired psychopathies develop under the influence of improper upbringing, the negative impact of the external environment, they are hysterical, excitable, unstable. Organic psychopathy develops in the first 2-3 years of life under the influence of factors that negatively affect the brain, such as intoxication, infectious diseases, and traumatic brain injury. Given the fact that psychopathy and character accentuations can be considered different degrees of manifestation of the same process, there is a single classification for them. There are the following variants of psychopathy: hyperthymic, cycloid, labile, astheno-neurotic, sensitive, psychasthenic, schizoid, epileptoid, hysteroid, unstable, conformal. In addition to these types, mixed options are possible. Let's describe some of them, the most common ones.

Hyperthymic, or excitable, psychopathy. In this case, the predominant pathological component is the deficiency of active inhibition, which manifests itself in a clear discrepancy between the strength of the stimulus and the response to it. Any trifle can cause a violent emotional reaction, which, in the absence of psychopathy, may not cause any reaction at all. In the event of a conflict situation, such people behave extremely unrestrainedly, they can shout loudly, wave their arms, and are prone to aggressive manifestations against the opposite side of the conflict. Extreme manifestations of such psychopathy can be expressed in self-harm in the heat of a quarrel or argument. The attention of such individuals is unstable, if they need a long scrupulous performance of monotonous work, they begin to experience anxiety, discomfort, inner excitement, such work is not up to them. Excitable psychopaths will not hesitate to make a stinging remark about anyone, but they will be very offended by receiving such a remark in their address.

Astheno-neurotic psychopathy is characterized by weakness and exhaustion of the processes of excitation and inhibition. In communication, such people are characterized by timidity and shyness, they can be cowardly and cowardly. Any life difficulties unbalance such a psychopath, he is not able to defend his interests in public, as he is afraid to look ridiculous as a result of an unsuccessful expression of his thoughts. Such people are prone to solitude, experience and mourn their failures alone, refusing to fight. At home, such a person can be a tyrant, demanding unquestioning fulfillment of his whims from loved ones, as if compensating for failures in other areas of life. In the event of a somatic pathology, such individuals tend to go into illness, requiring increased attention and care from others. In this state, they feel more comfortable. Any more or less serious disease in such a person will inevitably lead to disability.

Hysteroid psychopathy is characterized by selfishness and egocentrism of the individual. It is vital for such individuals to be in the center of attention, to be the main ones in everything, regardless of the opinions of others and even contrary to it. They are characterized by a peculiar convex-relief direct perception of reality. All their behavior bears the features of a theatrical performance, they constantly play for the public, women are distinguished by flirtatiousness. The knowledge of such people is rarely deep, judgments and conclusions usually depend on the external emotional background. If a psychopath feels sympathy for someone, he will exaggerate his dignity, and, conversely, if he feels antipathy, he will speak negatively about any action of such a person. Trying to get reasonable advice from such a person will not lead to the desired result, although outwardly it will look very different. The hysteroid will make a thoughtful look, think, and then with a serious look in an authoritative tone will utter banal truths, trying to create the feeling that it is providing a significant service. Not knowing how to argue with reason, such people in a dispute evade the subject under discussion, turning to personalities. In some hysterical psychopaths, selectivity in remembering events is noted. Minor events can be deeply embedded in memory, while significant events are left unattended. As a result, their actions are dictated not by objective necessity, but by affective logic. Their actions are subject to far-fetched conclusions, and not a rational assessment, mood means more to them than conviction. Falsity and fantasizing are characteristic of hysterical psychopaths. In fictitious images, what they want is embodied: they command those around them, subjugating everyone, being always in the center of any event. Getting used to their own fantasies, they sometimes begin to perceive them as reality. In communication with others, such individuals are insinuating, charming, capricious, striving to achieve their goals at any cost. To do this, they can use flattery, humiliation, resourcefulness, lies, they easily compromise their moral principles. People who hinder the achievement of their goals are treated cruelly, vindictively, and can be humiliated for no reason. The nervous system of such psychopaths is not strong, but in order to achieve their goal, they can concentrate, develop violent purposeful activity, and be persistent. An attempt by others to point out shortcomings leads to a violent manifestation of disagreement in the form of anger and threats. The autonomic nervous system reacts to what is happening in the form of a gleam in the eyes, reddening of the face with spots, trembling in the hands, which often impresses others. If there is no support from others, the psychopath goes into a passive-defensive reaction, throws tantrums, trying to arouse sympathy for himself. Hysteroids are not able to withstand prolonged tension in relationships, therefore, after a short time, they try to improve relations by any means, again sacrificing their own principles and beliefs. They can apologize, humiliating themselves and flirting, but without witnesses. In public they continue to demonstrate their superiority and hostility, even emphasizing it. Hysterical psychopathy is often accompanied by physical disabilities, more often in the form of endocrine disorders (infantilism, diencephalic syndrome).

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The behavior, interests, passions, hobbies of each person are individual, and this originality, as a rule, can be preserved regardless of the surrounding conditions for a long time. It is obvious that in his life every person has a certain craving for some kind of occupation, knowledge, objects, not noticing or rejecting others. In this regard, S.L. Rubinshtein proposed to single out in the psychological structure of the personality such a characteristic as the orientation of the personality, understanding it as the totality of the main interests, needs, inclinations, and aspirations of a person. Currently under orientation understand a stable system of motives (usually conscious) that determine the activity of the individual and the selectivity of his attitude to reality, the features of human behavior and activity, regardless of the conditions of the given (existing) social environment (the current situation). It can be said that the orientation of the personality is the personal purposefulness of a person determined by the system of motives.

V.P. Kashirin, considering the system of orientation, personality identifies the following main elements (components): - system of value-semantic formations of the personality; - personality claims; - need states of the individual; - personality goals; - personality motives.

Orientation manifests itself in such hierarchically interconnected forms as attraction, desire, aspiration, interest, inclination, ideal, worldview, conviction. At the same time, all forms of personality orientation are the motives of its activity and therefore differ in the degree of awareness, strength, energy (intensity, stability). Forms: attraction characterized by the absence of a clearly understood, conscious goal. The most formed attraction, the more captivating personality, he calls hobby.Wish- this is a form of orientation in which objects and possible ways of satisfying a need are realized. Based on his desires, a person realizes the goals of future action, makes plans. Pursuit- sensual experience of need. Aspiration is closely related to subjectively experienced feelings that signal a person about the achievement of a goal, causing feelings of satisfaction or dissatisfaction. In aspiration there is a volitional component that helps to overcome various difficulties on the way to the object of need. Interest- a form of cognitive orientation of the individual, considered as a stimulus for human activity. We are interested in what can satisfy our need. When the volitional component is included in the interest, it begins to manifest itself in the desire to engage in certain activities - it becomes an inclination. inclination- the selective orientation of the individual to a certain type of activity, which is based on a deep, stable need for this type of activity. At the same time, a person tries to improve the skills and abilities associated with this activity. Ideals formed on the basis of inclinations and interests of the individual. A person tries to change the world around him in accordance with his ideals. Ideal - a form of orientation, concretized in a certain image, which a given person wants to be like; for the purposes that this person considers the highest in which he sees the ultimate goal of his aspirations. Belief- a form of personality orientation that encourages it to act in accordance with its views, value orientations, principles. The presence of stable beliefs in a person, covering various spheres of life, is an indicator of the high activity of his personality. A person with established beliefs not only acts in strict accordance with them, but also seeks to pass them on to other people, convincing them that he is right. outlook It is a system of views on the world around and a person's place in it. The formation of a worldview is an essential indicator of a person's maturity. It affects the norms of human behavior, his tastes, interests, his attitude to work, to other people. A worldview can have religious, political, moral, scientific and aesthetic overtones.

Summary

The concept of personality orientation and activity motivation. The main forms of orientation: attraction, desire, aspiration, interests, ideals, beliefs. The concept of motive. The problem of motivation of human activity. The concept of need. The purpose of the activity. The main characteristics of the motivational sphere of a person: breadth, flexibility, hierarchization.

Psychological theories of motivation. The problem of motivation in the works of ancient philosophers. Irrationalism. Automaton theory. The role of Ch. Darwin's evolutionary theory in the development of the problem of human behavior motivation. Theories of instincts. Theory of human biological needs. Behavioral theory of motivation and theory of higher nervous activity. Classification of human needs but A. Maslow. Motivational concepts of the second half of the 20th century. The theory of the activity origin of the motivational sphere of a person A. N. Leonteva.

The main patterns of development of the motivational sphere. Mechanisms for the development of motives according to A. N. Leontiev. The main stages in the formation of the motivational sphere in children. Features of the first interests of children. Features of the formation of the motivational sphere in preschool and school age. The role of the game in the formation of the motivational sphere.

Motivated behavior as a characteristic of personality. Achievement and avoidance motivation. The level of claims and self-esteem. Peculiarities of manifestation of the motives of affiliation and power. Rejection motive. prosocial behavior. Aggression and the motive of aggressiveness. Types of aggressive actions according to A. Bandura. Tendencies towards aggression and tendencies towards suppression of aggression.

22.1. The concept of personality orientation

and motivation

In domestic psychology, there are various approaches to the study of personality. However, despite the differences in interpretations of personality, in all approaches, personality is distinguished as its leading characteristic. orientation. There are different definitions of this concept, for example, “dynamic tendency” (S. L. Rubinshtein), “sense-forming motive” (A. N. Leontiev), “dominant attitude” (V. N. Myasishchev), “main life orientation” (B . G. Ananiev), "the dynamic organization of the essential forces of man" (A. S. Prangishvnli).

Most often in the scientific literature, directionality is understood as a set of stable motives that guide the activity of the individual and are relatively independent of the current situation.

It should be noted that the orientation of the individual is always socially conditioned and is formed in the process of education. Orientation is installations, which have become personality traits and manifested in such forms as attraction, desire, aspiration, interest, inclination, ideal, worldview, conviction. Moreover, the motives of activity lie at the basis of all forms of personality orientation.

Let us briefly characterize each of the selected forms of orientation in the order of their hierarchy. First of all, one should focus on in treatment. It is generally accepted that attraction is the most primitive, essentially biological form of orientation. From a psychological point of view, this is a mental state that expresses an undifferentiated, unconscious or insufficiently conscious need. As a rule, attraction is a transient phenomenon, since the need represented in it either fades away or is realized, turning into desire.

Wish - it is a conscious need and attraction to something quite definite. It should be noted that desire, being sufficiently conscious, has a motivating force. It sharpens the awareness of the purpose of the future action and the construction of its plan. This form of orientation is characterized by awareness not only of one's need, but also of possible ways to satisfy it.

The next form of directionality is pursuit. Aspiration arises when the volitional component is included in the structure of desire. Therefore, the desire is often considered as a well-defined motivation for activity.

most clearly characterize the orientation of the personality of her interests. Interest is a specific form of manifestation of a cognitive need, which ensures the orientation of the individual to the realization of the goals of activity and thereby contributes to the orientation of the individual in the surrounding reality. Subjectively, interest is found in the emotional tone that accompanies the process of cognition or attention to a particular object. One of the most significant characteristics of interest is that when it is satisfied, it does not fade away, but, on the contrary, it evokes new interests corresponding to a higher level of cognitive activity.

Interests are the most important motivating force to the knowledge of the surrounding reality. Distinguish between direct interest caused by the attractiveness of the object, and indirect interest in the object as a means of achieving the goals of the activity. An indirect characteristic of the awareness of needs reflected in interests is the stability of interests, which is expressed in the duration of their preservation and in their intensity. It should also be emphasized that the breadth and content of interests can serve as one of the most striking characteristics of a person.

Interest in the dynamics of its development can turn into inclination. This happens when the volitional component is included in the interest. Propensity characterizes the orientation of the individual to a particular activity. The basis of the inclination is the deep, stable need of the individual for this or that activity, i.e., interest in a particular activity. The basis of the propensity can also be the desire to improve the skills associated with this need. It is generally accepted that the emerging inclination can be considered as a prerequisite for the development of certain abilities.

The next form of manifestation of personality orientation is ideal. The ideal is the objective goal of the inclination of the individual, concretized in the image or representation, that is, what he strives for, what he focuses on. Human ideals

can act as one of the most significant characteristics of a person’s worldview, that is, his system of views on the objective world, on a person’s place in it, on a person’s attitude to the reality around him and to himself. The worldview reflects not only ideals, but also the value orientations of people, their principles of cognition and activity, their beliefs.

Belief - the highest form of orientation is a system of motives of the individual, prompting him to act in accordance with his views, principles, worldview. Beliefs are based on conscious needs that encourage a person to act, form her motivation for activity.

Since we have approached the problem of motivation, it should be noted that there are two functionally interrelated aspects in human behavior: incentive and regulatory. The mental processes and states considered by us earlier provide mainly the regulation of behavior. As for its stimulation, or motives that provide activation and direction of behavior, they are associated with motives and motivation.

A motive is a motive for activity associated with the satisfaction of the needs of the subject. The motive is also often understood as the reason underlying the choice of actions and deeds, the totality of external and internal conditions that cause the activity of the subject.

The term "motivation" is a broader concept than the term "motive". The word "motivation" is used in modern psychology in a double sense: as a system of factors that determine behavior (this includes, in particular, needs, motives, goals, intentions, aspirations, and much more), and as a characteristic of a process that stimulates and supports behavioral activity at a certain level. Most often in the scientific literature, motivation is considered as a set of psychological causes that explain human behavior, its beginning, direction and activity.

The question of the motivation of activity arises every time when it is necessary to explain the reasons for a person's actions. Moreover, any form of behavior can be explained by both internal and external causes. In the first case, the psychological properties of the subject of behavior act as the starting and ending points of the explanation, and in the second, the external conditions and circumstances of his activity. In the first case, they talk about motives, needs, goals, intentions, desires, interests, etc., and in the second - about incentives coming from the current situation. Sometimes all psychological factors that, as it were, from the inside, from a person determine his behavior, are called personal dispositions. Then, respectively, one speaks of dispositional and situational motivations as analogues of internal and external determination of behavior.

Internal (dispositional) and external (situational) motivation are interconnected. Dispositions can be updated under the influence of a certain situation, and the activation of certain dispositions (motives, needs) leads to a change in the subject's perception of the situation. In this case, his attention becomes selective, and the subject perceives and evaluates the situation in a biased way, based on current interests and needs. Therefore, any human action is considered as doubly determined: dispositionally and situationally.

Need to know

Antisocial personality

Considering the problem of personality orientation, we cannot but consider a special group of people who are usually called "asocial personalities." Such people have little to no sense of responsibility, morality, or interest in others. Their behavior is almost entirely determined by their own needs. In other words, they have no conscience. If the average person imagines at an early age that behavior has certain limits and that pleasure must sometimes be given up for the sake of other people's interests, antisocial persons rarely take into account the desires of anyone but their own. They behave impulsively, strive for immediate satisfaction of their needs and do not tolerate frustration.

It should be noted that the term “asocial personality” itself does not refer to the majority of people who commit antisocial acts. Antisocial behavior has a number of causes, including membership in a criminal gang or criminal subculture, a need for attention and elevated status, a loss of contact with reality, and an inability to control impulses. Most teenage criminals and adult criminals have a certain interest in other people (family or gang members) and a certain moral code (for example, don't betray a friend). In contrast, the antisocial person has no feelings for anyone but himself, and does not feel guilt or remorse, no matter how much suffering he has caused people.

Other characteristics of an antisocial personality (sociopath) include an unusual ease with lying, a need to disturb oneself or

lead to excitement and inability to change their behavior as a result of punishment. Such individuals are often perceived as attractive, intelligent, charming people who easily come into contact with other people. Their competent and sincere appearance allows them to get a promising job, but they have little chance of holding on to it. Restlessness and impulsiveness soon lead them to failure, revealing their true nature; they accumulate debts, abandon their families or commit crimes. Once caught, they speak of their remorse so convincingly that they often have their punishments revoked. But the antisocial person rarely lives up to his claims; in such people, what is said has nothing to do with their deeds and feelings.

Two characteristics of an asocial personality are considered especially revealing; firstly, a lack of empathy and interest in others and, secondly, a lack of shame or guilt, an inability to repent of one's actions, no matter how reprehensible they were.

Modern researchers distinguish three groups of factors contributing to the development of an antisocial personality: biological determinants, features of the relationship between parents and the child, and style of thinking.

The conducted studies testify to the genetic causes of antisocial behavior, especially criminal. Thus, in identical twins, the concordance value for criminal behavior is twice as high as in related ones, from which it is clear that such behavior is partially inherited. Adoption studies show that the crimes of adopted boys are similar to those of their biological fathers.

a person's momentary behavior should not be seen as a reaction to certain internal or external stimuli, but as the result of the continuous interaction of his dispositions with the situation. Thus, human motivation can be represented as a cyclic process of continuous mutual influence and transformation, in which the subject of action and the situation mutually influence each other and the result of which is really observable behavior. From this point of view, motivation is a process of continuous choice and decision-making based on the weighing of behavioral alternatives.

In turn, a motive, in contrast to motivation, is something that belongs to the subject of behavior itself, is its stable personal property, due to

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In addition, it is noted that antisocial individuals have low excitability, which is why they, with the help of impulsive and dangerous actions, seek to receive stimulation that causes appropriate sensations.

Some researchers say that what The quality of parental care received by a child who is prone to hyperactivity and behavioral problems determines to a large extent whether or not he will develop into a full-blown antisocial personality. One of the best indicators of children's behavioral problems is the level of parental supervision: children who are often left unsupervised or poorly supervised for a long time are much more likely to develop a pattern of criminal behavior. A closely related variable is parental indifference; children whose parents are not involved in their daily lives are more likely to become asocial.

Biological and familial factors contributing to behavioral problems often overlap. Children with behavioral problems often have neuropsychological problems resulting from maternal drug use, poor intrauterine nutrition, pre- and post-natal toxicity, abuse, birth complications, and low birth weight. Such children are more likely to be irritable, impulsive, awkward, hyperactive, inattentive, and learn material more slowly than their peers. This makes parental care more difficult for them, and they are at increased risk of abuse and neglect by their parents. In turn, the parents of these children most likely have psychological problems themselves that contribute to ineffective or rude, incompetent parenting. Therefore, in addition to having a biological predisposition to antisocial behavior, these children experience the treatment of their parents, which contributes to such behavior.

The third group of factors that determine the development of an antisocial personality is the individual psychological characteristics of children. Children with behavioral disorders process information about social interactions in such a way that they develop aggressive reactions to these interactions. They expect other children to be aggressive towards them, and interpret their actions based on this assumption, instead of relying on signs of a real situation. In addition, children with behavioral disorders tend to consider any negative action of their peers directed at them not as accidental, but as deliberate. When deciding what action to take in response to a perceived peer provocation, a child with a behavioral disorder will choose from a very limited set of responses, usually including aggression. If such a child is forced to choose something other than aggression, he performs chaotic and ineffective actions and considers everything except aggression to be useless and unattractive.

Children who think of social interaction in this way tend to exhibit aggressive behavior towards others. Retribution may await them: other children beat them, parents and teachers punish them, and they are perceived negatively by others. These responses, in turn, reinforce their belief that the world is against them and cause them to misinterpret the future actions of those around them. This can create a vicious circle of interactions that support and inspire the child's aggressive and antisocial behavior.

internally motivate to perform certain actions. Motives may be conscious or unconscious. The main role in shaping the orientation of the personality belongs to conscious motives. It should be noted that the motives themselves are formed from needs person. A need is a state of need of a person in certain conditions of life and activity or material objects. A need, like any state of a person, is always associated with a person's feeling of satisfaction or dissatisfaction. All living beings have needs, and this distinguishes living nature from non-living. Its other difference, also related to needs, is the selectivity of the response of the living to what constitutes subject of needs

i.e., what the body lacks at a given moment in time. The need activates the body, stimulates its behavior, aimed at finding what is required.

The quantity and quality of needs that living beings have depends on the level of their organization, on the way and conditions of life, on the place occupied by the corresponding organism on the evolutionary ladder. Plants that need only certain biochemical and physical conditions of existence have the least needs. A person has the most diverse needs, who, in addition to physical and organic needs, also has spiritual and social needs. Social needs are expressed in the desire of a person to live in society, to interact with other people.

The main characteristics of human needs - strength, frequency and way of satisfaction. An additional, but very significant characteristic, especially when it comes to personality, is subject content needs, i.e., the totality of those objects of material and spiritual culture with the help of which this need can be satisfied.

The motivating factor is goal. The goal is a perceived result, the achievement of which is currently directed by the action associated with the activity that satisfies the actualized need. If we imagine the entire sphere of conscious behavior as a kind of arena in which a colorful and multifaceted spectacle of human life unfolds, and assume that at the moment it is most brightly illuminated in the place that should attract the most attention of the viewer (the subject himself), then this will be the goal. Psychologically, the goal is that motivational-impelling content of consciousness, which is perceived by a person as an immediate and immediate expected result of his activity.

The goal is the main object of attention, which occupies a certain amount of short-term and operative memory; it is connected with the thought process unfolding at a given moment in time and most of all possible emotional experiences.

It is customary to distinguish purpose of activity and life purpose. This is due to the fact that a person has to perform many different activities during his life, in each of which a specific goal is realized. But the goal of any individual activity reveals only one side of the orientation of the personality, which is manifested in this activity. The life goal acts as a generalizing factor of all private goals associated with individual activities. At the same time, the realization of each of the goals of activity is a partial realization of the general life goal of the individual. The level of achievements of the individual is associated with life goals. In the life goals of the individual, the “concept of his own future” conscious of it finds expression. A person's awareness of not only the goal, but also the reality of its implementation is considered as a perspective of the individual.

The state of frustration, depression, characteristic of a person who is aware of the impossibility of realizing the prospect is called frustration. This state occurs when a person, on the way to achieving a goal, encounters really insurmountable obstacles, barriers, or when they are perceived as such.

The motivational sphere of a person, in terms of its development, can be assessed by the following parameters: breadth, flexibility and Hebrewization. The breadth of the motivational sphere is understood as a qualitative variety of motivational factors - dispositions (motives), needs and goals. The more diverse motives, needs and goals a person has, the more developed his motivational sphere is.

The flexibility of the motivational sphere is expressed in the fact that in order to satisfy a motivational impulse of a more general nature (higher level) can be used more diverse lower-level motivational stimuli. For example, the motivational sphere of a person is more flexible, which, depending on the circumstances of satisfying one and the same same motive can use more variety of means than the other person. Say, for one individual, the need for knowledge can only be satisfied with the help of television, radio and cinema, and for another her satisfaction also are a variety of books, periodicals, communication with people. In the latter, the motivational sphere, by definition, will be more flexible.

It should be noted that breadth and flexibility characterize the motivational sphere of a person in different ways. Breadth is the variety of the potential range of objects that can serve for a given person as a means of satisfying an actual need, and flexibility is the mobility of the connections that exist between different levels of the hierarchical organization of the motivational sphere: between motives and needs, motives and goals, needs and goals.

The next characteristic of the motivational sphere is the hierarchization of motives. Some motives and goals are stronger than others and occur more often; others are weaker and updated less frequently. The greater the differences in the strength and frequency of actualization of motivational formations of a certain level, the higher the hierarchization of the motivational sphere.

It should be noted that the problem of studying motivation has always attracted the attention of researchers. Therefore, there are many different concepts and theories devoted to the motives, motivation and orientation of the individual. Let's take a look at some of them in general terms.

22.2. Psychological theories of motivation

The problem of human behavior motivation has attracted the attention of scientists since time immemorial. Numerous theories of motivation began to appear in the works of ancient philosophers, and at present there are already several dozen such theories. The point of view on the origin of human motivation in the process of development of mankind and science has repeatedly changed. However, most scientific approaches have always been located between two philosophical currents: rationalism and irrationalism. According to the rationalist position, and it was especially pronounced in the works of philosophers and theologians until the middle of the 19th century, man is a unique being of a special nature.

kind that has nothing to do with animals. It was believed that only a person is endowed with reason, thinking and consciousness, has the will and freedom of choice in action, and the motivational source of human behavior was seen exclusively in the mind, consciousness and will of a person.

Irrationalism as a doctrine mainly considered the behavior of animals. Supporters of this doctrine proceeded from the assertion that the behavior of an animal, unlike a person, is not free, unreasonable, controlled by dark, unconscious forces that have their origins in organic needs. Schematically, the history of the study of the problem of motivation is presented in fig. 22.1. The scheme depicted on it was proposed by the American scientist D. Atkinson and partially modified by R. S. Nemov.

The first actually psychological theories of motivation are considered to have arisen in Hoop-Hoop! centuries decision theory, explaining human behavior on a rational basis, and automaton theory, explaining on an irrational basis the behavior of an animal. The first was related to the use of mathematical knowledge in explaining human behavior. She considered the problems of human choice in the economy. Subsequently, the main provisions of this theory were transferred to the understanding of human actions in general.

The emergence and development of the automaton theory was caused by the successes of mechanics in the 17th-18th centuries. One of the central points of this theory was the doctrine of the reflex. Moreover, within the framework of this theory, the reflex was considered as a mechanical, or automatic, innate response of a living organism to external influences. The separate, independent existence of two motivational theories (one for humans, the other for animals) continued until the end of the 19th century.

Rice. 22.1. History of the study of the problem of motivation

(from: Mute R.S., 1998)

In the second half of the XIX century. with the advent evolutionary theory Ch. Darwin, the prerequisites arose to reconsider some views on the mechanisms of human behavior. The theory developed by Darwin made it possible to overcome the antagonisms that divided the views on the nature of man and animals as two phenomena of reality that are incompatible in anatomical, physiological and psychological terms. Moreover, Darwin was one of the first who drew attention to the fact that humans and animals have many common needs and behaviors, in particular emotionally expressive expressions and instincts.

Under the influence of this theory, an intensive study of rational forms of behavior in animals (W. Köhler, E. Thorndike) and instincts in humans (Z. Freud, W. MacDougall, IP Pavlov, and others) began in psychology. In the course of these studies, the perception of needs has changed. If earlier researchers, as a rule, tried to connect needs with the needs of the body and therefore used the concept of “need” most often to explain the behavior of animals, then in the process of transformation and development of scientific views, this concept began to be used to explain human behavior. It should be noted that the use of the concept of "need" in relation to a person has led to the expansion of this concept. They began to single out not only biological, but also some social needs. However, the main feature of research into the motivation of human behavior at this stage was that, unlike the previous stage, at which human and animal behavior was opposed, they tried to minimize these fundamental differences between humans and animals. As motivational factors, humans began to be attributed the same organic needs that were previously assigned only to animals.

One of the first manifestations of such an extreme, essentially biologizing, point of view on human behavior was theories of instincts 3. Freud and W. MacDougall, proposed at the end of the 19th century. and gained the greatest popularity at the beginning of the 20th century. Trying to explain human social behavior by analogy with the behavior of animals, Freud and MacDougall reduced all forms of human behavior to innate instincts. So, in Freud's theory there were three such instincts: the instinct of life, the instinct of death and the instinct of aggressiveness. McDougall proposed a set of ten instincts: the instinct of invention, the instinct of construction, the instinct of curiosity, the instinct of flight, the herd instinct, the instinct of pugnacity, the reproductive (parental) instinct, the instinct of disgust, the instinct of self-humiliation, the instinct of self-affirmation. In later writings, McDougall added eight more instincts to those listed, mostly related to organic needs.

The developed theories of instincts still could not answer many questions and did not allow solving a number of very significant problems. For example, how can one prove the existence of these instincts in a person, and to what extent can those forms of behavior that a person acquires during his lifetime under the influence of experience and social conditions be reduced to instincts or derived from them? And also how to separate in these forms of behavior what is actually instinctive and what is acquired as a result of learning?

Disputes around the theory of instincts could not give a scientifically sound answer to any of the questions posed. As a result, all discussions ended with the fact that

the very concept of "instinct" in relation to a person began to be used< реже. Появились новые понятия для описания поведения человека, такие как потребность, рефлекс, влечение и другие.

In the 20s. 20th century the theory of instincts was replaced by a concept in which all human behavior was explained by the presence of biological needs in him. In accordance with this concept, it was assumed that humans and animals have common organic needs that have the same effect on behavior. Periodically arising organic needs cause a state of excitement and tension in the body, and satisfaction of the need leads to a decrease in tension. In this concept, there were no fundamental differences between the concepts of “instinct” and “need”, with the exception of the fact that instincts are innate, but needs can! acquired and changed throughout life, especially in humans.

It should be noted that the use of the concepts of "instinct" and "need for this concept" had one significant drawback: their use eliminated the need to take into account in explaining human behavior cognitive? psychological characteristics associated with consciousness and subjective states of the body. Therefore, these concepts were subsequently replaced by the concept of attraction, or drive. Moreover, attraction was understood as the body's desire for some end result, subjectively presented in the form of some goal, expectation or intention against the background of the corresponding emotional experience.

In addition to theories of human biological needs, instincts and drives at the beginning of the 20th century. two new directions have emerged. Their emergence was largely due to the discoveries of IP Pavlov. This is behavioral (behavioristic) theory of motivation and theory of higher nervous activity The behavioral concept of motivation in its essence was a logical continuation of the ideas of the founder of behaviorism D. Watson. The most famous representatives of this trend are E. Tolman K. Hull and B. Skinner. All of them tried to explain behavior within the framework of the original scheme of behaviorism: "stimulus - reaction".

Another theory - the theory of higher nervous activity - was developed;

IP Pavlov, and its development was continued by his students and followers, among whom were the following: N. A. Bernshtein - the author of the theory of psychophysiological regulation of movements; P. K. Anokhin, who proposed a model of a functional system that describes and explains the dynamics of a behavioral act at the modern level; E. N. Sokolov, who discovered and studied the orienting reflex, which is of great importance for psychophysiological understanding;

mechanisms of perception, attention and motivation, and also proposed a model of the conceptual reflex arc.

One of the theories that emerged at the turn of the XIX-XX centuries. and continuing to be developed now, is theory of organic needs of animals. It arose and developed under the influence of former irrationalistic traditions in understanding the behavior of animals. Its modern representatives see their task in explaining the behavior of animals from the standpoint of physiology and biology.

The orientation of the individual is always socially conditioned and is formed through education. Orientation manifests itself in such hierarchically interconnected forms as attraction, desire, aspiration, interest, inclination, ideal, worldview, conviction. At the same time, all forms of personality orientation are the motives of its activity and therefore differ in the degree of awareness, strength, energy (intensity, stability). Let us give a brief description of the main forms of orientation:

Attraction is characterized by the absence of a clearly understood, conscious goal. Despite the fact that attraction is considered to be an undifferentiated, vague desire of a person, it is always directed towards some object. Therefore, when they talk about sympathy or falling in love, they mean a specific person, and not attraction “in general”. At the same time, attraction is characterized by insufficient awareness of the needs of the subject, and therefore some drives play an important role in the formation of certain personal structures, defense mechanisms, etc.

N.D. Levitov proposed a classification of attraction depending on strength and stability. The most formed attraction, the more captivating personality, he calls hobby. Hobbies have different duration, but they are always limited by time. If the hobby drags on for a long time, it usually turns into passion, which is a longer and even stronger attraction that can manifest itself in relation to music, collecting, hunting, fishing, etc. Passion can be accepted by a person, or can be condemned by her as something undesirable, obsessive (to alcohol, smoking, drugs , casino games, etc.). In this case, one speaks of mania- a painful mental state with the concentration of consciousness and feelings on one idea, one desire (drug addiction, substance abuse, megalomania).

Attraction is a transient phenomenon, since the need represented in it either fades away or is realized, turning into a specific desire, intention, dream, etc.

Wish- this is a form of orientation in which objects and possible ways of satisfying a need are realized. Based on his desires, a person realizes the goals of future action, makes plans.

Pursuit- sensual experience of need. Aspiration is closely related to subjectively experienced feelings that signal a person about the achievement of a goal, causing feelings of satisfaction or dissatisfaction. In aspiration there is a volitional component that helps to overcome various difficulties on the way to the object of need.

Interest- a form of cognitive orientation of the individual, considered as a stimulus for human activity. We are interested in what can satisfy our need. Interests tend to develop: the satisfaction of interest does not lead to its extinction, but causes new interests. According to D.A. Kiknadze, the unhindered satisfaction of a need does not generate interest. The need generates interest only when there are some obstacles in the way of its satisfaction. The subject content of interest is not an object of need, but a means of achieving it (G.K. Cherkasov).

In different concepts, interest is interpreted in different ways: as “the desire to devote one's thoughts and actions to some phenomenon” (E. Thorndyke); as "an innate instinctive desire" (W. McDougall); as “the need to experience relationships, the thirst for positive emotions, spiritual” (B.I. Dodonov); as “a selective, emotionally colored attitude of a person to reality” (S.L. Rubinstein); as an "emotional and cognitive attitude" (A.G. Kovaleva); as “dynamic tendencies that develop along with the whole personality”, L.S. Vygotsky believed that interests are not acquired, but developed (for example, during puberty of adolescents: along with the appearance of sexual desire, they also have new interests).

In psychology, there are many classifications of interests:

1 . Depending on the purpose(according to the result): procedural, in which the goal is to enjoy the experience of a particular activity, and procedural target, in which getting pleasure from the process is combined with getting a useful result.

2. Depending on the duration, stability interests are stable and unstable. Often there are people who are interested in the most diverse subjects, but not for long; one interest is quickly replaced by another. For some, these fleeting interests are very strong and emotionally addictive; such people are usually called "addicted". A person who is not able to have stable interests cannot achieve significant success in any field of activity. The degree of stability allows you to identify the stages of development of interest: curiosity, interest-attitude and interest-inclination. Curiosity is the initial stage of the development of interest in the absence of a clear selective attitude to the objects of knowledge and is a manifestation of situational interest.

F. La Rochefoucauld distinguished the following types of curiosity: selfish curiosity, inspired by the hope of acquiring useful information, and proud- caused by the desire to know what is unknown to others.

N.D. Levitov singles out the direct, naive curiosity,(typical for young children and adults who find themselves in a new, unusual environment); serious curiosity("indicates the presence of curiosity in a person); idle curiosity directed at an object that is not worth attention).

Interest-attitude and interest-inclinations are also singled out as more stable personality formations (interest in art, science, sports, one's profession, etc.). Interest-attitude is formed on the basis of repeatedly received pleasure from the manifestation of situational interest (when reading books, watching movies, visiting theaters, concert halls, sports competitions, etc.). Interest-inclination includes a volitional component and is manifested in the desire to engage in certain activities.

4. By number of attractive objects of interest are broad and narrow. In the tragedy Mozart and Salieri, Pushkin, in the image of Salieri, showed a man whose whole spiritual life is limited by one narrow interest - interest in music. Music for Salieri is like a high wall that obscures everything. Interest in music made Salieri deaf to all other impressions of life. The contrast to him is Mozart, a brilliant musician, but not closed in his professional interest, but open to all life impressions. For him, music is like a wide window through which he comprehends the harmony of life around him. Talented and brilliant people have broad interests. So, Leonardo da Vinci was not only a great artist, but also a great mathematician, mechanic and engineer, the most diverse branches of science owe him important discoveries.

Sometimes interests are called "small". In this case, they mean that people are mainly interested in the satisfaction of natural "needs: food, drink, sleep and other sensual pleasures. Such, for example, are the interests of Afanasy Ivanovich and Pulcheria Ivanovna in Gogol's story The Old World Landowners. The official Akaky Akakievich (“Overcoat”), who devoted all his free time to rewriting papers, also showed little interest. "There, in this rewriting, he saw some kind of his own, diverse and pleasant world"

5. By its connection with the object interests are direct, which are directly related to any need, and indirect, where the need is not clearly traced. So, a student may be interested in music, because he likes music lessons, he loves to sing and enjoys it. In another case, a student goes to music because he just needs only good grades in the report card.

When the volitional component is included in the interest, it begins to manifest itself in the desire to engage in certain activities - it becomes an inclination.

inclination- the selective orientation of the individual to a certain type of activity, which is based on a deep, stable need for this type of activity. At the same time, a person tries to improve the skills and abilities associated with this activity. Usually the emergence of propensity is accompanied by the development of abilities. Therefore, many great artists, musicians have shown a penchant for their profession since childhood. R. Cattell highlights:

General tendencies that are common to all people, and unique tendencies that characterize a certain individuality.

On the basis of modality: dynamic inclinations that direct a person to achieve a specific goal, "inclinations-capabilities" that relate to efficiency, "temperamental inclinations" that are associated with energy and emotionality. R. Cattell attaches more importance to "dynamic" inclinations.

According to E.P. Ilyin, not every positive attitude to activity, to its content should be considered an inclination. A characteristic feature of addiction is that a person, as a rule, is not aware of its true underlying causes. In most cases, he cannot explain why he likes this particular activity, and names purely external signs based on the content characteristics of the chosen type of activity (for example, he names the sport he would like to do without explaining why (“just like it”). A positive attitude towards activity can also be due to other factors: wages, working conditions, the proximity of the place of work to the place of residence, its content, etc.

Ideals are formed on the basis of inclinations and interests of the individual. A person tries to change the world around him in accordance with his ideals. Ideal - a form of orientation, concretized in a certain image, which a given person wants to be like; for the purposes that this person considers the highest in which he sees the ultimate goal of his aspirations. For some they are effective and decisive, for others they are unattainable.

Thanks to ideals, a person is able not only to reflect the world around him, but to change it in accordance with them. If the ideal is wrong, then it will lead a person not to what he hoped for. In this case, one speaks of illusory ideals.

Some authors single out a dream as a form of orientation. B.I. Dodonov notes that dreaming sometimes helps a person to retreat from the goal, to replace the real action with an imaginary one, but at the same time misses the opportunity to keep the goal, since in the process of dreaming internal models of the “required future” are created (according to N.A. Bernshtein ), which have great motivating power. Dreaming, a person learns to find ways and means to satisfy needs. Almost every person in his development goes through the stage of naive dreaming (dream-game), which with age develops into a dream-plan, i.e., into a motivational setting.

Persuasion is a form of personality orientation that encourages it to act in accordance with its views, value orientations, principles. The presence of stable beliefs in a person, covering various spheres of life, is an indicator of the high activity of his personality. A person with established beliefs not only acts in strict accordance with them, but also seeks to pass them on to other people, convincing them that he is right. Forming an ordered system of views, a person's beliefs act as his worldview.

Worldview is a system of views on the world around and a person's place in it. The formation of a worldview is an essential indicator of a person's maturity. Worldview plays a big role in a person's life. It affects the norms of human behavior, his tastes, interests, his attitude to work, to other people. A worldview can have religious, political, moral, scientific and aesthetic overtones. Self-determination of a person is associated with the worldview (the goals that a person sets for himself, the means that he prefers to achieve them). The combination of the intellectual and volitional components in human behavior presupposes the transition of worldview into conviction as the highest form of personality orientation.